Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Section 1 Pob
Section 1 Pob
TABLE OF CONTENTS.
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SECTION 5 PRODUCTION
SECTOR 6 – MAREKETING
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Objectives
After reading this chapter, you should be -
Barter: The exchange of goods and services for other goods without the use of money
Double coincidence of wants: Two people who want what each other has to offer
Barter Before money, people would barter, meaning they would exchange goods and services for
other goods and services without the use of money (such as a goat for several chickens). This
requires two people who want what each other has to offer. (double coincidence of wants). An
advantage of bartering is that money is not needed; so long as you have someone else wants, you
can barter. It also allows for variety because anything can be bartered so long as it is desired by
someone else. You could barter a holiday home for an urban flat, or a car for an expensive watch,
etc. The obvious disadvantage is the one person may not have enough goods to make the
exchange fair, or they may not want a whole goat, for example.
Overtime, people realized that small but valuable items, such as cowrie shells, stones and animal
teeth, could be used instead of simply exchanging goods. Bartering does still happen to this day,
particularly on websites that allow people to swap goods or services or services.
KEY TERM
Money: is anything that serves as a generally acceptable means of exchange. Includes physical objects,
e.g. cowrie shells and paper money as well as cards and electronic forms of payment.
Characteristics of money: Features of a form of money, such as Wheater it is easy to carry around
(Portability)
Functions of money: The things that money does and the purposes it serves, for example as a means of
making an exchange.
As a medium of exchange, money is generally accepted as a means of payment for most goods
As a unit of account: The price of n items can be measured in terms of how man units of currency
it is worth. For example, while a low-quality sweater may cost $10, a high quality one may be
valued at $100 or more.
As a store of value: you can save money because it keeps its value. Saving enables use of the
money in the future.
As a standard for deferred payments: Borrows can borrow money and pay it back at a late date.
Summary
To put These functions into context, the bohemian dollar can be used to make payments
throughout the Bahamas and is therefore a medium of exchange. The Bahamian dollar therefore
serves as a unit of account the price of goods and services that can be bought and sold. People in
the Bahamas can save their money in Bahamian banks, knowing that the Bahamian dollar serves
its function as a store of value. In addition, the Bahamian dollar can be uses as a means of
borrowing money. It acts as a reliable store of value and serves as a standard for deferred
payments.
(1.3)
Identify the instruments of exchange
As an instrument of exchange is anything that enables a transaction to take place it allows money (or
goods) to move from the buyer to the seller. For example, a shopkeeper may buy supplies from a
manufacturer (maker of goods) using cash, a bank card, credit (with an agreement to pay later), or one of
the means outlined below.
Instruments of exchange
KEY TERM
Drawer: A person making out a bill of exchange, such as a cheque ordering the payment of funds
Drawee: Usually, the bank responsible for following the drawer’s instruction to transfer funds to the
payee.
Payee: A persons entitled to payment by the drawee because of instructions made by the drawer
KEY TERM
Automated teller machine: A machine that dispenses cash. Users put their bank card or credit card into a
slot, input a personal identification number (PIN), select a given sum and wait to receive notes. ATMs
can also be used to withdraw and deposit funds, transfer money and view account balances.
KEY TIP
There are three main types of payment instruments for making credit transfers (paying money
into your account) and debit transfers (making a payment from your account.
1. Paper based (cheques, bill of exchange and cash)
2. Card based (credit and debit cards)
3. Electronic based (mobile wallet or electronic funds transfer)
There are FIVE MAIN channels for delivering money and payments
1. Bank teller (person working in a bank) 4. Cellphone
2. ATM (cash machine) 5. Electronic debit card
3. Computer
3.Business in action: Access the website of a well-known bank in your country. Find the part of
the site that deals with personal banking. Identify examples of methods of payment that are
highlighted.
(1.4)
Interpret Information on various instruments of payment.
This unit outlines what some of the instruments of payment look like in practice, and what information is
displayed on them.
Bill of exchange
Let us suppose that Caribbean Cotton Supplies spends $30 000- worth of cotton to London
importers. To be paid for two months later.
Caribbean Cotton Supplies will make out a bill of exchange for this sum, and a copy will then be
sent to London Importers. Caribbean Cotton will send another copy of the bill to its bank in
Jamica, and on the due date this sum will be paid to the Jamica bank by London Importers, back
in London. The Jamaican bank will then credit the account of Caribbean Cotton with the set
amount.
Cheque
Let us suppose someone is writing a cheque to give to a friend
The cheque will look like the following.
Tip - You should know that public corporations are government owned and are in the public
sector, in contrast, public companies are in the private sectors and are owned by private
shareholders.
The Public Sector
The public sector consists of enterprises owned and run by the government. In many countries,
the government owns and runs key utilities such a rail and bus companies, oil, gas and electricity
Industires; Commission in Jamaica. Government departments directly run by government
officials, such as the tax department, are also part of the public sector.
When a business moves from being run by the government to being publicly owned, this is called
privitalization. Movement from the private sectors to the public sectors is described as nationalization.
In recent years, there has been a trend for more businesses to become privatized – to move from the
public sector to private sector in the belief that the private sector encourages more competition, which
leads to better use of resources.
(1.6)
Describe the various forms of business organization and arrangements (formation,
management and characteristics)
There are many different forms of business organizations, all of which have varying types of formation,
management and characteristics.
The main forms of business are outlined below.
Sole trader
A sole trader enterprise is the most common form of business and is the easiest to set up. It
comprises one person running a business (although he or she may still employ many people).
Unlimited liability
When you set up a business, you will need capital to run it. Sole traders have their own resources
to draw on. They will finance their business through savings and borrow from banks and on credit
cards.
Any debts that sole traders build up must be paid by the owners.
They are personally responsible for all the debts of the business.
This situation can be contrasted with large companies where the owner of the company has legal
protection known as Limited liability. This limits the debts owed by individual owners of a company to
the sum of money they have put into the business. In contrast, sole traders’ debts are unlimited. If sole
traders find themselves in debt, they may have to sell their house, car and other possessions to pay what is
owed.
Limited liability-The maximum sum that a company’s owners might have to pay out to need
debts, the maximum being the sum that they invested in the business This is the extent of their
liability
Partnerships
A partnership is a business association between two or more owners of an enterprise. Partnerships
are common in many types of business, such as small shops and professional practices like vets,
doctors and dentists.
Setting up a partnership usually creates a legal agreement (a partnership deed) between the
partners. Partnerships usually have between 2 and 20, although this varies between countries.
In some countries, legal restrictions allow a maximum of 20 partners. There are different types of
partnership, such as ordinary (also known as “unlimited” where each partner is involved in the
management. Of the business and shares the liability) and limited (also known as “sleeping";
these partners are not involved in the management or day-to-day running of the business and just
invest instead)
The table below shows the advantages and disadvantages of partnership.
Co-operatives
A co-operative is a business organization formed by a group of “co-operators” who work together to
achieve shared objectives. Profits are typically shared among the co–operators.
Agriculture: groups of farmers take their produce to market jointly and share the income from
sales.
For example, a group of smallholders may run a market stall to sell their produce.
They will keep a detailed record of what is produced and sold to divide the income in a fair way.
Co-operatives can operate on an even larger scale, for example in sugar production where the
product will often be sold to large multinational companies. Co-operators benefit from banding
together to negotiate a price with the buyer.
The table below shows some of the advantages and disadvantages of co-operatives.
Key term
Private companies: companies that are owned by private shareholders and whose shares are not
openly traded on the stock exchange. Shares can only be bought and transferred with the
permission of the board of directors.
Public companies: companies whose shares are traded on a public stock exchange. Buyers and
sellers can buy or sell these shares through an intermediary (a market maker). They can trade
shares without having to get permission from the board of directors.
There are two main types of company: private companies and public companies. The main
difference between a private company and a public company relates to where they receive their
finances. A private company is privately owned by founders, managers, owners, etc., and
Investments come from them. In contrast, public companies have in part or in whole been "sold"
to the public, who become investors in the business. The table below shows the main differences
between the two types of company.
The tables below shoe the advantage and disadvantages of private and public limited companies
Franchises
A franchise business is made up of a franchisor and franchisees. The franchisor is an established
business (often a public limited company) with a well-known name and products or services. It
grants a license to a franchisee so that it can sell the franchisor's products/services, and pay for
the rights to use the name, logo and marketing, etc.
Examples of franchises include KFC, Costco, Payless ShoeSource and United Colors of
Benetton. The franchisee pays for the franchise to trade in each area and will receive training and
equipment from the franchisor. The franchisee will be expected to share the profit with the
franchisor.
There are several franchised coffee shops in the Caribbean, where the local franchise trades under an
established name, with an established.
(1.7)
Differentiate among the types of economic systems
Over time, countries have had to develop economic systems so that the key decisions about what
to produce, how to produce, and who will receive goods and services can be determined. As we
shall see below, what is referred to as the 'mixed economy' has become the most common form of
the economic system.
Traditional (subsistence)
In the early days of development in the Caribbean, the islands were populated by indigenous
people who lived a largely subsistence way of life. Trade was carried out primarily through
bartering. People who populated the islands learned to provide for themselves through fishing,
hunting, subsistence agriculture, and collecting fruits and berries. Subsistence therefore relates to
producing enough goods and services to live, but without making a significant surplus to build for
the future. This economic system is simple but limited.
PRO TIP
You should be able to compare the different types of economic systems.
NOW TRY THESE
1. Identify what type of economic system operates in your country, and in one neighboring
country. Give examples of businesses that are in the public sector and businesses that are in the
private sector in your country.
2. Find out which of the following industries are in the private sector and which are in the public
sector in your country:
(a) Retail (b) Water supply (c) Telecommunications (d) Banking (e) Insurance
3. Business in action: Cuba is often cited as an example of a country where the role of the public
sector is greater than in most other countries. Carry out some online research into the Cuban
economy to find out which industries are in the public sector, and which are in the private sector.
(1.8)
Describe the functional areas of a business
The functional area of a business (business function) describes the work that needs to be carried
out by a particular section of a business. For example, the production department is made up of
specialists and non-specialists who focus on making the goods.
Five of the key functional areas of a business are described below.
Production
The production department is responsible for making goods to meet customer orders, to the
standards expected and in a safe way. In a company that concentrates on making goods on a large
scale, such as office chairs or cement, the production unit will usually be some form of factory or
other industrial unit, for example cement work. The department will be overseen by the
production manager, who may sometimes be called the factory manager or production director.
He or she will manage the organization of the production lines and will develop a regular (often
weekly) plan of production activities. This will map out the use of machinery and equipment, as
well as the allocation of production workers between the various production activities. Below the
production manager are other, less senior managers, who will help to make plans and schedules.
Under these will be supervisors, with the responsibility for supervising the production workers.
Much modern business involves service activity (as opposed to product activity), therefore new
titles have developed relating to the main work carried out by a business. The term "operations
manager" or "operations director" is used frequently instead of production manager. For example,
in an insurance company, the head of operations may be responsible for creating the production
plans and schedules. The production/operations department typically employs a lot more people
than the other functions described below (except in specialist organizations, for example those
that concentrate on marketing or research and development).
Marketing
As we shall see in Chapter 6, the marketing department is responsible for identifying customer
requirements, and developing plans to satisfy these requirements. The marketing department is
led by a marketing director who, alongside the production director, is likely to be a member of the
board of directors of the company.
Marketing is often split into a number of specialist areas, and it is the responsibility of the senior
marketing managers to make sure these areas work closely together.
Market research: carrying out and commissioning research to find out about customers and their
requirements, to understand customer perceptions of a product, and to find out what the
competition is doing.
Advertising: creating television and radio commercials or other types of advertisements to bring
customers' attention to the product.
Promotional activity: designing and delivering promotions to generate customer interest, for
example price reductions, free sample offers, etc.
Finance
The finances department provides financial information for a company. It will be responsible for:
Overseeing the raising of finance for the company, and servicing debts, for example by making
sure that interest is paid on loans.
Keeping and presenting management accounts. These are created to help managers make
decisions such as whether to make a product or to buy it from another company and then sell it.
Management accounts help production managers to identify where savings can be made in
production processes.
Keeping and presenting financial records. These set out the past financial performance of a
company, for example the sales made, and costs incurred in the last 12 months, and how much
profit has been made.
The finance department will be staffed by financial and management accountants, and by
accounts clerks. Their work is highly structured, and they work to strict deadlines.
Human resources
The human resources (HR) function of a business is concerned with managing and motivating
people in an organization. It is sometimes referred to as the personnel department. HR seeks to
look after people from the point when they are recruited until they leave (and sometimes into
their retirement).
HR organizes training and development, including induction training when you first join an
organization. It also liaises with the trade unions that represent workers in an organization.
HR is responsible for creating job advertisements and job descriptions, setting out what a job role
contains. It will then help the relevant employees to organize. selecting candidates for interview,
managing the interview, choosing suitable role holders, training them, managing their welfare at
work, paying them, taking away deductions for income taxes, managing aspects of sickness and
allowances for time taken off work, and finally organizing the termination of an employee's work,
for example through retirement.
Part of the role is to help organize the interview process so that the best candidate can be selected for a
post.
Key term
Prototype: an early version, sample or model of a product, built to test the effectiveness of
the product concepts. The idea is to learn from prototypes in order to make improvements,
2. Business in action: Identify the key functional areas in a local business. How many people are
employed in each of the functional areas, and what are the key responsibilities of the employees in each
function? Set this out in the form of a poster that you can present to your classmates.
PRO TIP
Make sure you can identify the key functional areas of business, and the specialist work carried
out by employees in each of these functional areas
(1.9)
Identify the stakeholders involved in business activities
A stakeholder is a person or group who has an interest in business activities. For example, the
diagram below details the stakeholders involved in the Grace Foods business.
Grace Foods produces a range of Caribbean cuisine and foods that are sold in the Caribbean, the
United States, the United Kingdom and elsewhere. The company was created in 1922 with the
intention of supplying Jamaica with food supplies, initially selling foods like salted fish, flour and
rice. Today, it sells far more, and everyone in the Caribbean is familiar with Grace Foods.
The different types of stakeholders involved in a business are detailed further below.
Owners
The owners of the company are the shareholders. Today, there are many shareholders in Grace
Foods. These shareholders are mostly financial companies seeking a good investment, as well as
people who benefit from Grace Foods' pension fund, descendants of the Kennedy family,
employees and others. (Grace Foods was originally set up by John Grace and Fred Kennedy.
Descendants of the Kennedy family are still shareholders in the company.) All of these
shareholders want Grace Foods to do well and to make a healthy profit. The stake that a
shareholder in the company are called shares, and the share of the profit they receive each year
comes in the form of dividends.
Employees
Employees are contracted to work for an organisation in return for a wage or salary. The stake
that employees have in a company is their job and wages that come with it. For example, Grace
Foods wants to feel proud to work for such an important organisation, and the better the company
does, the better the chance of receiving a wage increase. Employees who are also shareholders
will take regular dividends.
Consumers
Consumers benefit from good-quality products sold by companies at what they consider to be
affordable prices. Consumers want a steady supply of the goods they like, such as Grace baked
beans and Grace aloe vera drink. They want these products to have good nutritional qualities, and
to be healthy and safe to consume. They want these products to be available at their neighborhood
stores regardless of whether they live in Jamaica, London or New York.
Suppliers
Grace Foods' suppliers include large- and small-scale farmers as well as manufacturers of non-
food products, and a host of other suppliers such as those supplying packaging materials. These
suppliers also war Grace Foods to do well because, for many of them, the company will be a
major customer taking regular supplies of a range of Caribbean food ingredients. Suppliers will
often have supplied produce and materials on credit, and so have a vested interest because they
will expect to be paid at a future date.
Communities
Grace Foods supports local communities. Employees are encouraged to engage in community schemes,
particularly in educational, environmental and cultural programmers. The communities in which Grace
Foods operates therefore have a strong interest in the success of the company and in partnership
relationships with Grace Foods. Grace Foods offers scholarships to students at colleges and universities
in addition, the company pays careful attention to the needs of local communities, making food
donations to the poor and those in need.
The environment
The environment is a key stakeholder in business. There are many ways that companies can
degrade the environment through pollution and wasteful use of resources. At its manufacturing
location, Grace Foods has well- established processes that reduces waste and saves energy. The
company is committed to meeting standards set by the International Organization for
Standardization and has in place a number of environmental management systems. These
include careful management of the use of water in production and, careful management of food
waste so that as much as possible can be recycled, for example as animal feed
Future generations
Future generations are key stakeholders in any process of decision- making. Decisions made
today by companies like Grace Foods will often have long-term effects, such as the provision of
healthy foods that enables people to stay healthier for longer. If current resources are used to
build hospitals, schools and factories, then these will benefit people who may not yet be born.
The government also plays a key role in providing business solutions that benefit future
generations through long-term investment planning. However, just as future generations will
benefit from wise business activity today, they will also lose out due to poor decision-making.
Poor decision-making about materials used in products and packaging creates waste, pollution
and other harmful effects for society.
Government
The government is a key stakeholder in business activity, as it wants to see a prosperous
economy that benefits citizens. The government will also benefit from larger tax revenues when
businesses like Grace Foods are doing well. The government is also a key player in business
activity, for example in the running of utilities such as water and gas provision.
PRO TIP
Make sure you can identify the key stakeholders in a business and explain the role and function of each
stakeholder. Can you explain how there might be a clash between the interests of two of the
stakeholder groups, and how this difference in interest arises.
2. In what ways can a business that is local to you take actions that will benefit future generations in
your area
(1.10)
Discuss the role and functions of the stakeholders involved in business activities
Employers
An employer pays for the services of employees as well as paying for the resources that go into making
goods and services. Employers are frequently referred to as entrepreneurs because they take the risk of
setting up a business. They will use some of their own capital (money) to finance the start-up of the
business and ongoing operations. Their role and function are to combine the inputs of labor, capital
(machinery and equipment) and land (resources provided by nature such as oil, gas and raw materials).
Employers want to see their businesses make healthy profits, and many entrepreneurs want to see their
businesses grow over time, although some are happy to manage a relatively small enterprise.
Employees
Employees provide labor services in the form of physical labor and also mental labor (for
example making calculations, creating spreadsheets, designing new product ideas, etc.). The
employees will exchange their labor for a wage (usually paid weekly) or a salary (paid monthly).
Employees want the business they work for to do well because this will impact directly on the
wages they earn. However, more than this, employees will want to work for an organisation that
provides prospects and job security, and often they will also look for interesting work with
responsibilities. We can illustrate the work of employees by looking at the clerk and a
compliance officer
The role of an accounts clerk is to serve as support to the accountant (in a larger company). The
clerk's role is to verify, organize, process and store the financial records of the company, and to
provide financial reports for managers and financial records for the stakeholders. In a small
business, there may only be one accounts clerk, and therefore the clerk may have responsibility
for all the financial reporting, including the book-keeping operations (for example, keeping
regular financial records of transactions and of the major financial activities of the business).
The role of a compliance officer is to ensure that the business operates in accordance with
accepted standards, and to execute the compliance policy to ensure that the business meets
professional and accepted business standards. Businesses are expected to meet certain standards
of professional behavior, for example upholding laws relating to health and safety. A compliance
officer will create a list of standards, and then put practices into place to ensure the various
sections of the business are complying with acceptable working practices, such as making sure
waste products are handled safely, and ensuring that staff are appropriately trained.
Consumers
In many ways, consumers are the key stakeholders in an organisation.They purchase a company's
goods or services, and when they are not satisfied they may switch to buying from a competing
organisation. Consumers also provide feedback to the business on their goods/ services. It is the
responsibility of the marketing department of a business to collate and analyse this feedback, and
we will find out more about marketing in Chapter 6. Consumers want to be supplied with goods
and services that meet their requirements, and the sums of money that consumers are willing to
pay for goods is often a clear indication of positive or negative consumer feedback.
Suppliers
The role of suppliers is to supply raw materials, components, services and finished products to
allow businesses to create their products/services for their customers. A supplier will seek to
build relationships with businesses, enabling them to supply orders in the short and long term.
Communities
The community consists of the groups and individuals who live in areas affected by business.
One major role that a community often plays is to provide employees as well as infrastructure for
the business. Another role is that communities often give businesses feedback on the impact they
are having on the local area. On the negative side, communities may be impacted by the noise
from the factory buildings, or the road congestion caused by factory traffic. They may also be
impacted by noise and air pollution, as well as any illegal practices a company may be
performing, such as disposing of harmful waste unsafely. Another role of communities is to
provide an incentive for businesses to do good work, such as organizing charitable activities and
providing necessary services. This leads to happy customers/consumers, which is good for the
business.
Government
A government's main role in terms of businesses is to pass laws, make sure there is law and order,
and achieve economic stability to encourage business activity. Higher living standards mean
consumers have more income to spend on purchasing goods/services. Governments often
encourage some businesses and business activities, for example, through subsidies (payments to
support production) and direct purchases of business output. Governments can also play the role
of a partner to businesses. For example, since 1993 in Barbados there has been a social compact
between the government, employees and businesses (a tripartite agreement) to develop new
sunrise industries, for example those involving tourism, education and export services such as
informatics, sports and entertainment. Governments also have a direct interest in supporting
successful businesses because flourishing businesses can pay more taxes.
KEY TERM
Social compact: the term used for ongoing agreements between the business sector, the government and
employee representatives
Tripartite agreement: an agreement between three parties, such as the tripartite social compact in
Barbados between employer representative's employee representatives and the government.
Sunrise industry: a relatively new industry that is growing very quickly.
(1.11)
Explain the ethical and legal issues in the establishment and operation of a business
Business ethics is concerned with businesses doing the "right thing" and behaving in a fair and
honest way. An ethical business will provide its employees with fair wages, pay its tax dues to the
government, and produce safe products that are useful to consumers. An ethical business will not
make false claims or try to mislead consumers. "Illegal" means going against the law. Being
"unethical" is not necessarily illegal, but it is "not the right thing to do". Laws mean that there are
certain statutory regulations that companies must adhere to, for example the filing of taxation
records, licensure, the disposal of garbage, adherence to employment laws, etc.
Some examples of ethical issues relating to the establishment and operation of a business are
described below.?
There has been increasing pressure for businesses to operate in a responsible way (referred to as
"corporate social responsibility" or CSR), and to adopt certain ethical and legal principles. The
Global Reporting Initiative (GRI) is an initiative that has been created by an independent
international body to set out the key aspects that companies should be reporting on, including
their ethical and environmental practices (for example, the minimization of waste and pollution).
Examples of ethical practices are outlined below.
If a business acts illegally or unethically, there will be serious consequences, both for the business
itself and for society
One of the big issues in the Jamaican music industry since the late 1990s has been the occurrence
of Payola. Payola refers to situations wererecord companies pay (bribe) radio stations to give
airtime to their music and recording artists. There has been much criticism of Payola, and Chris
Blackwell (the founder of Island Records) made a statement to the effect that this was leading to
the widescale playing of bad music. Payola is just one example of a situation where customers are
short-changed and get an inferior product because of unethical and illegal business practices. An
illegal practice is one that contravenes the laws of a country or group of countries, and unethical
practices are ones that go against the principles of reasonable conduct and behavior.
Misleading advertising
A misleading advert placed in a newspaper, or broadcast on the radio or television, is likely to
breach laws regarding the provision of information about goods. For example, in Barbados, the
Consumer Protection Act (viewable online) makes a few references to the way in which goods
must be described, for example the descriptions must be accurate. The act gives consumers the
right to go to court to act against misleading advertising that has led them to make poor buying
decisions, or to use products in an unsuitable way.
Withholding of tax
When individuals and businesses fail to pay taxes, they are cheating the government of revenue.
For example, in May 2013, the US government's Internal Revenue Service (IRS) asked for
information from the First Caribbean International Bank (FCIB) concerning the accounts of a
number of US citizens who had set up accounts with a view to evading taxes on their income in
the United States. This is just one example of how individuals and companies have sought to
reduce their taxi liabilities by hiding income away in overseas bank accounts .
Another major example of unethical practice is the illegal disposal of waste. One example is the
case of Coles Cave, St Thomas, Barbados. Molasses have been dumped near the cave and have
seeped into it, causing fungus and an awful stench. The once popular cave can no longer be
used. The is dumping was not illegal, but the continual dumping after the cave was
affected is unethical.
Money laundering
Money laundering is the process of taking the proceeds from criminal activity and
making them look as if they have been gained legitimately. This involves setting up bank
accounts - often for fictitious companies and individuals - and then placing the proceeds
into these accounts, which appear to have been acquired legitimately.
PRO TIP
Make sure you can cite examples of unethical and legal practices in business. The best way of doing this
is keeping a diary of instances that appear in your national media relating to unethical and? Or legal
business practice.
(1.14)
Describe the careers in the field of business
A career is an occupation that a person carries out for a considerable period of their life.
There are many opportunities to build a career in business, and some examples of these
careers are set out below.
1
KEY TERM
Job analysis: the process of identifying the qualities and requirements necessary to do a job or set of
tasks. This will involve studying what is done in a particular job.
Job specification: a list setting out the requirements of a job. There are usually two sets of criteria: those
that are essential and those that are desirable.
Web: groups of servers that are connected to share computer-generated information. The World Wide
Web (WWW) links servers on a global basis.
Website: a location that is connected to the World Wide Web and which contains one or more pages of
information.
Programming language: a formal language that is used to create a set of instructions as part of a computer
programme.
Computer programme : a set of instructions that a computer can interpret and put into practice.