ISSN 03621197, Human Physiology, 2014, Vol. 40, No. 6, pp. 597–602. © Pleiades Publishing, Inc., 2014.

Original Russian Text © A.A. Aldasheva, 2014, published in Fiziologiya Cheloveka, 2014, Vol. 40, No. 6, pp. 15–22.

Individual Adaptation Strategies

A. A. Aldasheva
Institute of Psychology, Russian Academy of Sciences, Moscow, Russia
email: aigulmama@mail.ru
Received May 7, 2014

Abstract—The problem of correlation between the adaptation strategy and an individual style of human
activity is discussed on the basis of V.I. Medvedev’s doctrine of human adaptation, which helps to reveal the
features of the occupational activity under diverse environmental conditions. Involvement of the physiolog
ical and psychological mechanisms and their relationship vary depending on an individual adaptation strategy
of a person. Both the theoretical and experimental studies based on the activity paradigm make it possible to
gain a new insight into the general principles of interaction between a person and the environment. The adap
tation conceptual model proposed by Medvedev has enabled us to demonstrate that a person is active in the
process of adaptation and uses various individual styles in modeling the proper adaptation strategies which
are manifested in the adaptive behavior.

Keywords: adaptation, high altitude, isolation, social deprivation, conceptual model, adaptation strategies,
individual styles of activities, occupational activity, extreme conditions
DOI: 10.1134/S0362119714060024

An outstanding contribution of V.I. Medvedev to
human physiology is primarily evident from his mono
graph Human Adaptation [1].
In his studies, Medvedev used two main
approaches to adaptation, where it is considered as a
process that stimulates development and as a defense
mechanism required primarily to resist the environ
mental factors (mechanism of adaptation). Thus,
Medvedev’s theory suggests that adaptation is a gen
eral philosophical concept of development; in addi
tion, it is the mechanism of biological evolution and,
third, it is a psychological active response to the envi
ronmental impact, which includes individual adapta
tion and the social group adaptation [1]. The idea of
adaptation includes a series of subordinate notions,
such as functional state, the tasks and approaches cho
sen to resolve the problems that arise during human
interaction with nature, social and informational envi
ronment, which are usually defined as behavioral strate
gies. In the course of these interactions, the relationships
between the physiological and psychological components
of the functional state are sometimes disturbed.
According to the laws of homeostatic control, the
functional body state should be adequately rearranged
to support homeostasis under the altered conditions
and considering the current circumstances that deter
mine the leading component of the renewed func
tional state. Medvedev has illustrated rearrangements
of this type when classifying the adaptation behavioral
forms [2]. The chosen form and type of response
determine the physiological and psychological “oper
ation cost” according to the expended resources.
These are (1) energyconsuming, physiological, and
psychical processes; (2) activation mechanisms under
lying formation of the functional response; (3) psy
chological mechanisms of the strategy used to achieve
the goal, which also determine this goal.
On the basis of the activity paradigm, Medvedev
suggests that activity itself imposes some requirements
on the functional state of a person and serves as a
semantic adaptation factor. He believes that the main
content of the adaptation activity is a result of interac
tion between the external and internal conditions. The
external conditions include the means of action that
require special physiological and psychological prop
erties useful in interaction of a person with the tools
and objects of labor, with informational flows and cli
matic factors in which the activity itself is performed.
The internal conditions are knowledge, skills, and
habits of work which ensure a sequence of operations
in the form of programs that include mental activity,
evaluation and information processing to choose the
individual behavioral strategy [1]. The mode of inter
action between the external and internal, i.e., how a
person perceives, evaluates, and achieves selfdeter
mination, originates from the individual conceptual
adaptation model.
The conceptual model as an individual world pic
ture is founded on the past, takes into account the
present (situations), and is directed into the future.
This model defines the goal (the desired result) and
predicts possible deviations and steps to achieve this
goal. According to Medvedev, the main functions of
the conceptual model are the following: first, to create
an image of the given situation as amended on the
basis of experience and without random traits; second,

597
598 ALDASHEVA
to define the goal and tasks that should be resolved to
achieve the goal; third, to choose the action plan and
behavioral strategy [1].
Bazylevich [3] and Antsyferova [4] define the
behavioral strategies as an integrated principle of solv
ing the action tasks. Similar definition of “life strat
egy” as a universal law, the mode of selfactualization
of a person in various fields (the vector of life during
various periods of activity) has been proposed by
AbulkhanovaSlavskaya [5]. Romm suggests that
social activity is a result of universal adaptation strat
egy of a person in society [6].
Note that the notion of strategy is applied widely to
the adaptive human behavior, from the particular
physiological and psychological aspects and until self
actualization of a person in activity. Different strate
gies of interaction with external environment, such as
“passivity” and “plasticity” [7], were distinguished on
the basis of a physiological criterion and individual
typological peculiarity of solving of the adaptive tasks,
which Kaznacheev describes as the “longdistance
runner” and “sprinter” strategies [8]. Psychological
strategies are used to achieve certain results in solving
of the cognitive tasks [9]; the optimal behavior is
required for solving the adaptation tasks [10]. It has
been demonstrated that the same results can be
achieved using different strategies [11].
Shapkin [12] and Dikaya[13] regarded adaptation
as a process of the cognitive strategy formation for
overcoming a stressful situation, which allowed them
to construct a continuum of adaptation strategies. At
one end of this continuum, there is a combination of
the most efficient strategies, i.e., “flexible” and
“mobilizing” cognitive strategies that are chosen by
the subjects with high personality resources and high
level of control over the negative emotional experi
ence. At the other end, there is a combination of inef
ficient strategies with minor resources and poor emo
tional control. A variety of the cognitive strategies
makes it possible to describe formation of the psycho
logical adaptation system, on the one hand, and on the
other hand, it demonstrates clearly the complexity of
interaction between different regulatory subsystems
involved in the process, which meet or do not meet the
criterion of optimality [13].
Thus, even a partial overview of the strategy con
cepts reveals their common features: the principle of
selfactualization of a person having a goal and under
standing of the desired result and “psychophysiologi
cal costs” that are necessary to pay.
STRATEGIES OF ADAPTATION
TO EXTREME NATURAL FACTORS
Considering that human activity is always polymo
tivated and multipurposeful, Medvedev believes that
the simultaneous adaptation processes are multidirec
tional and they may be in conflict with each other. The
author has described possible ways of resolving these
processes by the example of cooperated adaptations:
the long and shortterms adaptations with a conflict
of goals, and when a person needs to operate as an
individual and a subject of activity simultaneously. To
overcome contradictions, metaprograms, a hierarchy
of priorities, or a preference for a “welltested” pro
gram can be helpful. Some approaches to the resolving
of the conflicts caused by multidirectional require
ments of the natural environment, occupation, or the
body state can be studied by analysis of individual
styles and adaptation strategies.
To study the adaptation strategies used at high alti
tude (3600 m above sea level), the subjects were
divided into groups according to their hypoxic resis
tance/nonresistance [14]. From the beginning, the
shortterm human adaptation to the extreme environ
mental conditions on the highlands is manifested in a
behavioral strategy of the “group behavioral response”
[1] with a high level of conformity and protection of
the common values [10]. This type of behavior can be
interpreted as psychological defense in the situation of
uncertainty. Differentiation of the adaptive behavioral
form was observed one to two weeks after ascending
the height. The hypoxic resistant persons got back to
their normal behavior, which became more autono
mous. At the same time, the less resistant persons
retained orientation for the common group values
and selfcontrol until the end of their stay in the
mountains [10].
The experiments with healthy subjects performing
a complex task [15] of BFB (biological feedback)
training against the background of adaptive rearrange
ments under the high altitude conditions (3600 m)
showed that, in twogoal situation (training activity
and adaptation to high altitude), the subjects chose
adaptation to the more general factor—extreme cli
matic conditions. Analysis of individual strategies
showed that a necessity to strengthen interpersonal
communication, group cohesion, and socionorma
tive behavior was the first priority for all of the partici
pants, and it was the group form of adaptation. Note
that BFB training often failed, and several subjects
refused to complete it.
Selection of one and ignoring the other goals are
clearly illustrated by an example of the longterm
adaptation of polar explorers under extreme condi
tions of the Vostok Antarctic station. Longterm adap
tation strategies have been studied in polar explorers
during polar winter. We regarded social activity as the
way of coping with the factors of social and psycholog
ical deprivation during a partial isolation of a group of
persons living together for a long time. Activity assess
ment and the degree of interaction were studied by the
experts and using the interviews with polar explorers
after their return from the expedition. The individual
profiles of the explorers coincided with the types of
CNS selfregulation/plasticity [16]. The results
obtained suggest that the polar explorers from the “low
HUMAN PHYSIOLOGY Vol. 40 No. 6 2014
 INDIVIDUAL ADAPTATION STRATEGIES
plasticity” group avoided social interaction more often
than other members of the expedition, and they
remained passive in relation to the social life of the
team.
Thus, our study demonstrates that, in line with the
ideas of Medvedev, individual adaptation features of a
person are determined by the actual extreme condi
tions that the given person overcomes depending on
the ability to cope with the external and internal envi
ronment presented as a certain psychological space
with the boundaries that are defined by the conceptual
adaptation model. Thus, the experience of an uncer
tain situation and of overcoming it, the meanings, val
ues, and other elements of the conceptual model
determine the psychological space of a person within
which the priority of the adaptation problems is cho
sen under extreme conditions.
Our studies suggest that, in an uncertain situation,
a person relies on group interactions serving for safety
and accumulation of the survival experience; an indi
vidual space is “embedded” into the psychological
space of the group. On the contrary, in a situation of
longterm adaptation, the psychological space repre
sents personal comfort zone for an individual. For
example, the polar explorers that are emotionally sen
sitive form two conceptual adaptation models as a rule:
one of them supports the activity parameters, while
the other supports psychophysiological state. With
increasing tiredness by the end of expedition, they
reject the active forms of adaptation to prefer the pas
sive adaptation to the conditions of life [17]. Accord
ing to Soroko, in winter, individuals with low level of
CNS plasticity often need to consult a doctor; at the
end of winter, these polar explorers are characterized
by low emotional background and dipping into their
own “miniworld” [18] with individual psychological
space of activity.
CHOOSING THE ADAPTATION STRATEGY
IN OCCUPATIONAL ACTIVITY
The studies of psychological and social adaptation
suggest that in an occupational activity, an individual
has to choose between the competing goals and evalu
ate permanently one’s own strength and skills, as well
as to use different means and methods of selfregula
tion in order to support the activity and optimal body
state [19].
The occupational activity of submarine officers
occurs against the background of emotional tension
because making a decision is always socially responsi
ble. Analysis of the occupational behavior of the offic
ers under extreme conditions suggests that in an
assessment of critical situations related to making a
decision, they use mostly passively fatalistic stereo
types. This behavioral strategy is probably caused by
the necessity of a functional hypermobilizing of a
person. The law of “expecting the worst” well explains
this type of selfregulation and leads to an important
HUMAN PHYSIOLOGY Vol. 40 No. 6 2014
599
adaptation goal, i.e., to provide a functional reserve for
the adequate response and to reduce the “adaptation
costs” required for making a decision [1] that corre
sponds to the optimality criterion.
The social and psychological optimality of the
selected strategy can be assessed according to different
criteria, such as human relation to the work, results of
human activity, the activity and environmental
requirements, and so on. According to Medvedev, the
“adaptation cost” parameter determines the optimal
ity of a chosen strategy, which can be optimal, subop
timal, and nonoptimal.
Strelkov, who studied the psychological content of
the operator labor, describes four behavioral strategies
of the operators when making a decision. One of these
strategies has been formulated by the operator as fol
lowing: “to use the behavioral style that has always
been helpful in a difficult situation” [20; p. 115]. From
a psychological point of view, such a behavior is
defined as an avoidance of making a decision in the
situation of uncertainty, i.e., the use of a stereotypical
“cliché” of the past experience. When a person relies
on the strategies of this type, the risk of making the
wrong decisions is minimized. The operator considers
a chosen strategy as optimal, while from the stand
point of the result this strategy can be either optimal or
nonoptimal.
Analysis of the mobilizing psychological strategies
used during the extreme activities has revealed the par
ticular emotional strategies of behavior. The results of
sociometric study and interviews with senior military
experts (nine senior officers) allowed us to identify dif
ferent strategies of the occupational behavior by
means of simple ranking of the sociometric ratings on
two scales: professional assessment and emotional
attractiveness within the occupational group. To illus
trate the emotional strategy we present a personal
description of a respondent who received the lowest
professional assessment and the highest index of emo
tional attractiveness in the group. That was a sensitive
and emotionally sympathetic man; any problematic
situation drove him into frustration (the length of ser
vice, including military campaigns, exceeded
40 years). In an interview, he said that he regretted choos
ing his profession; his true vocation was different. This
respondent relied on the interpersonal communica
tions supported by the group interaction to get occu
pational information and to be included into the
occupational and social context of the activity. The
skill to interact with other persons ensured his involve
ment into common decisions; his informational
awareness was due to the trust relationships and an
ability to be “the soul of the party” after the hard work.
The required level of competence against the back
ground of missing occupational interests as well as
understanding of a need to correspond to the occupa
tional status, were supported due to an ability to appeal
to the experience of social and emotional interaction,
to retrieve and allocate information [21]. The strategy
600 ALDASHEVA
described can be defined as the suboptimal or compro
mise from the standpoint of adaptation to activity, but
looking at the above example from the standpoint of
the personal adaptation this strategy can be regarded
as optimal.
THE CONCEPT OF INDIVIDUAL STYLE
OF ACTIVITY
Human experience and knowledge extend the
spectrum of strategies and individual styles which can
be chosen; they play an important role in the forma
tion of new programs of the adaptive behavior under
certain environmental, material, and spiritual condi
tions and enable a person to change the external
(social) and internal (private) world [6]. The notions
“strategy” and “individual style” are often used as syn
onym in the scientific papers [1, 22], although these
terms have different meanings and both have proper
places in physiological and psychological literature.
There is currently a series of researches in psychology
which are devoted to the individual style of a person
(IS) and elaboration of the special methodology based
on the differential psychophysiological studies by
Teplov and Nebylitsin [23, 24].
The interest in the problem of individual style
peaked in the 1960s and 1970s. In Russian psychology,
this interest was manifested in a search for relation
ships between the main properties of a nervous system
and the ways of activities within the scope of solving
the methodological problem between social and bio
logical relationships in human psychical control.
Within the framework of this problem, Klimov has
studied the individual activity organization of weavers
(women) with different types of nervous systems who
were operating several machines simultaneously. The
results obtained enabled the author to demonstrate the
compensatory capabilities of the individual style (IS)
of activity in the subjects differentiated according to
the parameters strength–weakness and suppression
excitation of the nervous system [25].
Klimov has given a definition of the term IS as an
individually unique system of psychophysiological
means used for balancing the topological personality
with the environmental conditions. IS is an integrated
index of the system that includes the methods and
ways of activity. According to the author, the definitive
features of IS are its conditioning but not the determi
nation by the psychophysiological properties; they are
developing due to an integral influence of the interac
tion between the subject and object and are changed
depending on training or chosen as the result of self
training [26]. The IS concept is currently firmly estab
lished in modern psychology; it includes extensive
empirical material generalized by the idea of “style”:
the style of environmental adaptation and integration
of human resources, the emotional and selfcontrol
style; the lifestyle, the behavioral style, the communi
cation style, the activity style, etc. [27–30].
Il’in, who studied the IS problem within the scope
of adaptation to different sports proposed the energy
theory of IS which suggests that a person prefers the
style that is physiologically more economical [31]. The
energy theory of IS supports directly the “economiza
tion (minimizing)" law of Medvedev, which explains
adaptation as a state that minimizes the IS disadvanta
geous physiological, biochemical, and psychological
reactions [1].
Tolochek has clearly demonstrated [22] that the ISs
of activity may be efficient or inefficient, though they
are not stable psychological formations. According to
this author, IS efficiency includes the quality of occu
pational activity of a person, effectiveness, stability,
and the fact whether it is promising [22]. Because of
this, an efficient IS is constructed according to the
“priority” law when a successful program becomes
dominant; it suppresses implementation of other pro
gram and even seizes some mechanisms, structures,
and functions [1]. This law is clearly manifested in the
process of training and selftraining. In the course of a
stepbystep goal achievement, a transition from one
to another program and acquisition of the selfregula
tory habits occurs more readily in the subjects with the
strong volitional control. Depending on different
requirements, the same personal features are mani
fested in different styles as “a reasonable system of
interrelated actions that lead to a certain result” [32,
p. 167].
Thus, the analysis of IS studies leads to some gen
eral conclusions. Unlike the strategy, which can be
regarded as an individual method of achieving the goal
related to psychophysiological cost of activity, the IS
of activity is formed as a reasonable adaptation system
that minimizes this cost. The individual strategy and
IS are components of the behavioral program which
are responsible for different levels of human adapta
tion not only to extreme conditions, but also to factors
of material and spiritual activities.
CONCLUSIONS
The idea of the conceptual model has been opera
tionalized for the first time in engineering psychology
and ergonomics. According to Welford, the main
objectives of this model are to provide a person with a
holistic mental picture of a functioning of a technical
complex, to forecast possible changes and opportuni
ties of effective activity [33]. Formation of a concep
tual model ensures the subjective vision of professional
tasks, selection of the adequate activity and means of
impact [34]. Along with the basic conceptual model, a
person always uses various operational models accord
ing to a specific situation [35].
The conceptual adaptation model is described by
Medvedev as a permanent process of selfactualization
of a person under varying subject–adaptive situations,
HUMAN PHYSIOLOGY Vol. 40 No. 6 2014
 INDIVIDUAL ADAPTATION STRATEGIES
as a conscious and purposeful constructing of the best
goal model. The author has formulated the laws of
adaptation that allow one to assert that the selected
adaptation strategy is based on the “conceptual
model” of the adaptogenic factor created in the
human mind, rather than the principle of adequacy to
the real factor ([1], p. 536).
Thus, to a large extent, the conceptual model is an
idea that a person has about the visual environment,
the attitude to the components, processes, and con
nections of this environment, including the person
itself as an element of it. When creating a conceptual
model, a person takes into account a variety of per
sonal and social experiences, knowledge, behavior,
psychophysiological and physiological resources, and
the “costs” that are necessary to pay for the desired
result which reflects motivation, meanings, and aspi
ration of a person. The choice of the strategy depends
on the meaning content of the model: a person either
uses the habitual ways of activity or becomes creative
in achieving the goal.
The need to achieve the optimal psychophysiolog
ical state required for activity is only one of the main
physiological functions. Both theoretical and empiri
cal analyses clearly demonstrate that the state of a per
son limits the search and selection of the adaptation
strategy. Our studies suggest that the choice of goals
and the spacetime categories determine the selection
of a strategy; at the same time, the individual style is
supported by the typical features of the subject as the
preferred mode of activity that depends on available
internal and external resources. The individual reflex
ivity has a significant effect on the optimality of the
chosen strategy because it enables the subject to pre
dict development of the adaptive events and their
results, as well as to create different algorithms of solv
ing the adaptation tasks and to choose adequate strat
egies and behavioral styles.
Thus, the results of this study lead us to several gen
eral conclusions: first, the subject can internalize strat
egies available in the human experience, in particular,
socially regulated strategies as the most “economical”
and “safe” ones; persons can modify the strategies
known to them, or they can choose a strategy taking
into account their own psychophysiological state and
personal features. Second, when considering the
adaptation from the standpoint of target orientation,
irrespective of whether the physiological or psycholog
ical aspects of this single process are studied, we
observe that some contradictions arise constantly in
this process and they need to be resolved. To overcome
contradictions of the adaptation, a compromise
behavioral strategy should be achieved, as well as
either the appropriate IS should be chosen or a new
style should be formed by means of learning and self
training. Third, persons can set their own priority
behavioral program: either through solving a conflict
of goals or by replacing the goal for activity or a state,
which is confirmed by the empirical data of this study.
HUMAN PHYSIOLOGY Vol. 40 No. 6 2014
601
An important assertion of Medvedev’s adaptation
theory is that the life of an individual or a population
or a society is a dynamic process, i.e., the continuous
interaction between humans and environment. The
author implies not only the material environment, but
also the spirituality of an individual or the collective
consciousness. Note that this is a doublefaced inter
action: it can be either a passive process, i.e., only the
environmental impact on a person, which is the phe
nomenon of accommodation, or an active process,
when the adaptation of a person to the given circum
stances is a creative selfactualization through activity.
Adaptation is based on the law of development: “in
order to change something you must change yourself:
the impact changes not only the object of impact but
also a person who produces an impact” ([1], p. 521).
The important role of consciousness in the forma
tion of the adaptive response is emphasized in
Medvedev’s theory. The author has formulated the
tasks of the adaptable subject who has to resolve con
tradictions between himself and his life and contradic
tions of his consciousness. He defines this type of
adaptation as “the reflex adaptation,” by means of
which different conceptual models are analyzed as
well as the requirements of both the external and inter
nal conditions including the person’s worldview. This
analysis reflects the selfregulatory potential of adapt
able persons and their ability to create individual strat
egies and styles of activity.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
This study was supported by the Russian Founda
tion for Basic Research, project no. 120700490a.
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Translated by A. Nikolaeva
HUMAN PHYSIOLOGY Vol. 40 No. 6 2014