Amina Abubakari Dde Module Nta 6 Applying Psychology in de Module Formatted

MODULE
APPLYING PSYCHOLOGY IN DISTANCE EDUCATION
FAT 06102
The Institute of Adult Education
Adult and Continuing Education Studies Department
Diploma in Distance Education – Through ODL
Copyright
All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced in any
form or any means, in full or in part, except for short extracts in fair
dealings, for research or private study, critical scholarly review or discourse
with an acknowledgement, without the written permission of the Institute of
Adult Education.
© Institute of Adult Education, 2017
ISBN
The Institute of Adult Education
Diploma in Distance Education – Through ODL
P. O. Box 20679
Dar es Salaam
Tanzania
If an address field is not required click
Fax: +255 022 2150836
on it and press the <Delete> key.
Email: info@iae.ac.tz
Website: www.iae.ac.tz
Acknowledgements
The Director of the Institute of Adult Education Dr. Fidelice M. S.
Mafumiko, wishes to extend his sincere thanks and gratitude to various
individuals who contributed in one way or another in accomplishing this
module. The following staff of the IAE deserve special mention for tireless
efforts and dedication in the production of this module:
T. Mamba: Head, Adult and Continuing

Education Studies
Department
M. Kimaty: Institute of Adult Education

(Coordinator)
A. Abubakar: Institute of Adult Education

(Writer)
E. Samba: Institute of Adult Education

(Editor)
Contents
About this module 1

How this module is structured 1
Module overview 5
Welcome to this module 5
Module Outcome 5
Study Skills 6
Need help? 8
Module Assessment 9
Getting around this module 10

Margin Icons 10
Unit 1 11
Introduction 11
Learning Outcomes 11
Conceptualize of Psychology 11
Unit Summary 21
Unit Assignment 21
Unit 2 23
Analyzing Educational Psychology in Adult Learning 23
Introduction 23
What is Educational Psychology? 23
Unit Assignment 33
Unit 3 34
Understanding Behaviourist Learning Theories 34
Introduction 34
APPLYING PSYCHOLOGY IN DISTANCE EDUCATION
Unit Summary 56
Unit Assignment 57
Unit 4 58
Understanding Constructivist and Humanist as Learning Theories
58
Introduction 58
Unit Summary 68
Unit Assignment 69
Managing Inclusive Education in ODL70
Introduction 70
Unit Summary 96
Unit Assignment 97
APPLYING PSYCHOLOGY IN DISTANCE EDUCA
About this module
This module has been produced by the The Institute of Adult Education. All
modules produced by The Institute of Adult Education are structured in the
same way, as outlined below:
How this module is structured
Module overview:
The module overview gives you a general introduction to the module.

Information contained in the module overview will help you determine:
If the module is suitable for you.
What you already need to know.
What you can expect from the module.
How much time you will need to invest to complete the module.
The overview also provides guidance on:
Study skills.
Where to get help.
Module assignments and assessments.
Activity icons.
Units.
Unit 5 2
We strongly recommend that you read the overview carefully before

starting your learning.
Module content:
The module is broken down into units. Each unit comprises:
An introduction to the unit content.
Unit objectives
Unit outcomes.
New terminology.
Core content of the unit with a variety of learning activities.
A unit summary.
Assignments and/or assessments, as applicable.
Answers to assignments and/or assessments, as applicable
Resources:
For those interested in learning more on this subject, we provide you with a
list of additional resources at the end of this module; these may be books,
articles or web sites.
Your comments:
When reading this module, we would appreciate it if you would make a few
comments to give us your feedback on any aspect of this module. Your
feedback might include comments on:
Module content and structure.

Module reading materials and resources.
Module assignments.
Module assessments.
Module duration.
Module support (assigned tutors, technical help, and others)
Your constructive feedback will help us to improve and enhance this

module.
5
Module overview
Welcome to this module
Dear Learner, Dear learner, well come to module known as Applying

psychology in distance education. In this module you are going to learn
about the importance of psychology to adult educators, characteristics of
adult learner, principles of behaviuorism, constructivism and humanism to
ODL approach,. You are also going to learn the importance of inclusive
education, categories of learners with special needs and factors that affect
implementation of inclusive education in Tanzania. This module is very
interested; I do hope that you are going to enjoy learning it.
Dear learner this module comprises of five units. These units are:
Understanding Basic Concepts in psychology, Analyzing educational
psychology in adult learning, Understanding behaviourist learning theories,
understanding constructivism and humanism learning theories and
Managing inclusive education.
Module O utcome
Upon completion of this module you should be able to
Apply knowledge, skills and principles of psychology in solving different

problems related to adult learners and distance education.
Unit 5 6
7
Study Skills
As an adult learner your approach to learning will be different from that of your school days.
You will choose what you want to study, you will have professional and/or personal
motivation for doing so and you will most likely be fitting your study activities around other
professional or domestic responsibilities. Essentially you will be taking control of your
learning environment. As a consequence, you will need to consider performance issues related
to time management, goal setting, stress management, and others. Perhaps you will also need
to reacquaint yourself in areas such as essay planning, coping with exams and using the web as
a learning resource. Your most significant considerations will be time and space i.e. the time
you dedicate to your learning and the environment in which you engage in that learning.
We recommend that you take time now—before starting your self-study—to familiarize
yourself with these issues. There are a number of excellent resources on the web. A few
suggested links are:
http://www.how-to-study.com/
The “How to study” web site is dedicated to study skills resources. You will find links to
study preparation (a list of nine essentials for a good study place), taking notes, strategies
for reading text books, using reference sources, test anxiety.
http://www.ucc.vt.edu/stdysk/stdyhlp.html
This is the web site of the Virginia Tech, Division of Student Affairs. You will find links to
time scheduling (including a “where does time go?” link), a study skill checklist, basic
concentration techniques, control of the study environment, note taking, how to read essays
for analysis, memory skills (“remembering”).
http://www.howtostudy.org/resources.php
Another “How to study” web site with useful links to time management, efficient reading,
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questioning/listening/observing skills, getting the most out of doing (“hands-on” learning),

memory building, tips for staying motivated, developing a learning plan.
The above links are our suggestions to start you on your way. At the time of writing these web
links were active. If you want to look for more go to www.google.com and type “self-study
basics”, “self-study tips”, “self-study skills” or similar, then search.
Need help?
Dear learner, in the course of your study, you may need help in
various issues such as the location and how to get support from
resource centres, clarification of various issues pertaining to your
study materials (modules) and so on. If this happens, you are
advised to ask for the help from your centre coordinator or
facilitator, you can also visit the website of the Institute of Adult
Education which is www.iae.co.tz or ask for help by using phone
no 0222150836, email address: info@iae.ac.tz.
Module Assessment
Each unit has one assignment with their modal answers at the end
of the module. Also, there will be one tutor marked assignment
when you complete the module. You will be given one project
work. Unit assignments are for your self assessment on the unit you
have studied, they will not be submitted. You will SUBMIT only
one end of the module assignment and project work which will be
given to you in the course of your study by module facilitator. The
assignment and project work will be submitted to the module
facilitator during face to face sessions or through email. This is the
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part of continuous assessment.
Therefore, in continuous assessment there will be self-assessments

and four teacher-marked assignments, namely project work, end of
the module assignment and two tests. The two tests will last for one
hour each while you will be given two months from the date you
will receive the assignment before you submit it to your module
facilitator. Your module facilitator will mark and give you
feedback through any reliable means including during face to face
sessions. Continuous assessments will take place within a period
before the end of the term while end of term examination will be
administered at the end of each term.
This is the final assessment. Generally, the Continuous Assessment

will carry 40% and Semester Examination will carry 60%. The
weight for continuous assessment will be 20% for mid-semester
examination while end of the module assignment/homework will
carry 5%, portfolio will carry 5% and project will carry 10%
Getting around this module
Margin Icons
While working through this module you will notice the frequent use of
margin icons. These icons serve to “signpost” a particular piece of text, a
new task or change in activity; they have been included to help you to find
your way around this module. A complete icon set is shown below, we
suggest that you familiarize yourself with the icons and their meaning before
starting your study.yourself with the icons and their meaning before starting
your study.
Unit 5 10
Activity Assessment Assignment Case study
Discussion Group activity Help Note it!
Learning Outcomes Reading Reflection Study skills
Summary Terminology Time Tip
Computer-Based
Learning Audio Video Feedback
Basic Answers to
Module Outcome
Competence Assessments
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Unit 1
Understanding Basic Concepts in Psychology
Introduction
Dear learner, in this unit, you will cover aspects related to psychology.
Branches of psychology and importance of psychology to adult educator
will also be covered in this unit. Welcome!
Learning Outcomes
Upon completion of this unit you will be able to:
 Define the term psychology
 Classify different branches of psychology
 Describe the importance psychology to adult educator.
Conceptualize of Psychology
Dear learner, in this section you are going to learn the concepts related to
psychology. As we know, psychology tries to answer questions about how
and why people think, act and feel the way they do. So psychologists study a
variety of human behaviours, experiences and interactions and suggest ways
to improve the quality of human life. For example, psychology suggests
ways of improving human learning and memory, helping individuals cope
with certain types of problems. So this section will try to answer questions
related to psychology.
What is psychology?
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Managing Inclusive Education in
ODL
Dear learner, a term psychology is regarded as a science which studies

human and animal behaviour. It studies different characteristics an organism
can exhibit at a particular time or situation. Psychology attempts to study the
people in relation to areas like social, education, physiological,
genetics, environment and industrial settings. Psychology concerns itself
with how and why organisms do what they do. It studies human behaviours,
mental processes, feelings, emotions and motivations of individual.
Dear learner the word psychology comes from the two Greek words:
Psyche means soul, mind or spirit, and Logos which means science or
study. Literally, psychology is the science of the mind or soul. In simple
terms, Psychology can be defined as the science of mind and behaviour.
Although there is no generally accepted definition of psychology, most

psychologists would agree that psychology is a science and that it studies
behaviour and mental processes. Generally, psychology is the scientific
study of behaviour and mental processes.
This definition contains three key concepts: scientific, behaviour and mental
processes.
Scientific – psychology is regarded as a science. By definition, psychology

is based on information or data collected through a set of systematic
procedures. So psychology obtains its information by means of careful
observation and measurement of behaviour and conclusions.
Behaviour – as used in psychology, this is any activity that can be observed,

recorded and measured. This includes the behaviour of human beings or
animals.
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Mental processes – these include thoughts, memories, emotions,

motivations, dreams, perceptions and beliefs. These processes cannot be
directly observed, recorded and measured but they can be studied by
observing changes in behaviour in specific situations.
Dear learner, psychology touches almost every aspect of human life and
affects many aspects of our life. It deals with day to day problems in our
society. It is increasingly assuming an important role in solving human
problems in the changing society. A study of psychology provides a better
understanding of why people behave as they do and also provides insights
into one’s own attitudes and reactions.
Dear learner, I hope the concept of psychology is well discussed and

understood to you. Now, let us proceed to our discussion about branches of
psychology.
BRANCHES OF PSYCHOLOGY
Dear learner, Psychology is divided into different branches. These

branches are broadly divided into two categories namely: pure and applied.
What is the difference between pure psychology and applied psychology?
Pure psychology
Pure branches provide the theoretical frame work of the subject. These
branches deal with formulation of principles, theories and suggest different
methods for the assessment of behaviour. They also suggest certain
techniques for the modification of problematic behaviour. These branches
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include: General, physiological, developmental, child, animal, social and

abnormal psychology.
Applied psychology
Applied branches deal with the application of psychological principles and

techniques for approaching the problems/behaviour in different fields of life.
These branches include: clinical, counseling, educational, industrial, sports,
military, clinical, genetics, environmental, engineering, political and legal /
criminal psychology.
Dear learner, let us discus those branches of psychology in details.
Social Psychology
This branch of Psychology is interested in the ways in which the behaviour

of one affects others. It is the study of social behaviour and how they are
influenced by the conditions in the society. Dear learner, human being is a
social animal. Naturally the behaviour of an individual is influenced by
society and in turn influences the society. Social psychology deals with
interrelationships of people among themselves, likes and dislikes of people,
attitudes and interests, group behaviour, group conflicts, etc. It studies the
ways in which a person’s thoughts, feeling and behaviour are
influenced by that of other people.
Clinical Psychology
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This is the applied psychology that tries to use principles of knowledge

in psychology to diagnose and treat emotional and behavioural
problems. It uses the experiences gathered from developmental and
abnormal psychology to determine the causative factors of a perceived
problem. Psychologists in this field try to develop programmes of
intervention that may assist the individual to overcome their emotional
illness. Dear learner, there are many types of mental illness requiring
varied types of therapies like chemotherapy, psychotherapy, recreational and
occupational therapies, behaviour therapy, etc.
Guidance and Counseling Psychology

Dear learner, this is field of psychology which focuses on the problems of
adjustment to challenges that everyone faces in life. It helps the individual in
dealing with personal problems, career choice, adjustment, interpersonal
relations, parent- child relationship and other concerns. This branch helps
people to overcome adjustment problems. The Psychologist assists the
individual to discover his/her hidden talent in order to make use of this
talent or resource effectively in solving personal problems.
Developmental Psychology
Dear learner, human life passes through various stages of development from
conception to old age. So this branch studies the various processes of human
growth and development in relation to behaviour from birth to the old age.
This field of psychology seeks to find out the changes that take place during
the individual’s cognitive, physical, emotional, motor, personality and social
development.
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ODL
Educational Psychology
It is an applied psychology which seeks to find solution to the problems
associated with the teaching and learning in the classroom. In the field
of education is where psychological principles are applied. This branch of
psychology attempts to find the fundamental laws of human
behaviour and their applications to learning. As we know learners differ
in their abilities, hence they need different approaches of teaching and
learning. This branch addresses to the problems and improvement in
teaching and learning processes.
Industrial Psychology/Organizational Psychology
This branch applies psychological knowledge to the problems of

business and industry, for example job satisfaction and productivity. As we
know that human beings are different from machines. They will have many
problems in their work place like adjustment, safety/security, health,
financial and such other problems. Both the management and workers need
to cooperate in dealing with such problems. Industrial psychology seeks
application of psychological principles, theories and techniques for the study
of all these problems and the industrial environment.
Sports Psychology
This is a sub-field of psychology that tries to apply skills and knowledge in

psychology to promote the efficiency of sports. It focuses on the social,
mental and emotional problems of athletes. The sports psychologists work
to develop programmes of intervention that may assist sportspersons/
athletes to cope and adjust well in their psychomotor domain.
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General Psychology
This branch deals with the fundamental rules, principles and theories of
psychology in relation to the study of behavior of normal human beings. It
explains principles of behaviour; how and why people behave. It explains
various psychological processes like sensations, perceptions, emotions,
learning, intelligence and personality.
Experimental Psychology
Experimental psychology like general psychology deals with the study of

fundamental psychological processes such as sensation, learning,
perception, motivation, emotion and memory. The major concern of the
psychologists in this regard is to adopt scientific methods
(experiment) in investigating how people react to stimuli, perceive the
world around them, learn, respond and are motivated to action.
Comparative Psychology
This branch studies the behaviour and mental processes of human beings in
comparison with that of animals on the basis of genetic and evolution.
Comparative Psychologists make attempt to study the animals in order to
compare the behaviour of different species. These set of psychologists
investigate the abilities, needs and activities of different types of animals as
compared with human beings.
Genetics psychology
This is the psychology/ science of heredity, the science which deals with
inherited attributes of an organism.
Abnormal Psychology
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Dear learner, today life is complex. The individual is facing a lot of

competition and experiencing frustrations and conflicts. Constant pressures
in life are leading to psychological abnormalities. Abnormal psychology
deals with various kinds of mental disorders, their symptoms and causes. It
deals with helping people with psychological disorders and abnormal
behaviors such as withdrawal syndrome, aggression, madness, violence,
emotional disturbances, phobic reactions, self rejection. The psychologists
are interested in finding the causes of violent or behavioural problems or the
treatment that can be adopted to tackle such emotional problems.
Physiological Psychology
This branch describes the biological basis of behaviour. It examines the

relationship between the bodily processes and behaviour. This branch of
psychology assesses the functions of different parts of the brain, how
hormones affect individual’s behaviour and the physical processes
involved in learning and emotions.
Environmental Psychology
This is the application of psychological knowledge in finding the

relationship that exists between human beings and the environment. It
studies the effects of environmental conditions (pollution, overcrowding,
and diseases) on the behaviour of people. The goal is to assist in
environmental planning designing in order to save the environment.
Other branches include: military psychology, medical psychology, animal

psychology, child psychology, engineering psychology. Dear learner, before
proceeds to the next session attempt the following activity:
Can you suggest more branches of psychology? How do they differ from
each other?
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Let us now explain the importance of psychology.
IMPORTANCE OF PSYCHOLOGY
Dear learner, why do you think the field of psychology is important in our
daily life? Please share with your friends and then note down your answers
and keep them to your portfolio. In addition, there are at least three reasons
why psychology is important to us including: self – knowledge, learning
about others and solving importance problems.
Self – knowledge (learning about oneself)
Psychology helps to gain insight into the true causes of our behaviours. We
can gain a better understanding of who we are and the cause of our
behaviours by learning about psychology.
Dear learner, we may not be able to fully understand ourselves simply
through self-reflection. We may not be able to fully understand the causes of
our own behaviors. We can gain a better understanding of who we are and
the causes of our behaviors by learning about psychology findings in
scholarly journals.
Learning about others
Dear learner, the field of Psychology allows us to learn about others. It helps
us understand why people do what they do. For example, we may gain
insight into personality traits that are different from our own personality
traits. It is important to gain an understanding of others to improve social
relationships. We may wish to build rapport and communicate more
effectively.
Solving importance problems

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ODL
Psychology may help to think of practical ideas and possible solutions to

important problems. We may gain insight concerning possible applications
of psychology and solutions to certain important problems. Psychology may
help us to solve importance problems that occur in our everyday life.
Dear learner, let us link knowledge of psychology to adult educator
Importance of Psychology to Adult Educator
Who is an adult educator?
Adult educator is one who practices the profession of facilitating the

learning of adults by applying the principles of adult learning. In ODL
context, when we talk adult educator we mean facilitator who facilitates
ODL learners.
Dear learner, knowledge of psychology plays importance role to adult

educator/ODL facilitator as follows:
i. It helps adult educator/facilitator to understand behaviour and

characteristics of learners
ii. It helps adult educators/facilitators to understand individual

differences of their learners. Hence, he/she can adjust his/her
teaching to meet the individual needs of hi/her learners
iii. It provides adult educator/facilitator with knowledge of the different

approaches to effective teaching/ learning.
iv. Knowledge of psychology may help facilitators to understand the

cause of the problems that learner faced and hence find solutions to
that problems. As we are aware that ODL learners as Adult learners
21
are faced with diverse problems and challenges that in one way or
another affect their studies.
v. Psychology enables facilitator to understand principles of learning,

various approaches to the learning, problems of learning and their
remedial measures, hence bring effective learning.
vi. Knowledge and principles of psychology to facilitator is used as

effective approaches to classroom management and control
vii. It also enables facilitator to select the relevance teaching and

learning materials for adult learners.
Unit Summary
Dear learner in this unit you have learnt various aspects of

psychology. You have discovered that psychology as a field is
broad and concerns much with humans and animals behaviours
which inborn or adopted in the environment. You have learnt the
meaning of psychology and branches of psychology. You also
learnt the importance of psychology in general and to adult
educator/facilitator. I hope you have enjoyed the lesson.
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ODL
Unit
Assignment
1) Differentiate between the following pairs:
(a) Educational Psychology and Counselling Psychology
(b) Educational Psychology and General Psychology
(c) psychiatry psychology and medical psychology
2) What are the implications of Developmental

Psychology to teaching/learning activities?
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Unit 2
Analyzing Educational Psychology in Adult

Learning
Introduction
Dear learner, I welcome you to unit two of this module. This unit deals with
educational psychology in relation to adult learning. Specifically, you are
going to learn Importance of educational psychology to adult or ODL
learning, relate educational psychology with adult learner. You are going
also to learn characteristics of adult learners as well as qualities of good
adult educator or facilitator.
Learning Outcomes
 Identify areas of educational psychology
 Explain the importance of educational psychology to adult

learning
 State characteristics of adult learners
What is Educational Psychology?
Dear learner, in the previous session we learnt that educational Psychology

is branch of psychology which seeks to find how positive
relationship/interaction can be established between the teacher, students and
the learning process. It is branch of applied psychology which applies
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ODL
psychological knowledge to problems involving the learner, the learning

process and the learning situation. It can also be defined as the application
of psychological findings to the field of education. The broad aims of
educational psychology include understanding, predicting and controlling
behaviour in learning situations. Generally, we can say educational
psychology is concerned with the application of psychological knowledge to
problems that affect teaching or the learning process.
Focal Areas of Educational Psychology
Dear learner, Educational Psychology covers four major areas: the learner,
the learning process, the learning situation and the teacher. In other words
we can say educational psychology is specifically concerned with an
understanding of:
 The learner: his development, his need and his potentialities. This
means get to know learner physically, intellectually, socially,
emotionally and morally.
 The learning situation or environment: This is the environment in

which learners find themselves and in which the learning process
takes place. It includes any factor or condition that affects learner or
the learning process. Educational psychology deals the
environmental factors and learning situations which come midway
between the learner and teacher. Issues like classroom climate and
group dynamics techniques aids which facilitate learning.
 The learning process: This is the process by which learners change

their behaviour, improve their performance or become familiar with
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new concepts and information. Educational psychology deals with

the nature of learning and how it takes place.
 The teacher: educational psychology also deals with teacher. It

emphasizes the need of knowing the self for a teacher to play his role
properly in the process of teaching and learning.
Dear learner, what do you think are the importance of educational

psychology to adult learning? Share with your friends then, compare your
answers with the discussion that follows.
Importance of Educational Psychology to Adult Learning
Dear learner, educational psychology has the following importance to adult

learning:
i. Educational Psychology allows facilitator to know the nature of

his/her classroom. It assists the facilitator to understand the
behaviour of learner in his/her classroom in terms of his interest,
attitudes, aptitude, level of aspiration, intelligence, individual
behaviour in group which play a major role in his/her learning.
ii. It helps in selection of teaching and learning methods or strategies.

As it provides facilitator with knowledge of the different approaches
to effective teaching and learning.
iii. Helps facilitator to arrange learning situations or environment. The

knowledge of educational psychology equips /prepares the facilitator
for taking care of the desirable learning situations or environment
where we should have individual learning or self study.
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iv.
It gives the facilitator the opportunity to know the factors that can enhance
or hinder teaching-learning activities.
v. It helps the facilitator to appreciate the importance of motivation,

and how and when to motive the students in the classroom.
vi. Educational Psychology enables the facilitator to understand

the interest of the learners and how to follow this in planning the
curriculum or learning contents.
vii. The knowledge and skills acquired from educational psychology will
guide and direct in resolving the enormous problems facing both the
facilitators and students in the classroom.
Implications of Educational Psychology to adult Classroom
i. It gives the facilitator the opportunity of varying his/her

instructional strategies based on the behaviour of the students in the
classroom. It is a known fact that no particular instructional method
is regarded as the best. The viability of any instructional method is
based on learners’ characteristics as well as the instructions
to be delivered at a particular time.
ii. Behavioural problem is an integral part of learning process. It is an

undesirable act in the classroom. However, a facilitator who is well
trained will be able to explain why students behave
irrationally at a particular time and how the facilitator can tackle
such problems without much harm to the classroom
teaching/learning activities.
iii. It also assists the facilitator to assess his/her effectiveness. It is

believed that teacher’s effectiveness is measured based on the
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learners’ performance in the classroom, hence, a facilitator

with good foundation in psychology will be able to judge his/her
own efficiency and competency.
Dear learner, how do we relate educational psychology with adult learner?

In order to relate this, first we have to be familiar with characteristics of
adult learner.
UNDERSTANDING ADULT LEARNERS
Who is an adult?
Dear learner, an adult person can be explained differently in different

perspectives. For example, someone can define an adult as one who can
assume responsibilities in a society. According to Tanzania constitution an
adult is the one who is 18 years old and above. Adult is also be defined as
fully grown up person and accepted in that society (i.e. somebody who is
married). An adult can be defined regarding to social culture and economic
point of view. e.g. economic point of view an adult is one who is able to
produce for earning his/her life. Psychologically, we can define an adult as
self-perception, self- directed, and independent person.
Based on these definitions, we can therefore define an adult as a mature

person whose age/social roles define him/her as an adult. He/she is an
independent person with social responsibilities like father, mother and
normally who is biologically matured. This definition depends on the
culture. There is no universal definition of who is an adult.
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Who is an adult Learner?
Dear learner, an adult learner is any person who engaged in learning. Be in

mind that ODL learner is also adult learner. So what do you think are the
characteristics of adult learners?
CHARACTERISTICS OF ADULT LEARNERS
Dear learner, adults possess certain characteristics that affect how they
approach learning and how they learn. Some of those characteristics include:
 Adults are autonomous and self-directed.
Adults feel the need to take responsibility for their lives and
decisions and this is why it’s important for them to have control over
their learning.
 Adults have accumulated various experiences and knowledge

that may include work-related activities, family responsibilities, and
previous education. They need to connect learning to this
knowledge/experience base. In other words, they use personal
experience as a resource, have the tendency to link their past
experiences to anything new and validate new concepts based on
prior learning. That’s why in facilitate adult class encourage
discussion and sharing, and generally create a learning community
consisting of people who can profoundly interact.
 Adults are goal-oriented.
 Adult learners are Practical and results-oriented

Adult learners are usually practical, need information that can be
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immediately applicable to their professional needs, and generally

prefer practical knowledge that will improve their skills, facilitate
their work and boost their confidence. This is why it’s important to
create a course that will cover their individual needs
 High expectations
Adult learners have high expectations. They want to be taught about
things that will be useful to their work, expect to have immediate
results. They are relevancy – oriented.
 Adults need to be shown respect.
 They have multiple responsibilities: Adult learners have a lot to

deal with; family, friends, work, and the need for personal quality
time. This is why it’s more difficult for an adult to make room for
learning.
 Intrinsic Motivation
Learning in adulthood is usually voluntary. This motivation is the

driving force behind learning. They have intrinsic motivation. This
means they are internally motivated to learn subject matter that can
be applied immediately.
Dear learner we found out that an adult learner is characterized by a number

of factors as described above. All these traits affect their motivation, as well
as their ability to learn.
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Dear learner ODL learner has characteristics which are similar to adult
learner.
How adult learners differ from school-age learners?
The following are distinguishing characteristics of adult learners against

younger learners:
 Adult learners need to know why they are learning particular things.
Adults are more likely to ask questions such as: how will this help
me in my job? How will this help me bring up my children?’ Adults
are likely to put more effort into a task if they think they will benefit
from it.
 Adult self-concept: Adults see themselves as responsible, self-

directed persons. They need to perceive themselves as self-directed
and responsible for their own decisions.
 Adult learners have a wide variety of experience which represents a

rich resource for learners and teachers.
 Adults have readiness to learn those things which will help them to
deal with real-life situations. They are likely to choose to learn when
they are ready to learn.
 Adults are motivated to learn things which are of interest or

important to them. This, and their readiness to learn, implies that
adults have intrinsic motivations to learn. They are motivated by
personal factors.
What is the difference between the Andragogy and Pedagogy?

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Dear learner to facilitate adult learning is guided by principles as

propounded by Knowles a father of adult learning. In this case, the art and
science of helping adults learn is known as Andragogy, while the art and
science of helping children learn is known as Pedagogy.
Let us look at the principles of Andragogy
Principles of Andragogy
Knowles labelled Andragogy as an emerging technology which facilitates

the development and implementation of learning activities for adults. This
emerging technology is based on five Andragogical assumptions of the adult
learner namely:
 Self-Concept: As a person matures, he or she moves from

dependency to self-directness.
 Experience: Adults draw upon their experiences to aid their learning.
 Readiness: The learning readiness of adults is closely related to the

assumption of new social roles.
 Orientation: As a person learns new knowledge, he or she wants to

apply it immediately in problem solving.
 Motivation: As a person matures, he or she receives their motivation

to learn from internal factors.
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Dear learner, in the previous session we learnt about adult learners and their
characteristics. Before I conclude this unit let us share together about who is
adult educator.
Who is an adult educator?
Adult educator is one who practices the profession of facilitating the

learning of adults by applying the principles of Andragogy. let us explain
qualities possessed by good adult educator.
Qualities of good adult educator or facilitator
Good adult educator must develop qualities such as:
 Knowledgeable about the subject matter
 Able to set a conducive physical learning environment
 Able to improvise teaching/learning materials
 Able to use participatory techniques during teaching and learning

process
 Able to effectively manage his/her classroom
 Good communication skills.-good listener, attentive to learner and

uses simple language
Other qualities include: Understanding; confident, dynamic; flexible during

teaching and learning; prepared, encourager and sensitive to the needs of
learners.
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Dear learner, I hope now you are in position to relate educational

psychology with adult learner. Are you ok? Then, relax for a moment to
digest what you learnt in this unit.
Unit Summary
Dear learner, in this unit you learnt the meaning of educational

psychology and its importance to adult learning. You also learnt
about meaning of adult and adult learner, characteristics of adult
learners and principles of facilitating adult learning. I hope you
have enjoyed the lesson.
Unit Assignment
1) What are the characteristics of adult learners that
differentiate them from school-aged students?
2) Identify the differences between Andragogy and pedagogy?
3) Identify and explain the characteristics of Adult Learners.
4) Show how educational psychology is important to adult

learning?
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Unit 3
Understanding Behaviourist Learning Theories

Introduction
Dear learner, welcome to unit three of this module. In this unit, you will
learn about behavioural learning theories under two broad categories:
classical conditioning and operant conditioning. You will also learn the
implications of these theories to adult classroom situation. I hope you will

be interested with the lesson. Welcome.
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Learning Outcomes
 Define learning theories
 State the major assumptions of behaviourist learning

theories
 Discuss the classical conditioning theory of Ivan Pavlov
 Describe the operant conditioning of Pavlov and Thorndike
 Explain the educational implications of classical and

operant conditioning theories.
CONCEPT OF LEARNING THEORIES
Dear learner, a theory is based upon a hypothesis and backed by evidence. It

is a set of generalized statements supported by experimental evidence. It
presents a concept or idea that is testable. A theory is based on the
preliminary findings of previous researchers.
Learning theories provides general explanation for observations made over

time. What goes on in the process of learning? How does an individual learn
a set of knowledge, skills, habits, interests, attitudes and similar other things
in life? Such questions have always been a subject of enquiry and
investigation before psychologists and as a result a number of theories have
come into being. Several theories have therefore evolved about how
people learn. Learning theories are therefore conceptual frameworks that
describe how information is absorbed, processed and retained during
learning.
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Dear learner let us now start our discussion by looking at the general
assumptions of behaviourism.
BEHAVIOURISM
Dear learner, Behaviourism is a theory of learning that only focuses on

observable behaviours and disregards mental activities. The chief
proponents of behaviourism include: Ivan Pavlov, John Watson, Edward
Thorndike, and B.F Skinner.
Behaviourism considers anything an organism do as behaviour.

Behaviourist theorists define learning as “permanent change in behaviour
due to experience”. Experiments by behaviorists identify conditioning as a
universal learning process. According to them there are two different types
of conditioning learning namely:
Classic conditioning occurs when a natural response responds to a stimulus.

The most popular example is Pavlov’s observation that dogs salivate when
they eat or even see food.
Behavioral or operant conditioning occurs when a response to a stimulus is

reinforced. For example, leading behaviorist B.F. Skinner used
reinforcement techniques to teach pigeons to dance.
What are the Assumptions of Behaviorism?
Dear learner, Behaviourists believe in the following assumptions:
 Learning is manifested by a change in behaviour due to experience.

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 Learning is complex activity but can be understood only by studying

behaviour that can be observable and measurable. Learning is
described in terms of relationship among observable events (stimulus
and responses)
 People have no free will and that all behaviour is determined by the
environment. The environment shapes behaviour.
 Behaviourism believes that organisms are born as blank slates. They

know nothing when they are born. When born our mind is tabula
rasa, i.e empty mind. That’s everything we do is relation to
behaviour not the mind.
 Behaviourism believes that learners are passive, responding to

environmental stimulus. They take an active role in their
environment (learning by doing, experiencing and engaging in trial
and error).
 Behaviourism believes that principles of learning apply equally to

different behaviours and to different species of animals
 Believe that behaviour is the result of stimulus –responses

associations. All behaviours no matter how complex is can be
reduced to a simple stimulus – response association.
 Behaviour is shaped by reinforcement and punishment.

Reinforcement either positive or negative increases the possibility of
an event happening again while punishment both positive and
negative decreases the possibility of an event happening again.
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Generally, behaviourism based on the preposition that behaviour can be

researched scientifically without regard what happens in the mind. It is form
of materialism, denying any independent significance for mind.
Now let us discuss the behaviourist theories under two broad categories: S-R
(Stimulus –Response) theories.
i. S-R (Stimulus-Response) theory with reinforcement: By E. L.

Thorndike (Trial and Error theory) and B.F Skinner (Operant
Conditioning).
ii. S-R (Stimulus-Response) theory without reinforcement: Ivan Pavlov

(Classical Conditioning).
CLASSICAL CONDITIONING LEARNING THEORY OF IVAN

PAVLOV (1849-1936)
Dear learner, classical conditioning is a term used to describe learning

which has been acquired through experience. One of the best-known
examples of classical conditioning can be found with the Russian
psychologist Ivan Pavlov and his experiments on dogs. In these
experiments, Pavlov trained his dogs to salivate when they heard a bell ring.
In order to do this he first showed them food, the sight of which caused
them to salivate.
Classical conditioning theory explains how an organism’s behaviour

becomes paired with some stimuli/factors in the environment. This
theory, sometimes referred to as “stimulus-substitution”, represents a
condition where through contiguity and repetition in a presentation of a
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stimulus, a learner generalizes an existing stimulus-response connection

to some new stimuli.
Dear learner as I said above, Pavlov was interested in the digestive system
of dogs. He used a hungry dog which he immobilized in a sound proof cage
several times when merely bell was rung; no salivation was noticed in the
dog. Neutral Stimulus (NS) – No Response (NS)
The next thing Pavlov did was to present food which is natural stimulus or
unconditioned stimulus (UCS) and the dog salivated as an unconditioned
response (UCR).
Next, he paired the ringing of the bell and meat powder to the dog and the
dog salivated. NS + UCS = UCR.
After some time, Pavlov then withdrew the food and presented the bell
alone. The dog salivated which is Conditioned Response (CR). However
after some time, Pavlov observed that the quantity of saliva was reducing
progressively as the number of presentation increased. At a point, salivation
stopped. This is called Extinction. This suggests that there is a limit to
which unconditioned response can be manipulated. To make the dog
recover from extinction, it must be presented with Conditioned Response
(CR) again.
Dear learner to understand well classical conditioning let us observe steps

involved in Pavlov’s experiments.
Steps in the Process of Classical Conditioning

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Step 1: Before conditioning: The unconditioned stimulus produces the

unconditioned response but the neutral stimulus does not.
This means, the bell is a neutral stimulus. Neutral Stimulus (NS) is a

stimulus that before conditioning does not naturally bring about the response
of interest.
NS (bell) No salivation
But an unconditioned stimulus (UCS) produces an unconditioned response

(UCR)
UCS (food) UCR (salivation)
Step 2: During Conditioning: The neutral stimulus is paired with the

unconditioned stimulus.
In this step, the neutral stimulus (NS) is presented and then followed by the
unconditioned stimulus (UCS) to produce unconditioned response (UCR).
NS (bell) + UCS (food) UCR (salivation)
Step 3: After Conditioning: The neutral stimulus (NS) becomes a

conditioned stimulus (CS). Its alone can produce response (salivation). The
response to it is known as the conditioned response (CR).
NS (bell) CR (salivation)
Dear learner, I hope from the above illustrations you are aware with the
concept of classical conditioning. Can you show the necessity of this
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process in the classroom situation? If yes, attempt and thereafter share with
your colleagues. Then, let us continue continuous with our discussion.
Components Involved In Classical Conditioning
Dear learner, in classical conditioning as we observe above there are two

types of stimuli and two types of responses namely; unconditioned stimulus,
conditioned stimulus, unconditioned response and conditioned response.
These are the four key elements in classical conditioning. But you have to
be in mind that stimulus is anything that can directly influence behaviour or
anything that produces a response while response is a reaction towards a
stimulus.
Dear learner let us explain the metioned elements above in details.
An unconditioned stimulus (UCS): Anything or stimulus that

evokes/produces a response without prior learning or conditioning. It causes
an automatic reaction or response. For example, when a dog eats some food
it causes his mouth to salivate. Therefore the food is an unconditioned
stimulus, because it causes a reflex or response (salivation) automatically
and without the dog having to learn how to salivate.
An unconditioned response (UCR): Anything that happens automatically

without thinking about it and not learnt. It is unlearnt or inborn reaction to
the unconditioned stimulus that occurs without previous conditioning. For
example, a dog salivated when it ate food. Therefore, the salivation is an
unconditioned response.
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A
conditioned stimulus (CS): It is anything that cannot produce a response
without prior conditioning or learning. It is a stimulus that evokes a
response through conditioning or learning. For example, when Pavlov rang a
bell and caused the dogs to salivate, this was a conditioned stimulus because
the dogs learnt to associate the bell with food. Hence, the bell was a
conditioned stimulus. If dogs had not learnt to associate the bell with food,
they would not have salivated when the bell was rung. Conditioned
Stimulus acquired the ability to produce the response because it was paired
(associated) with the unconditioned stimulus.
A conditioned response (CR): is a response which is produced by the

conditioned stimulus. It is a learned reaction to a conditioned stimulus that
occurs because of previous conditioning. Example of conditioned response
was salivation. Conditioned response requires learning to associate with
something. The dogs were salivated when Pavlov rang a bell; this means
dogs learnt to associate with the ring of the bell, when previously (without
conditioning) the bell would not cause the dogs to salivate i.e. salivation in
response to bell. Conditioned Reflex/response is therefore a reaction that
can be evoked in response to a conditioned stimulus.
Dear learner, pose for awhile and reflect what you learnt above. What lesson
did you learn from classical conditioning? In parallel to this, you have to be
in mind that each theory has its own principles, so what do you think are the
principles of classical conditioning? Please join in our next discussion.
Basic Principles or Stages in Classical Conditioning

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There are several principles that are associated with classical conditioning in
learning process, some of them include:
i. Extinction
As applied in classical conditioning occurs when a conditioned response

disappears over time due to absence of the unconditioned stimulus. For
example, when a bell was no longer accompanied with the food, the
tendency of dog to salivate gradually diminishes, until it finally stopped.
Take example in the classroom situation, if the student repeatedly passes the
mathematics test his fear of mathematics test will disappear.
ii. Spontaneous recovery:
It occurs when unconditioned stimulus presented again to make dog recover

from extinction. Sometimes there is the weak appearance of a previously
extinguished response. For example, to make the dog recover from
extinction, it must be presented with unconditioned stimulus again.
iii. Stimulus generalization
This occurs when similar stimuli to a conditioned stimulus produce the

conditioned response. it means that a response originally conditioned to one
specific stimulus also occurs when similar stimuli are presented. This is
when individuals respond in this same way to experience stimuli. It means
you react to a stimulus that is similar to the one you have learned to react.
For example, a student may generalize his fear to biology test although he
had performed poorly only on mathematics test.
iv. Stimulus discrimination
It refers to the ability to differentiate between similar stimuli. It means

learning to respond to a specific stimulus and not respond to other stimuli
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that are similar to the original one. It involves reacting only to a single
specific object/event. For example, student may feel fear during
mathematics test but not during biology test.
Implications or Relevancy of Pavlov Theory to Adult Classroom
i. The theory believed that one must be able to practice and master a
task effectively before embarking on another one. This means that a
student needs to be able to respond to a particular
stimulus (information) before he/she can be associated with a new
one.
ii. Teachers should know how to motivate their students to learn. They
should be flexible with various strategies that can enhance effective
participation of the students in the teaching-learning activities.
iii. Sympathetic treatment (kindly, caring) given by the teacher and

effective methodology can bring a desired impact on the students
through the process of conditioning. Students develop a positive
attitude towards the subject; love their teacher as well as the subject
taught by him/her. In short, fear, love and hate towards the subjects
are created through conditioning.
iv. Most of the emotional responses can be learned through classical

conditioning. A negative or positive response comes
through the stimulus being paired with. For example, providing the
necessary school material for primary school pupils will develop
good feelings about school and learning in them, while,
punishment will discourage them from attending the school.
Dear learner let us proceed with another behaviourism learning theories.

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OPERANT CONDITIONING LEARNING THEORY
Dear learner, in the previous section you learnt about classical conditioning,
I hope you understood this theory very well. Now I welcome you again to
join in this session which discusses about operant conditioning.
The term operant conditioning is sometimes called instrumental

conditioning. It is a method of learning that occurs through rewards and
punishments for behaviour. It is a form of learning in which the
consequences of behaviour lead to changes in the probability that behaviour
will occur. Through operant conditioning, an association is made between
behaviour and a consequence for that behaviour. It was developed by
psychologists such as B. F. Skinner and E. L. Thorndike. Skinner was
regarded as the father of Operant Conditioning, but his work was based on
Thorndike’s law of effect.
Skinner believed that the best way to understand behaviour is to look at the
causes of an action and its consequences. As a behaviourist, he believed that
internal thoughts and motivations could not be used to explain behaviour.
Instead, he suggested, we should look only at the external, observable
causes of human behaviour. He revolted against “no stimulus, no response”.
He argued that in practical situations in our life, we cannot always wait for
things to happen in the environment. We do not always just react or respond
to stimuli as in classical conditioning. He believes that most of the responses
could not be attributed to the known stimuli. According to skinner, there are
two major types of behaviour/ Responses
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Respondent behaviour: Responses caused by known stimuli. The stimulus

preceding the response is responsible for causing the behaviour. e.g. the
blinking of the eyes, jerking (puling) of hand when touched hot object, or hit
a sharp object like pin, salivation in the presence of food, construction of
pupil muscles on presence of bright light.
Operant behaviour: responses caused by the unknown stimuli. The

stimulus causing the behaviour is unknown. Here, the consequences of the
behaviour are more important and not the stimulus. E.g. walking, eating,
writing, standing up, talking, thinking. Most of what we do each day is
operant. For example, walking, thinking are talking are all operant.
Dear learner, Skinner used the term operant to refer to any "active behavior
that operates upon the environment to generate consequences". He
introduced a new term into the Law of Effect which termed as
Reinforcement. Behaviour that is reinforced tends to be repeated (i.e.
strengthened); behaviour that is not reinforced tends to die out-or be
extinguished (i.e. weakened).
Skinner’s experiments regarding operant conditioning
Dear learner, Skinner conducted a series of experiments with animals (rats

and pigeons. He designed a special apparatus known as Skinner’s box which
was similar to Thorndike’s puzzle box. The Skinner box involved placing
an animal into a sealed box with a lever that would release food when
pressed. The box is arranged so that when a hungry rat presses the lever, the
feeder mechanism is activated, a light or a special sound is produced and a
small pallet of food is released into the food cup. For recording the
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observations of the experiments, the lever is connected with a recording

system which produces a graphical tracing of the lever pressings against the
length of time the rat is in the box.
In this experiment pressing of the bar in a desirable way by the rat could
result in the production of a click sound and presence of a food pallet. The
click sound acted as a cue or signal indicating to the rat that if it responds by
going to the food cup, it will be rewarded. The rat was rewarded for each of
its proper attempts for pressing the lever.
Dear learner, if food was released every time the rat pressed the lever, it
would press it more and more because it learnt that doing so gives it food.
Lever pressing is described as an operant behaviour, because it is an action
that results in a consequence. In other words, it operates on the environment
and changes it in some way. The food that is released as a result of pressing
the lever is known as a reinforcer, because it causes the operant behaviour
(lever pressing) to increase. Food could also be described as a conditioned
stimulus because it causes an effect to occur.
Dear learner there is a difference between a reward and a reinforcer in

operant conditioning. A reward is something, which has value to the
person giving the reward, but may not necessarily be of value to the person
receiving the reward. While a reinforcer is something, which benefits the
person receiving it and so results in an increase of a certain type of
behaviour.
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Dear learner, Skinner identified three types of responses or operant that can
follow behaviour.
Neutral operants: Responses from the environment that neither increase

nor decrease the probability of a behaviour being repeated.
Reinforcers are any stimulus that strengthens or increases the probability of

a behaviour being repeated. Its presentation or removal increases the
probability of a response re- occurring.
Punishers: responses from the environment that decrease the probability of

a behaviour being repeated. Punishment weakens behaviour.
Types of Reinforcement and Punishment
Dear learner, based on the discussion above we have noted that skinner
introduced laws of reinforcement and punishment.
What is reinforcement?
Reinforcement is the process whereby a particular behaviour is

strengthened, making it possible for the behaviour to occur more frequently.
It is a consequence that increases the probability that behaviour will occur.
What is punishment?
Punishment is the presentation of an adverse event or outcome that causes a

decrease in the behaviour it follows. It refers to presenting something
negative or withdrawing something positive following an undesirable
behaviour. It is a consequence that decreases the probability behaviour will
occur.
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The difference between reinforcement and punishment is that reinforcement

will strengthen behaviour while punishment will weaken behaviour.
Dear learner, take note that when something is added or presented, the
process of learning is called positive and when something is removed or
taken away, the process of learning is called negative. Based on these
explanations, there are two types of reinforcement and punishment as
identified below:
Positive reinforcement involves presentation favorable events or outcomes

after the behavior display. In situations that reflect positive reinforcement, a
response or behavior is strengthened by the addition of something, such as
praise or a direct reward. When student receives something pleasant will
increase behaviour occurrence. For example, when a student is praised for
asking question, subsequently, the student will ask more questions.
Negative reinforcement involves the removal of an unfavorable events or

outcomes after the display of a behavior. When you remove something
unpleasant from child will increase behaviour occurrences. In these
situations, a response is strengthened by the removal of something
considered unpleasant. e.g. A child is asked to finishing homework to
avoid scolding, cleaning the room to avoid nagging from mother, dressing
smartly to avoid peer ridicule.
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Positive punishment sometimes referred to as punishment by application,

involves the presentation of an unfavourable event or outcome in order to
weaken the response it follows. It involves receiving something unpleasant
that will decrease behaviour occurrences. If a teacher frowned/looked angry
when his student asked a question, the student would be less likely to ask
question again.
Negative punishment, also known as punishment by removal, occurs when

a favourable event or outcome is removed after a behavior occurs. This
means removing something pleasant that will decrease behaviour
occurrences. E.g. A misbehaving student is removed from the class.
PRIMARY AND SECONDARY REINFORCERS
Primary reinforcers are those things that are directly related to our
physiological needs like food, thirst, love. A primary reinforcer is rewarding
in and of itself without any association with other reinforcers. All things that
satisfy the basic needs are primary reinforcers such as food, water, air and
clothing.
Secondary reinforcers: A secondary reinforce is one whose value has to

be learned through association with other reinforcers. It is learned. E.g
money is a secondary reinforcer. Through its association with food, clothing
and other primary reinforcers, it becomes a powerful reward.
THE SCHEDULES OF REINFORCEMENT

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As said above, a reinforcer is a contingent event that increases the frequency

of behaviour. Reinforcers are more effective when they are given as soon as
possible after a student performs the target behaviour.
What is a reinforcement schedule?
A reinforcement schedule is simply a rule which specifies how often

and under what conditions a particular response will be reinforced.
Reinforcement may be given at continuous or intermittent schedule.
Continuous reinforcement schedule: In this schedule, every correct

response or behaviour is reinforced every time it occurs. For example, a
student may be rewarded for every correct answer he gives to the questions
or problems asked by his teacher.
Intermittent reinforcement: This involves sometimes withholding and at

other times providing reinforcement. In this type of reinforcement only
some of the correct responses are reinforced. There are four types of
schedule of reinforcement under this schedule:
 Fixed ratio reinforcement schedule
Reinforcement is given after a fixed number of responses. For example, a

student may be rewarded after answering a fixed number of questions, say 3
or 5. In other words, reinforcement is given on a regular ratio, such as every
fifth time the desired behavior is produced.
 Variable ratio reinforcement
Reinforcement is given for a predetermined proportion of responses, but

randomly instead of on a fixed schedule. The individual does not know
when he is going to be rewarded and consequently he remains motivated
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throughout the learning process in the waiting of reinforcement. For

example, a student may be rewarded after 3, 5 and 9 mathematical problems
solved. Dear learner, in ratio reinforcement, the reinforcement is given not
after a certain time but after a specific number of responses.
 Fixed Interval reinforcement schedule
In this schedule, reinforcement is given at a certain time, e.g. every 5

minutes. The organism is rewarded for a response made only after a set
interval of time e.g. every 3 minutes or every 5 minutes. How many times he
has given correct response during the fixed interval of time does not matter.
 Variable interval reinforcement
Under this schedule, reinforcement is given after random amounts of time

have passed. The time may vary (e.g. after 10 minutes, 20 minutes). Dear
learner, be in mind that in interval reinforcement, the reinforcement is
given after a certain time.
Activity: Please differentiate between classical conditioning and operant conditioning.
Dear learner let us discuss laws of Thorndike in relation to classroom

implications.
CONNECTIONISM THEORY
Edward Thorndike (1884 and 1949) was an American psychologist,

propagated his theory known as connectionism or trial and error learning
theory with the help of the experiments performed on chickens, rats and
cats.
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According to Thorndike, learning is caused by the formation of connection

in the nervous system between stimuli and responses. This association
become strengthened, or weakened in the making and breaking of habits.
This means that an organism will repeat the behaviour if it obtains a
pleasant or satisfying stimulus after first demonstrating it.
Thorndike then described this type of theory as learning by “trial

and error” or “trial and success”. In arriving at this theory, a cat
was put in a puzzle box, with food outside it. The logic was that the cat
has to escape before it could get the food. There was a release mechanism
inside which the cat would operate before it could get outside. The smell of
food worked as a strong motive for the hungry cat to come out of the box.
Consequently, the cat made a series of possible effort to get outside. Cat
tries to squeeze through every opening; it claws and bites at the bars or
wires. In this way, it made a number of random movements. In one of the
random movements, by chance the latch (bolt) was manipulated. The cat
came out and got its reward (food).
The process was repeated. The hungry cat was kept in the same puzzle box
and food placed outside a box. The cat again made random movements and
frantic efforts. But this time it took less time in coming out. On subsequent
trials such incorrect responses – biting and clawing were gradually
diminished out and the cat took less time on every succeeding trial. In due
course, cat was in a position to manipulate the latch as soon as it put in the
box. In this way, gradually the cat learned the art of opening the door.
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THE LAWS OF THORNDIKE
In line with the experiment performed above, Thorndike came up with a set
of laws which are believed to be responsible for learning in
organisms. These are the laws of readiness, exercises and effect. For more
clarifications about Thorndike laws, join in our discussion below.
Law of Readiness
According to Thorndike, readiness is preparation for action. This law

emphasizes the desire of an organism to perform an action. It is the
physiological condition of an individual to embark on a task. Since
someone has been motivated to carry out an action, doing it at that point
satisfies the actor and not discouraging him.
According to Thorndike, if the student is ready to learn he learns more

quickly, effectively and with greater satisfaction than if he is not ready to
learn. The law warns us not to make the child learn till he is ready to learn
and not to miss any opportunity of providing learning experience if the child
is already prepared to learn. Teacher should recognize learning situation and
mind state of learner. Teacher should also make an attempt to motivate the
students by arousing their attention, interest and curiosity.
Law of Exercises
This law refers to strengthening or weakening of an event. The law has two
sub-parts- law of use and law of disuse. Law of use refers to the
strengthening of connection with practice while the law of disuse refers to
the weakening of connection or forgetting when the practice is discontinued.
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In brief the law of exercise emphasizes the need of repetition, practice and
drill work in the process of learning. Thorndike explained that repetition
promotes learned associations, (Stimulus and response). Constant
practice is necessary if an action is to be strengthened. Lack of practice
may weaken an event.
Law of Effect
This refers to the consequence which an animal obtains for an action

performed. It is the outcome of a response. Thorndike believed that any act
that produces a satisfying effect will be repeated. This law emphasizes the
role of rewards and punishment in the process of learning. Getting reward as
a result of some learning motivates and encourages the learner to proceed on
the same path with more intensity and interest, while the punishment of any
sort discourages the student and creates distaste and repulsion towards that
learning.
Classroom implications of Thorndike’s Theory
i. The teacher should know that the students learn better when their
needs and interests are considered; hence the teacher should ensure
that the learning activities revolve around the students. What is being
taught at one situation should be linked with the past experience of
the learners.
ii. Readiness is a prerequisite for learning; the teacher is

therefore advised to consider the mental or cognitive capability of
the learners when planning the curriculum or instructional contents.
Facilitator should prepare the minds of the students to be ready to
accept the knowledge, skills and aptitudes before teaching the topic
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iii.
The teacher should recognize the fact that the students will like to repeat
the actions for which they received positive regards. Hence, the
teacher should always use various motivational strategies to
sustain the interest of the students in the classroom.
iv. The teacher should always present his/her materials in a logical and
more coherent way. This is the major way of arresting and sustaining
the interest of the learners in pedagogical activities.
v. The teacher should consider the use of punishment as a last option in

reducing the undesirable behaviour in his /her classroom. This
is because the punishment cannot actually address the
problem it rather makes the students to be more violent in the
classroom.
vi. The teacher should recognize the important of exercises or practice

in the learning process. Learning may not occur unless practice is
reinforced. This means that the teacher should engage his/her
students in assignment or homework, if meaningful learning must be
achieved. More opportunities should be given to the learners to use
and repeat the knowledge they get in the classroom for effectiveness
and longer retention.
Dear learner before I conclude what we learnt in this unit let us share
together the implications of behaviourist theories in adult learning.
What are the Implications of Behaviourist Theories in Adult Learning?
Dear learner, the following are the some implications of behaviourist

theories in adult learning.
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i. The theories remind adult educators that adult learning can be

promoted and reinforced even better, if a system of rewards is
introduced.
ii. Adult learners generally expect to put into practice what they have
learned almost immediately.
iii. Whatever we teach adults should be organized in different parts or

components that add up to and make up a complete learning
package.
iv. Adult learners should be encouraged to solve problems through a

system of trial and error. This means if adult learners fail to give the
correct response initially, they must not be discouraged.
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Unit
Summary
Dear learner in this unit we learnt about behaviourist theories. We

stated the major assumptions of behaviourist theories. We have also
learnt about learning principles of classical conditioning theory of
Ivan Pavlov and learning principles of operant conditioning of
Pavlov and Thorndike. We have also learnt the relevance of
classical and operant conditioning theories to adult learning. I hope
you enjoyed it.
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Unit Assignment
1) Define: (a) conditioned response (b) neutral stimulus (c)
unconditioned response
2) Justify the statement that reward is more effective in

behaviour modification than punishment.
3) Give a difference between stimulus generalization and

stimulus discrimination
4) Show the relevance of Thorndike’s law of readiness,

exercises and effect to adult learning
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Unit 4
Understanding Constructivist and Humanist as Learning Theories
Introduction
Dear learner, welcome to unit four of this module. This unit also deals with
learning theories particularly constructivist and humanist. In this unit, you
will learn about major assumptions of constructivist and humanist. You will
also learn the implications of these theories to adult classroom situation. I hope
you will be interested with the lesson. Welcome.
Learning Outcomes
 State the major assumptions of constructivism and

humanism learning theories
 Explain the educational implications of constructivism and

humanism theories to adult learning.
 Point out the core principles of constructivism and

humanism
CONSTRUCTIVIST LEARNING THEORIES

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Dear learner, the famous thinkers of constructivism include: Plato, Aristotle,

Jean Piaget, Jerome Bruner, John Dewey and Maria Montessori. How do they
define learning? The constructivist perspective describes learning as a change
in meaning constructed from experience.
Major assumptions of constructivist theories
Dear learner, Constructivists unlike the behaviorists on belief.
i. The constructivists believe that knowledge and truth are constructed by

people and therefore do not exist outside the human mind.
ii. Constructivism believes that knowledge is constructed by learners

themselves through an active participation.
iii. Learners are the builders and creators of meaning and knowledge.
Learners build new knowledge upon the foundation of previous

learning. They construct new understanding using what they already
know. There is no tabula rasa but learners come to learn new situations
with knowledge gained from previous experiences
iv. Learning is not passive transmission of information from one individual

to another. Learners are active throughout the teaching and learning
process.
v. The way in which people make or construct meaning can change over
time on the basis of prevailing experiences.
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Dear learner, Constructivism emphasizes the importance of the active

involvement of learners in constructing knowledge for themselves, and
building new ideas or concepts based upon current knowledge and past
experience. Constructivism therefore involves the deep reflection and
perception of learners on things or events that happening around them.
Generally, constructivism teaching and learning is based on the belief that

learning occurs as learners are actively involved in a process of meaning and
knowledge construction. The way in which people make or construct meaning
can change over time on the basis of prevailing experiences.
Importance of Constructivist Theories in Classroom Situations
 It fosters critical thinking.
 It creates motivated and independent learners.
 It emphasizes learner-centred approach.
 It emphasizes teacher acts as facilitator who is flexible and creative

incorporate ongoing experiences in the classroom, who encourages
students to discover principles for themselves and to construct
knowledge by working to solve realistic problems.
Principles of Constructivism in Adult Teaching and Learning

Environment
There are several guiding principles of constructivism, including:

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 Learning is a search for meaning. Therefore, learning must start with

the issues around which students are actively trying to construct
meaning.
 Meaning requires understanding whole as well as parts. And parts must

be understood in the context of whole. Therefore, the learning process
focuses on primary concepts, not isolated facts.
 In order to teach well, we must understand the mental models that

students use to perceive the world and the assumptions they make to
support those models.
 The purpose of learning is for an individual to construct his or her own

meaning, not just memorize the “right” answers and repeat someone
else’s meaning.
Dear learner, constructivism requires a teacher to act as a facilitator whose

main function is to help students become active participants in their learning
and make meaningful connections between prior knowledge, new knowledge
and the processes involved in learning.
Before proceed further, we need to ask ourselves as teachers. Are we

constructivist teachers? How do constructivist teachers look like?
Who is Constructivist Teacher?
Dear learner, Brooks and Brooks (1993) regard constructivist teacher as

someone who will:
 Encourage and accept student autonomy and initiative

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 Use a wide variety of materials and encourage students to use them
 Inquiry about students’ understandings of concepts before sharing

his/her own understanding of those concepts
 Encourage students to engage in dialogue with the teacher and with one
another
 Encourage student inquiry by asking thoughtful, open-ended questions

and encourage students to ask questions to each other and seek
elaboration of students’ initial responses.
 Engage students in experiences that show contradictions to initial

understanding and then encourage discussion.
 Provide time for students to construct relationships and create

metaphors
 Assess students’ understanding through application and performance of

open-structured tasks.
Dear learner, from constructivist perspective, the primary responsibility of the

teacher is to create and maintain a collaborative problem-solving environment,
where students are allowed to construct their own knowledge. It is necessary to
create learning environment that directly expose the learner to the material
being studied. And the teacher acts as a facilitator and guide.
What are the Implications of Constructivism in Adult Teaching and

Learning?
Dear learner, the following are implications of constructivism in adult teaching

and learning:
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 Participation is very important in adult learning.
 Facilitators should not take the role of transmitting knowledge to

students rather they should play the role of support, guide or direct the
students what to learn and how to learn.
 Facilitators should Provide students with opportunities to construct

their understandings and meaning by themselves.
 Facilitators must consider the prior knowledge of learners by provide

learning environment that learners to use that knowledge in
understanding the new experiences.
 Facilitators should encourage learners’ interaction themselves through

group interaction. Learning should be collaborative and cooperative,
not just individual.
Please add other implications of constructivist theories to adult learning.
Dear leaner the previous session we learnt about constructivist theories, I hope
you have enjoyed the lesson. The next discussion is about humanist theory of
learning. Welcome again for our discussion.
HUMANISTIC THEORY OF LEARNING
Dear learner, key proponents of humanism included: Abraham Maslow and

Carl Rogers. Others included: Malcolm Knowles, David Kolb, and Paulo
Freire. Humanistic theory emerged in the 1950s.
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Humanism is a theoretical orientation that emphasises the unique qualities of

humans, especially their freedom and their potential for personal growth.
Humanistic psychologists rejected comparative psychology (the study of
animals) because it does not tell us anything about the unique properties of
human beings. Humanism views human beings as fundamentally different
from other animals, mainly because humans are conscious beings capable of
thought, reason and language. For them, research on animals held little value,
can tell us very little about human thought, behaviour and experience.
Humanistic theorists take an optimistic view of human nature.
Dear learner, can you state a major assumption of humanism. Share with your
friends. Thereafter follow the next discussion.
Major Assumptions of Humanism
Humanistic psychologists believe that:
 People have free will (freedom) and are capable of choosing their own
actions.
 All people have their own unique way of perceiving and understanding
the world
 All people have an innate (inborn) drive to achieve their maximum

potential.
 All People have tendency towards growth and the fulfilment of their
potential. They believe that people could only fulfil their potential for
growth if they had a positive view of themselves (positive self regard).
This can only happen if they have the unconditioned positive regard of
others. If they valued and respected without reservation by those around
them.
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 They believe that to understand people, researcher should not study

animals but rather people who are psychologically functioning and
attempting to be creative and to maximize their capabilities and
potential. It is necessary to study the person as a whole, especially as an
individual grows and develops over the lifespan
Dear learner, humanistic approach emphasizes personal growth and

fulfilment/achievement in life as a basic human motive. This means that each
person, in different ways, seeks to grow psychologically and continuously
enhance themselves. Here we are talk about self-actualization which is
psychological growth, fulfilment and satisfaction in life. This is according to
Carl Rogers and Abraham Maslow. Abraham Maslow proposed that human
motives are organized into hierarchy of needs- a systematic arrangement of
needs according to priority as listed below.
 Physiological needs: include basic needs like food, shelter, clothes
 Safety needs: include protection and security
 Belongingness and love needs: include the need to make intimate

relations with others, being an accepted member of a group, friendship
 Self esteem needs: include self-respect, self – regard, need related to

respect from others(status, rank, position, reputation, social success)
 Self- actualization needs: highest need as proposed by Maslow. it

means fulfilling one’s individual nature in all its aspects i.e being what
one can be.
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Dear learner in Humanistic perspective, learning is viewed as a personal act to

fulfil one’s potential. Learning involves observing the behaviour of others and
what results from that behaviour. It does not involve a behaviour change.
Let us learn the principles of humanism in ODL learning
CORE PRINCIPLES OF HUMANISM IN ADULT LEARNING
The followings are core principles of humanism in adult learning:
i. Learning should be based on freedom of choice
Adult learners have free to choose what they wish to learn. And they
have free to play active roles in their learning. Humanism believes
that, students will be motivated to learn a subject if it is something they
need and want to learn.
ii. Self directed learning
Adult learning should be self directed. Adult learners need to be

responsible for their own decisions and to be treated as capable of self-
direction
iii. Self evaluation
Adult learning is enhanced when adult learners are allowed to evaluate

themselves. Self evaluation helps students to think about what they
have done and what they can still do.
Humanistic educators believe that grades are irrelevant and that only
self evaluation is meaningful. Grading encourages student to work for a
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good grade but that grade is extrinsic motivation and not intrinsic
motivation. They believe that routine testing does not provide sufficient
educational feedback to the teacher.
iv. Learning environment should not be threatening
This principle implies that learning interactions must not be threatening

if adults are learning. Adult learners must be allowed to express
themselves freely in open, loving learning environments. Student learns
best in a nonthreatening environment. Learning environment should be
conducive so that students will feel secure to learn, hence, learning
become easier and more meaningful.
v. Self-concept and self-esteem should be considered in designing

learning programmes
The ways in which we see ourselves affect our perception of situations

and the world as a whole. If this view is positive, it will help us to strive
to do well or even better but if it is negative, it will reduce the level of
interest in what we are doing.
vi. The whole person
Humanistic educators believe that both feelings and knowledge are

important to the learning process. Teachers do not separate the
cognitive and affective domains because this aspect also relates to the
curriculum, in the sense that lessons and activities provide focus on
various aspects of the student.
vii. Felt concern

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Humanistic educators believe that the overall interests, mood and

feelings of the students can either hinder or foster the process of
learning. Facilitator should consider the interests, feelings and moods of
learners during teaching and learning process.
viii. Growth and self-actualization are the adult’s motivational forces.
This principle implies that an individual’s greatest desire is to grow

and to reach self– actualization. Therefore environmental and cultural
hindrances act as stepping stones or driving forces by compelling the
individual to succeed. in this case learning situation should provide
diverse experiences.
Dear learner now let us explain the implications of humanism in adult learning
Implications of Humanism in Adult Teaching and Learning
 They need to know:
Adult learner needs to know why they need to learn something before
undertaking to learn it.
 Learner self concept:
Adult learners need to be responsible for their own decisions and to be treated
as capable of self-direction.
 Readiness to learn:
Adult learner is ready to learn those things they need to know in order
effectively with life situations
 Orientation to learning:
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Adult learners are motivated to learn to the extent that they perceive that it will
help them perform tasks they confront in their life situation. E.g. others are
motivated to learn because they love learning so it is enjoyment, others have
goals to attain (goal oriented) and others need social contact, they way interact
with others during learning (activity oriented).
Unit Summary
Dear learner this unit you learnt about constructivism and
humanism theories of learning. We covered on the major
assumptions of these theories and the implications of each theory to
adult teaching and learning. I hope you have enjoyed the lesson.
Unit Assignment
1) Show the relevance of constructivism in adult learning or

ODL learning.
2) What is the difference between humanism and behaviourist

learning theories? What is the role of teacher in humanistic
theory?
3) Compare and contrast humanism and constructivism theory

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in relation to adult learning.
4) Compare the role of leaner in Constructivist learning

theories and Humanist learning theory?
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Unit 5
Managing Inclusive Education in ODL

Introduction
Dear learner welcomes to unit five of this module which talks about managing
inclusive education. In this unit we will discuss different concepts related to
inclusive education and special education and categories of learners with
special education. We will also discuss the importance of inclusive education
and factors that affect the implementation of inclusive education in Tanzania. I
hope you will enjoy the lesson. Welcome again.
Learning Outcomes
 Define the key terms: ( inclusive education, special

education, mainstreaming, disability, impairment, handicap)
 Differentiate categories of learners with special needs.
 State the importance of inclusive education
 Discuss challenges face inclusive education
CONCEPTUALIZE OF MAJOR TERMS
What is Inclusive Education?
Dear learner, Inclusive education is approach of education which occurs when

children learning together in the same classroom, using materials appropriate to
their various needs and participating in the same lessons and recreation. In
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other words, Inclusive education means that all students attend and are
welcomed by their neighborhood schools in age-appropriate, regular classes
and are supported to learn, contribute and participate in all aspects of the life of
the school. Dear learner, Stainback (1992) define an inclusive school as a place
where everyone belongs, is accepted, supports and is supported by his or her
peers and other members of the school community in the course of having
his/her educational needs met.
Generally we can define inclusive education as an approach of education which

accommodates all children regardless of their physical, intellectual, social or
other conditions within their environment. It is approach which broadens
educational opportunities for children with disabilities and marginalized groups
so as to realize their full potential. So inclusive education is about how we
develop and design our schools, classrooms, programs and activities so that all
students learn and participate together.
What is Mainstreaming?
Dear learner, mainstreaming refers to the practice of educating students with

special needs in normal/regular classroom during specific time periods based
on their skills. So the students with special needs attend regular classes with
peers without special needs, however there is supportive help which is given by
special teachers in special resource rooms. This means the students with
special needs are segregated in separate classes for the rest of the school day
for the special helps in order to cope with the environment.
Note: In mainstreaming approach, there is a special unit or special classroom

or self- contained room (s) dedicated to the education of students with special
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needs within a large schools. These rooms are staffed by specially trained
teachers who provide specific, individualized instruction to individuals and
small groups of students with special needs. For example in Tanzania we have
Uhuru Mchanganyiko where there are 3 units for vision impaired students,
hearing and mental retarded students.
What is Segregation?
This is approach of education whereby children with special needs are

educated separately in special schools or separate classroom. Example: deaf
school – Mwanga, Kilimanjaro: blind school - Buigiri Dodoma: mental
retarded school - Buguruni, DSM. Special schools for learners with disabilities
were established based on discrimination. This was done in terms of gender
and type of disability a person has.
Dear learner, take your time differentiate between inclusive education and
mainstreaming
Impairment, Disability and Handicap
Dear learner terms impairment, disability and handicap are used

interchangeably when talks about learners with special needs.
Impairment is a general term that indicating injury, deficiency or lessening of

function. Any loss or damage to a part of the body either through accident,
disease, genetics or other factors is therefore impairment. E. g. hearing
impairment
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Disability refers to reduced function or loss of a particular body part or organ.

The term describes any problem that limits a person’s ability to perform certain
tasks that most people can do. Examples; deafness, blindness, being crippled,
mental retardation
Handicap is a problem that a person with a disability or impairment

encounters in interacting with the environment. For example, a child who is
deaf cannot detect dangers posed by animals such as dogs by hearing them
bark.
Dear learner other terms include: special education and learners with special
needs
Special education is the education that is designed to meet the uncommon or

unusual needs of exceptional children. It is education of learners with special
needs. It is designed to suit the special needs children who may experience
learning problems and learning difficulties as a result of disabilities or
handicaps or other forms of special educational needs.
Learners with special needs are those who significantly deviate from the
average or normal children in mental, physical, social and emotional
characteristics. Their performance and abilities differ noticeably from those of
their peers in physical, psychological, social and cognitive aspects of
development. They are Exceptional children.
Dear learner, a child may have special needs in education because his/her
learning is hindered by certain learning barriers associated to his/her handicap,
disability or exceptional ability. Such a child requires special needs education
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with appropriate modifications on the curriculum, teaching methods,

teaching/learning materials, medium of communication and the environment in
order to meet their needs.
Dear learner after introducing to you some major terminologies related to

inclusive education and special need education; let us now discuss the
categories of learners with special needs.
CATEGORIES OF LEARNERS WITH SPECIAL NEEDS
Learners with special needs can be categories into the following groups:
 Learners with cognitive differences: The gifted and talented, the

mentally retarded and learners with learning difficulties
 Learners with sensory differences: Learners with visual impairment

(partial and total blindness) and learners with hearing impairment
(partial/ hard-of-hearing and deafness)
 Learners with physical difficulties: Learners with orthopedic

(skeleton) difficulties and learners with neurological difficulties or
neuromotor impairments involve damage of brain , spinal cord or
nerves (Cerebral palsy, Spinal bifida)
 Learners with communication difficulties: learners with speech and

language difficulties.
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 Learners with emotional, social and behaviour disorders: learners with

problematic disorders
 Learners living under difficult circumstances: child labourers, street

children, orphaned children, children living in poverty families, etc.
Dear learner some of these categories of learners with special needs are
discussed in the section that follows
THE GIFTED AND TALENTED LEARNERS
Dear learner, the gifted and talented learners are one who, by virtue of
outstanding abilities are capable of high performance and require special
educational programmes or services in order to realize their potential.
They are children who have outstanding abilities of performing at remarkably

high levels. These learners show high performance capability in areas such as
intellectual, specific academic, creative, artistic, music, and leadership ability.
What is difference between gifted learner and talented learner?
Dear learner, gifted learners have exceptionally high cognitive abilities. They
may be good in one area or subject like language, mathematics or science or
may excel in all academic areas. Giftedness is usually used to refer to high
general intellectual ability.
On the other hand, talented learners are one who do exceptionally well in
music, fine arts, mechanics, dancing, singing or sports. These skills may not be
necessarily matched by academic achievement. Talented is used for high
performance in specific areas. Both gifted and talented learners, their
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performance is higher than normal that’s deviates from the normal or average
learners.
Activity: Why gifted and talented learners are considered as learners with
special needs?
Characteristics of Gifted and Talented Learners
Below are some characteristics of gifted and talented learners
 Their academic performance is higher than normal or average learners.
 They learn faster than normal or average learners
 Always are creative and critical thinker
 Ability to solve problems
 They have long attention span and good memory for the things they
hear or heard.
 They have abilities to rapidly acquire and use large amounts of

information,
 They are able to reason and think abstractly.
 Have Self -confidence, like to work alone
 Are often bored with routine tasks
 Go beyond assignments
Educational Approaches for the Gifted and Talented

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There are two approaches to educating gifted and talented learners: enrichment
and acceleration.
Enrichment: an approach which enables learners to investigate or study topic

(s) of interest in much details or at a greater depth than would occur in the
regular curriculum. The enrichment options include: independent study and
projects, learning centres, field trips, academic competitions, small-group
investigation.
Acceleration: means providing a student with opportunities to move through

required curriculum at a faster pace/rate. It involves placing gifted and talented
students in classes ahead of their peers in one or more academic subjects.
Acceleration options include: early admission to school or college, skipping
classes/class advancement, advanced placement tests, concurrent enrolment in
high school and college, subject skipping.
How to Assist the Gifted and Talented Students?
When you teach gifted and talented in the regular classroom, you have to:
 Avoid/prevent boredom in the classroom by providing supplementary

activities.eg when students have finished their regular work they are
free either to read books or work on their projects.
 Integrate activities that require creativity and critical thinking in the

classroom
THE MENTAL RETARDED LEARNERS
Dear learner, mental retardation refers to significant limitations in intellectual

functioning, existing concurrently with related limitations in two or more of the
following adaptive skills; communication, self-care, home-living, , social
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skills, self-direction, health and safety. It is defined as sub-average intellectual

functioning in which an individual is unable to handle tasks appropriate to his
or her physical age. It is characterized by significantly sub-average intellectual
functioning and adaptive skills.
Sub-average intellectual functioning means Intelligence Quotient (IQ) is below

the range of 70 to 75 on the intelligence tests. The average score on any IQ test
is 100. The sub-average intellectual functioning is associated with impairment
in adaptive behaviour.
Adaptive skills refer to the skills an individual uses to function in his/her

environment.
Dear learner, learners who are mentally retarded may face challenges such as
poor memory, slow learning rates, attention problems, difficulty generalizing
what they have learned and lack of motivation.
What are Causes of Mental Retardation?
Dear learner the most cause of mental disability is damage to the child’s brain.
The damage of child’s brain is cause by several factors including: accidents,
infections/diseases, misuse of medical drugs, cigarette smoking, drug abuse,
alcohol, pre- maturity, poor nutrition and heredity factor. The causes may
occur either during: Prenatal stage (period between conception and birth),
Peri-natal stage (during delivery) or Post-natal stage (period after birth).
Let us learn classification of mental retarded learners

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Classification of Mental Retarded Learners
Mental retarded are classified into four levels according to IQ as shown in table
1. This classification is according to Stanford-Binet Intelligence Test.
Dear learner, the Intelligence Quotient (IQ) = Mental age X 100

Chronological age
Mental age is the level of intellectual functioning in years, which is compared

with chronological age. IQ is a measure of brightness or intelligence obtained
by comparing mental age with physical age. Let us look at classification of
mental retarded according to IQ.
Table 1: Classification of Mental Retarded Learners
IQ range Classification Description
50 -69 Mild mental Many children are not identified until they
retardation enter schools. They are educable mentally
retarded.
35-50 Moderate Delay in the development of such skills as

sitting, crawling, walking, and talking. Very
slow in learning and show extreme
difficulties in academic subjects. They are
trainable mental retarded
20-35 Severe Usually identified from the birth or shortly

afterward. Have severe sensory and
emotional problems. Have difficulties in
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motor, social, speech and language skills.

With proper training can develop minimal
communication skills and learn basic self-
help skills.
Below 20 Profound mental Identified at birth or within a few weeks

disability after. Have significant central nervous
system damage and many have additional
disabilities such as physical and sensory
impairments. Most of them require 24 hours
support throughout their lives. Many are
unable to dress or care for themselves,
unable to move about on their own.
CHILDREN WITH LEARNING DISABILITIES
Dear learner, learning disability refers to a heterogeneous group of disorders

manifested by significant difficulties in the acquisition and use of listening,
speaking, reading, writing, reasoning or mathematical abilities. It is a disorder
or delayed development in one or more of the psychological processes
involved in understanding or in using spoken and written language.
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Learners with learning disabilities are those that show specific and severe
learning problems despite normal educational efforts. They display a
significant difference/variation between their actual performance and their
potential. They experience significant learning difficulties that cannot be
explained by mental retardation, sensory impairment, emotional disturbance or
lack of educational opportunity.
Causes of Learning Disability
Dear learner, the exact cause is unknown. The causes include:
 Brain damage: either before birth, during birth or after birth.
Before birth: Ingestion of alcohol, smoking and other drugs by women during
pregnancy. Some children are born with abnormality brain. This abnormality
may be due to drugs, toxins, dietary, and infections.
During birth: prolonged and difficult delivery, pre-mature/low birth weight

and trauma or disturbance caused by medical instruments such as forceps.
After birth: strokes, concussions, meningitis, high fever and head injuries due
to accidents
 Genetic/ Hereditary factors:
Studies suggest that some of learning problems such as reading disabilities are
family related thus are inherited.
 Environmental factors such as:

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Socio-economic status, malnutrition, poor health care and inadequate safety

may contribute to neurological dysfunction. Lack of motivation and poor
instruction or poor teaching may contribute to learning disabilities. Lack of
good foundation from the beginning and poor learning facilities may cause
learning disability. Biochemical imbalance: caused by foods contain artificial
colours and flavours or additives may contribute to learning difficulties.
Dear learner, be in mind that learners with learning disability are different from
slow learners.
Slow learners are those students who achieve below age or class level. Poor
performance results from their slower rate in processing information. They take
a much longer time to understand concepts than is often expected.
How to Assist Learners with Learning Disabilities
i. Give them extra time to do their assignments
ii. Change your methods of teaching to meet individual needs
iii. Give directions in clear and simple words
iv. Use concrete objects or demonstration when teaching new concepts
v. Teach children strategies for remembering. When presenting lessons,

Highlight important information and eliminate unnecessary talk
HEARING IMPAIRMENT
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Dear learner, hearing impairment is a term that includes hearing disabilities

ranging from mild to profound, thus encompassing children who are deaf and
those who are hard-of-hearing.
Dear learner, a person who is deaf is not able to use hearing to understand
speech although he or she may perceive some sounds. Even with hearing aid,
the hearing loss is too great to allow a deaf person to understand speech
through the ears alone. A deaf person has a profound hearing impairment and
is dependent on vision for language and communication.
On other hand, a person who is hard-of-hearing has a significant hearing loss

that makes some special adaptations necessary. Children who are hard-of-
hearing are able to use their hearing to understand speech, with the help of
hearing aid.
Causes of Hearing Impairment: May be inherited or may result from

different circumstances at different stages of life either before, during or after
birth.
Dear learner I hope you have been come across with people with hearing
impairment in your life. Have you noted the cause of that condition? At which
stage a person got that condition?
Now let us look at the classification of hearing impairment
CLASSIFICATION OF THE HEARING IMPAIRMENT
Dear learner hearing impairment may be classified according to three main

criteria:
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i. Classification According to the degree of hearing loss
This is classification according to the severity of the hearing loss. It includes:
 Children with slight hearing loss: May have difficult hearing faint or
distance speech/sounds as well as hear in the presence of noise at the
background
 Children with mild hearing loss: can follow normal conversation if

there is silence but find it difficult to understand weak voices. Such
children need to sit near to and face the speaker or use hearing aid
 Moderate hearing loss: can understand loud conversation only. The

conversation must be very loud. Need a very quite environment to be
able to hear. They need to use hearing aids full-time, to be close and to
face the speaker.
 Severe hearing loss: have difficult hearing in all situations.
 Profound hearing loss: may not hear at all and rely mainly on visual
cues for communication.
Note: children with mild to moderate hearing losses are often referred to as
being Hard-of- hearing.
ii. Classification According to the Part of the Ear Affected:
Hearing can be also can be classified according to part of the ear affected as
follows:
 Conductive hearing loss:

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It
results from abnormalities or complications of the outer or middle ear which
preventing the sound waves from reaching the inner ear. The sound waves are
unable to pass through the eardrum or the eardrum is prevented from vibrating
through the middle ear. It may caused by excessive wax building in the
auditory canal. It can be corrected by either medication or surgery. The use of
hearing aids may also assist.
 Sensori-neural hearing loss:
It resulted from damage of the inner ear. This prevents sound information
from being processed effectively. Thus, sound waves do not reach the brain for
processing or the sound waves are distorted buffered they reach the brain. It
cannot be corrected by surgery or medication.
 Mixed hearing loss:
It involves combination of both conductive and sensori-neural impairment. It

occurs when both the inner and outer or middle ear are affected. This involves
problems of conduction of sound waves in both the inner ear and the outer ear
or middle ear.
iii. Classification According to the Age of Onset
Hearing impairment can be also described in terms of age of onset. It is

important to consider whether a hearing loss is congenital (present at birth or
adventitious (acquired later in life). In this situation, hearing impairment can
also be grouped into two categories:
 Congenital hearing loss: congenital deaf is one who has been deaf
since birth
89
 Adventitious/ Acquired hearing loss: acquired hearing loss after

birth.
Dear learner, a person may become hearing impairment either before or after
language has been developed. Hence, hearing impairment can also be
categorized into:
 Pre-lingual hearing impairment: hearing loss is occurred before

development of spoken language. Hearing loss that is present at birth
or occurs before the child develops speech and language.
 Post-lingual hearing impairment: hearing loss is occurred after

development of spoken language. It occurs after the child has
developed speech or language.
Activity: Imagine you are facilitating the class which has ODL learners with hearing
impairment, how can you help them to benefit from your lesson?
VISUAL IMPAIRMENT
Visual impairment can be defined as vision loss in which the person cannot
successfully use vision as a primary channel for learning or a person has a
reduced visual acuity or visual field. The term includes both partial and total
blindness.
Dear learner, visual acuity is the ability to clearly distinguish forms or

discriminate details at a specified distance. Visual acuity is measured by
reading letters, numbers or other symbols from a chart 20 feet away. Normal
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vision is measured as 20/20. It indicates that at a distance of 20feet, the eye can
see what a normally seeing. Eye should be able to see it that distance. This is a
Perfect vision. As the bottom number increases, visual acuity decreases.
Dear learner, if a person’s visual acuity is 20/200 or less in the better eye after
the best possible correction with glasses or contact lenses, then he/she is
considered legally blind. That person needs to stand at a distance of 20 feet to
see what most people can see from 200 feet away. In other words, person must
get much closer than normal to see things clearly.
If the visual acuity in one of your eyes is 20/10, for example you can see from
20 feet what the 20/20 eye must be within 10 feet in order to see. Some
people’s visual acuity is so poor they are unable to perceive fine details at any
distance, even while wearing glasses or contact lenses.
Dear learner, a person may also be considered legally blind if his /her field of
vision is extremely restricted. Visual field refers to the amount of vision one
has to the right and left, up and down while gazing straight ahead. A normal
eye is able to see objects within a range of approximately 180 degrees. If a
field of vision is only 10 degrees, he is able to see only a limited area at any
time.
CLASSIFICATION OF VISUAL IMPAIRMENT
Visual impairment can be classified into two:
 Low vision: a person is able to learn through the visual channel and
generally learns to read on large print or by using magnified glasses.
91
 Blind: totally without sight or has little vision. The visual acuity is
below 6/60. Can see at 6 metres while a sighted person can see at
distance of 60 metres or the field of vision is significantly restricted.
Most learners who are blind use the sense of touch to read Braille.
Dear learner visual impairment can be: Congenital visual impaired (present
at birth) or adventitious visual impaired (acquired due to accidents, diseases
and so on)
Causes of Visual Impairment
The causes of visual impairment may be classified according to time of onset

that is pre-natal causes, peri-natal causes and post-natal causes. These causes
include: Accidents, infections/diseases, misuse of medical drugs (quinine,
aspirin, and antibiotics), cigarette smoking, alcohol, pre- maturity, poor
nutrition, heredity factor.
Dear learner, before proceed to the next session, use your time to learn other
remain categories of learners with special needs. Thereafter, think about the
best and relevancy approach of education that can be used to educate learners
with special needs in our country.
INCLUSIVE EDUCATION
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Dear learner, in the beginning of this unit we introduced to you the concept of
inclusive education I hope you understood this concept clearly. The next
session now is discussion about the importance of inclusive education and
challenges that face the implementation of inclusive education in Tanzania. I
welcome you again to participate in our session.
Dear learner, inclusive education should be viewed in terms of including

traditionally excluded or marginalized groups or making the invisible visible.
The most marginalized groups are often invisible in the society. These groups
include: Disabled children, girls, children in remote areas/villages, children
from poor families/societies, orphans, street children, pastoralists’ societies,
hunters and gatherers, fishing communities, children living with HIV/AIDS
and other vulnerable children. Why girl be considered as marginalized one?
In an inclusive education, children with disabilities do not study in separate

classes instead teaching methods, textbooks, materials and the school
environment are designed so that children with a range of abilities and
disabilities including physical, sensory, intellectual and mobility impairments
can be included in the same class. So students with special needs spend most or
all of their time with non-disabled students. The philosophy of inclusive
education is aimed at helping all learners learn by being together and everyone
in the class benefits. .
IMPORTANCE OF INCLUSIVE EDUCATION
Dear learner inclusive education plays various roles and importance as

discussed below.
93
i. Learners develop a positive understanding of themselves and others.

When children attend classes that reflect the similarities and differences
of people in the real world, they learn appreciate diversity. Respect and
understanding grow when children of differing abilities and cultures
play and learn together.
ii. Friendships develop. Schools are places for learners to develop

friendships and learn social skills. In inclusive education learners learn
with and from each other, it provides the opportunities to develop
friendships with one another.
iii. Many studies show that when learners with special needs are included,
they perform well both academically and socially. They showed an
improvement in academic area as well as in self- esteem and in some
cases improved motivation.
iv. Research has shown positive effects for learners with special needs in
areas such as improving communication and social skills, increasing
positive peer interactions. So, Inclusive education provides opportunity
for the learners with and without to learn, to play and socialize together.
v. It provides better opportunities for learning. Learners with varying

abilities are often better motivated when they learn in classes
surrounded by other children.
vi. It provides equality that equal opportunity and accessibility of the

education. Equality cannot be created with separation.
vii. It encourages the involvement of parents in the education of their

learners and the activities of their local schools
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viii.
It fosters a school culture of respect and belonging. It provides opportunities to
learn about and accept individual differences, lessening the impact of
harassment and discrimination.
ix. It prepares all learners for the adult life in inclusive society. Thus it
prepares students for an integrated community living.
x. Positive effects on learners. Learners without special needs develop

positive attitudes and perceptions of persons with disabilities and
enhancement of social status with non disabled peers.
Dear learner relaxes for awhile then point out why Tanzanian country promotes
inclusive education? Then link your responses with the next discussion.
FACTORS ACCOUNT FOR PROMOTING INCLUSIVE EDUCATION

IN TANZANIA
Why Tanzania promotes inclusive education?
Dear learner, Tanzania as a member of the international community has signed

and ratified various international declarations that work towards equality in all
ways of life, education being one of them. So, Inclusive education is the part
of the global human rights and education for ALL agenda. Our policy for
building inclusive education is centrally situated within the agenda of
education for ALL, the millennium Goals, the convention on the right of the
child and UN convention on the rights of persons with special needs. For
examples,
95
 Tanzania ratified the Salamanca Statement (1994), a declaration that

emphasizes on the need to provide basic education to children with
special needs. It calls on all governments to give the highest priority to
inclusive education. It stresses that every child has a right to education.
 It signed the UN convention on the rights of the child (1989) and

ratified it in 1991 which sets out children’s rights in respect of freedom
from discrimination and in respect of the representation of their views
and wishes.
 It also signed the convention against discrimination in education of

UNESCO prohibits any discrimination, exclusion or segregation in
education.
 It also signed the UN convention on the rights of persons with

disabilities (2006) which calls on all states parties to ensure an inclusive
education system at all levels.
Rights of Children with Special Needs
Dear learner, the human rights and legal rights of the people with special needs
states that all children including those with special needs have a right to:
 Play and learn alongside other children
 Be supported in the playing and learning according to individual needs
 Opportunities for social interaction and developing friendships with

their peers
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ODL
 Make choices and express their views
 Get education
 Buy and rent property
 Goods and services including transport
 Employment ( to be employed)
 Communicate and be heard
 Be educated in mainstream schools.
Activity: What is the Status of Inclusive Education in Tanzania?
Dear learners, based on your experiences discuss with vivid examples the
status of inclusive education in Tanzania. Share with your colleagues as much
as possible. Thereafter, let us proceed to our discussion.
FACTORS AFFECT IMPLEMENTATION OF INCLUSIVE

EDUCATION IN TANZANIA
Dear learner, there are many factors that hindering the implementation of
inclusive education in Tanzania. These factors are related to: infrastructure,
curriculum, teaching and learning process, teaching and learning materials,
staff (teachers), policies, funds and community attitudes.
Let us discuss some of these factors in details.
Infrastructure
97
The inappropriate architectural design of school buildings made children with

special needs inaccessible, especially to children with visual and physical
disabilities. There should be special classroom designs and toilets. For
instance, take your school you are working with as an example, look at that
classrooms and toilets situation then how far do they support for children with
special needs.
Inclusive education training (teacher qualification)
Failure of teachers to implement inclusive education is a result of not having

educational background in inclusive education. Most of the teachers had not
been specially trained in inclusive education. They don’t have any educational
background in inclusive education. Others have educational background on
special need education but not inclusive education. For they don’t know how to
handle inclusive classrooms which contain the hearing impaired as they are not
trained in sign language and vision impaired (blind) as they have no training in
Braille machines.
Unclear policies on inclusive education
For inclusive education to be implemented effectively, countries need to define

a set of inclusive principles together with practical ideas to guide the transition
towards policies addressing inclusive education in education. When we look to
our country, education policy is not clear, if there could be a clear policy which
states how to implement inclusive education, it could be better. No guidelines,
no policies which direct how to implement inclusive education.
Teaching and learning resources

Unit 4 98
ODL
In
order to ensure that inclusive education takes place among other things to
consider are teaching and learning materials and facilities that are important for
children with special needs. These materials and facilities include text books
such as talking books for the blind; Braille machines for the blind, audio and
visual devices for hearing impaired learner, mobility equipment like white cane
for the blind, wheel chair for the physically challenged ones and various
teaching and learning aids. So insufficient of these materials and facilities
make it difficult for the teachers to deliver the lessons and for the learner to
understand the lessons. The authorities should produce books and other
learning materials in a range of formats that can be used by children with
different impairments.
Curriculum
The present curriculum does not support inclusive education. The curriculum is
often rigid and meanwhile it expects all pupils to learn the same things, at the
same time and through the same methods. Curriculum should be flexible
enough to provide possibilities for adjustment to individual needs and abilities
of each and every pupil.
Lack of government support
Government is not supportive in the implementation of inclusive education.

May be this is caused by lack of a policy on inclusive education. All promises
government made by its officials have come to naught.
Lack of collaboration between teachers and parents
This becomes a setback in the implementation of inclusive education. Teachers

and parents need to work together as a team in the achievement of this goal.
99
Negative attitude of teachers and parents
Most of the teachers have negative attitudes to students with special needs.
They blamed that they are not specially trained in inclusive education.
Similarly, parents and communities have negative attitudes towards learners
with disabilities. Some parents fail to accept the challenges the children have,
they hide them at home.
Lack of fund in supporting inclusive education
There is no fund to buy teaching and learning materials for inclusive education.
Number of students in the classroom
This is among the factors that affect the inclusive education in our country. If
we look to our classroom situations, the number of student is too large to the
extent that it becomes difficult to teachers to implement it smoothly.
Dear learner, I hope you understood the lesson above. Based on the discussion
above identify and explain challenges that Tanzania primary school teachers
encounter when implementing inclusive education to their respective areas.
Unit Summary
Dear learner, in this unit you learnt different terminologies related

to inclusive education and special education. You also learnt about
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different categories of learners with disabilities specifically gifted

and talented learners, mental retarded learners, learning disability,
visual impairment and hearing impairment.
Furthermore, you learnt the importance of inclusive education and

factors that affect the implementation of inclusive education in
Tanzania. I hope you have enjoyed the discussion.
Unit Assignment
1. Differentiate between inclusion and mainstreaming
2. Discuss factors that determine the success of inclusive

education in Tanzania.
3. Explain characteristics of inclusive school or environment.
4. What is the status of inclusive education in Tanzania?
5. How can you help the visually impaired learners in

inclusive classroom?
6. Explain the difference between congenital hearing and

adventitious hearing.
7. Show the different between gifted learner and talented

learner?
101
Unit 4 102
ODL
REFERENCES
Ndani, M. (2009). Children in need of special protection. Sasa Sema

Publications: Dar es Salaam.
Heward, W. (1989). An Introduction to Special Education. Englewood cliffs:

Ohio.
Frank, O. et al (1996). Introduction to educational psychology. East African

educational publishers. Nairobi.

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MODULE

APPLYING PSYCHOLOGY IN DISTANCE EDUCATION

© Institute of Adult Education, 2017

T. Mamba: Head, Adult and Continuing

M. Kimaty: Institute of Adult Education

A. Abubakar: Institute of Adult Education

E. Samba: Institute of Adult Education

About this module 1

Getting around this module 10

About this module

How this module is structured

The module overview gives you a general introduction to the module.

If the module is suitable for you.

What you already need to know.

What you can expect from the module.

The overview also provides guidance on:

Where to get help.

Module assignments and assessments.

We strongly recommend that you read the overview carefully before

The module is broken down into units. Each unit comprises:

An introduction to the unit content.

Core content of the unit with a variety of learning activities.

Assignments and/or assessments, as applicable.

Answers to assignments and/or assessments, as applicable

Module content and structure.

Module reading materials and resources.

Module support (assigned tutors, technical help, and others)

Your constructive feedback will help us to improve and enhance this

Welcome to this module

Dear Learner, Dear learner, well come to module known as Applying

Apply knowledge, skills and principles of psychology in solving different

questioning/listening/observing skills, getting the most out of doing (“hands-on” learning),

part of continuous assessment.

Therefore, in continuous assessment there will be self-assessments

This is the final assessment. Generally, the Continuous Assessment

Getting around this module

Activity Assessment Assignment Case study

Discussion Group activity Help Note it!

Learning Outcomes Reading Reflection Study skills

Summary Terminology Time Tip

Understanding Basic Concepts in Psychology

Upon completion of this unit you will be able to:

 Define the term psychology

 Classify different branches of psychology

 Describe the importance psychology to adult educator.

Dear learner, a term psychology is regarded as a science which studies

Although there is no generally accepted definition of psychology, most

Scientific – psychology is regarded as a science. By definition, psychology

Behaviour – as used in psychology, this is any activity that can be observed,

Mental processes – these include thoughts, memories, emotions,

Dear learner, I hope the concept of psychology is well discussed and

Dear learner, Psychology is divided into different branches. These

include: General, physiological, developmental, child, animal, social and

Applied branches deal with the application of psychological principles and

Dear learner, let us discus those branches of psychology in details.

This branch of Psychology is interested in the ways in which the behaviour

This is the applied psychology that tries to use principles of knowledge

Guidance and Counseling Psychology

Industrial Psychology/Organizational Psychology

This branch applies psychological knowledge to the problems of

This is a sub-field of psychology that tries to apply skills and knowledge in

Experimental psychology like general psychology deals with the study of

Dear learner, today life is complex. The individual is facing a lot of