MEDICAL

MICROBIOLOGY-
INTRODUCTION
HANIBAL A.
 DEFINITIONS AND BRANCHES OF MICROBIOLOGY 2

Contents
• Definitions and branches of microbiology
• Basic difference of prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells
• Introduction to microbiology (definition, biological principles and classification of
microorganisms)
• The microbial cell structure
• Introduction to microbial genetics
• Classification of bacteria
• The growth, survival and death of microorganisms
• Cultivation of microorganisms
INTRODUCTION TO
MICROBIOLOGY
INTRODUCTION TO MICROBIOLOGY

• Microbiology is the interesting field that explores

the world of microorganisms—tiny living entities
that play significant roles in our lives

• This module will explore the definitions and

branches of this discipline:
 What Is Microbiology? 5

• Microbiology can be broken down into its roots: “micro”

(small) and “biology” (the study of life)
• It encompasses the investigation of microbes, which fall into
two main categories:
1. Cellular Microbes (Organisms):
o Bacteria: These single-celled prokaryotic organisms are diverse and
abundant
o Archaea: Similar to bacteria but distinct in terms of cell structure and
biochemistry
o Fungi: Includes yeasts, molds, and mushrooms.
o Protists: A varied group comprising algae, protozoa, slime molds, and
water molds
 6
CONT’D
1. Acellular Microbes (Agents):
o Viruses: Tiny infectious particles that require host cells for replication
o Prions: Unconventional infectious agents composed of misfolded
proteins
o Viroids: Small, circular RNA molecules causing plant diseases
 7

BRANCHES OF MICROBIOLOGY

This Photo by Unknown Author is licensed under CC BY-NC-

ND
 8
MICROBIOLOGY BRANCHES OUT INTO VARIOUS SUBDISCIPLINES, EACH WITH ITS UNIQUE FOCUS:
1. General Microbiology: 2. Medical Microbiology:
o Investigates a broad range o Concentrates on microbes
of microbiological that cause human diseases
questions o Essential for diagnosing
o Explores microbial and treating infections
diversity, physiology, o Includes virology,
genetics, and ecology bacteriology, and mycology
CONT’D
3. Public Health Microbiology:
o Studies disease
transmission, frequency,
and distribution
o Aids in disease prevention
and control
4. Immunology:
o Examines the immune
system’s response to
infections
o Crucial for understanding
immunity and vaccination
9
5. Agricultural Microbiology:
o Focuses on the impact of
microbes on agriculture
o Enhances crop yield and soil
health
6. Microbial Ecology:
o Explores the relationships
between microbes and their
habitats
o Studies ecosystems, nutrient
cycling, and microbial
communities
CONT’D 10

7. Food Microbiology: 9. Biotechnology:

o Ensures food safety by o Manipulates organisms to
preventing foodborne diseases create useful products
o Examines food spoilage and o Advances medical
preservation methods
research, agriculture, and
8. Industrial Microbiology: environmental
o Utilizes microbes for commercial conservation
purposes (e.g., fermentation,
enzyme production)
o Essential in biotechnology and
pharmaceuticals
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CONT’D
• Microbiology’s impact extends far beyond its small subjects
(the microbes)
 From understanding disease mechanisms to harnessing
microbial potential for various human advantages, this field
shapes our world in profound ways
 Remember, even though microbes are small, their influence is
immense!
• As preclinical year students of medicine, you’re embarking on
a journey that will reveal the importance of these minute life
forms!
 BASIC DIFFERENCE BETWEEN PROKARYOTIC AND 12

EUKARYOTIC CELLS
Introduction
• In the fascinating world of cells, we encounter two fundamental
types:
 prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells
CONT’D 13

Prokaryotic Cells
1. Definition:
o Prokaryotic cells lack a membrane-bound nucleus or
organelles
o They are the smallest cells and include bacteria and
archaea
2. Size:
o Prokaryotic cells are smaller (typically 0.1-10
micrometers)
CONT’D 14

3. Genetic Material:
o Their DNA is circular and not enclosed within a nucleus
4. Organelles:
o Prokaryotes lack membrane-bound organelles
o They have fewer structures compared to eukaryotic cells
5. Examples:
o Bacteria and cyanobacteria (blue-green algae) are
prokaryotes
Eukaryotic Cells 15

1. Definition:
o Eukaryotic cells are more complex and larger
o They include:
 Protists
 Fungi
 Plants, and
 Animals
2. Size:
o Eukaryotic cells are larger (typically 10-100 micrometers)
CONT’D 16

Genetic Material:
o Their DNA is linear and enclosed within a true nucleus
4. Organelles:
o Eukaryotic cells have membrane-bound organelles (e.g.,
mitochondria, endoplasmic reticulum, Golgi complex)
o These organelles compartmentalize cellular functions
Examples:
o plant cells
o animal cells, and
o protists are eukaryotes
PROKARYOTIC CELL EUKARYOTIC CELL 17
SUMMARY 18

 Prokaryotic cells: Simple, lack a nucleus, and are found in

bacteria
 Eukaryotic cells: Complex, have a nucleus, and form the
basis of multicellular life and some unicellular organisms as
well
Remember, understanding these cellular differences is crucial
for medical students as it lays the foundation for
comprehending disease mechanisms and treatments!
DEFINITION, BIOLOGICAL PRINCIPLES AND 19

CLASSIFICATION OF MICROORGANISMS

What Are Microorganisms?

• Microorganisms, or microbes, are tiny living entities that
include:
 Bacteria
 Viruses
 Fungi
 and other microscopic life forms
• They thrive in diverse environments and impact various aspects
of our lives
 CONT’D 20

2. Biological Principles
a. Classification Criteria
 Common Characteristics: Organisms are
grouped based on shared features
 Evolutionary Relationships: Classification
reflects how closely organisms are related to
common ancestors
 CONT’D 21

b. Taxonomy and Nomenclature

 Taxonomy: The science of classifying organisms
 Binomial Nomenclature: Each organism is assigned a
two-part scientific name (genus and species)
 For example, Escherichia coli (E. coli)
CONT’D 22

c. Hierarchical Classification
 Kingdom: The highest level of
classification.
 Phylum (Division), Class, Order, Family,
Genus, and Species follow in a
hierarchical scheme

 Example: Humans belong to the

kingdom Animalia, phylum Chordata,
class Mammalia, order Primates, family
Hominidae, genus Homo, and species
Homo sapiens
CONT’D 23

3. Classification of Microorganisms
a. Five Major Kingdoms
1. Prokaryota: Includes bacteria
and archaea
2. Protoctista: Encompasses
protozoa and algae
3. Fungi: Includes yeasts, molds,
and mushrooms
4. Plantae: Consists of plants

5. Animalia: Represents animals

 CONT’D 24

b. The Three-Domain Classification System

 Proposed by Carl Woese in 1990
 Three domains:
1. Bacteria: E.g., E. coli, cyanobacteria,
and Staphylococcus aureus
2. Eukaryota: Includes plants and fungi
3. Archaea: E.g., thermophilic
microorganisms
The Microbial Cell Structure 25

• The key components of microbial cells are not always similar

between prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells
1. Prokaryotic Cells
• Prokaryotic cells lack a membrane-bound nucleus and other
organelles
• They include bacteria and archaea
a. Cell Envelope
1. Plasma Membrane: A lipid bilayer that encloses the cytoplasm
2. Cell Wall:
o Provides structural support
o Composed of peptidoglycan (unique to bacteria)
CONT’D 26

3. Capsule:
o Polysaccharide layer outside the
cell wall
o Confers protection and
invasiveness
CONT’D 27

b. Cytoplasm
1. Cytoplasmic Membrane: Regulates
transport and energy production
2. Ribosomes: Sites of protein synthesis
3. Nucleoid: Region containing the
circular DNA
Each unique bacterial structure is a
target of antimicrobial therapy
CONT’D 28

2. Eukaryotic Cells
Eukaryotic cells are more complex and larger
They include protists, fungi, plants, and animals.
a. Cell Membrane
1. Plasma Membrane: Encloses the cytoplasm
2. Cell Wall (in some eukaryotes):
o Composed of cellulose (plants) or chitin (fungi)
 29
CONT’D
b. Cytoplasm
1. Cytoplasmic Membrane: Regulates transport.
2. Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER):
o Rough ER (with ribosomes): Protein synthesis
o Smooth ER: Lipid synthesis
3. Golgi Apparatus: Modifies and packages proteins
4. Mitochondria: Energy production (ATP)
5. Nucleus: Contains linear DNA
INTRODUCTION TO MICROBIAL
GENETICS
• Microbial genetics is a field that study the
principles of heredity within microorganisms
• Fundamental concepts and mechanisms that
govern genetic processes in bacteria, archaea,
and other microorganisms are:
 31
CONT’D

1. The Nature of Genetic Material

 Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) is the molecule of genetics
 Genotype: The genetic makeup of an organism
 Phenotype: The observable characteristics resulting from
gene expression
 32
CONT’D
2. Levels of Structure and Function of the Genome
 Genes: Specific sequences of nucleotides within DNA that
encode information for building proteins
 Chromosomes:
o Prokaryotes: Typically have a single circular chromosome
o Eukaryotes: Possess multiple linear chromosomes
 Plasmids:
o Extra-chromosomal circular DNA in bacteria
o Encode various functions, including antibiotic resistance
and virulence factors
 33
CONT’D
3. Mechanisms of Genetic Exchange
a. Conjugation
 Donor bacterium (F+) transfers a copy of a conjugative
plasmid to a recipient bacterium through a pilus.
 Requires cell-to-cell contact
 Plasmids can carry antibiotic resistance genes
 35
CONT’D

b. Transformation
 Recipient cell takes up naked DNA from the environment
 No direct cell-to-cell contact required
 Competent cells incorporate the DNA into their genome
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 37
CONT’D
c. Transduction
 Bacteriophages (viruses that infect bacteria) transfer
bacterial genes during infection
Generalized transduction: Viral particles package
random bacterial DNA and transfer it to other cells
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GENERALIZED TRANSDUCTION
 39
SPECIALIZED TRANSDUCTION
CONT’D 40

4. Applications and Implications

 Evolution: Studying microbial genetics provides insights into
natural selection, adaptation, and genetic variability
 Drug Targets: Many pharmaceutical agents target DNA
replication, transcription, and translation in bacteria
 Genetic Engineering: Manipulating microbial genomes for
biotechnological purposes
CLASSIFICATION OF BACTERIA 41

Bacteria, the diverse group of microorganisms, exhibit

remarkable variation in their characteristics
The classification of bacteria is done based on key
features and properties, such as:
 42
CONT’D
1. Phenotypic Classification
a. Gram Staining
 The Gram stain, discovered by H.C. Gram in 1884, remains a
valuable technique
 It categorizes bacteria into two main groups:
o Gram-Positive Bacteria: Stain blue-purple due to their
thick peptidoglycan cell walls
o Gram-Negative Bacteria: Stain red due to their thinner
peptidoglycan layer and outer membrane
 43
CONT’D

b. Morphological Characteristics
1. Cocci (Spherical or Oval Cells):
o Monococci (singles)
o Diplococci (pairs)
o Staphylococci (grape-like clusters)
o Streptococci (chains)
o Tetrad (groups of four)
o Sarcina (groups of eight)
 44
CONT’D

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 45
CONT’D

2. Bacilli (Rod-Shaped Bacteria):

o Diplobacilli
o Streptobacilli
o Palisades
o Chinese-letter form
o Coccobacilli
o Comma-shaped
 46
CONT’D
 47
CONT’D
c. Other Bacterial Groups
1. Actinomycetes:
o Resemble fungi due to branching and filament formation
o Termed so because they resemble sun rays in tissue sections
2. Spirochaetes:
o Long, slender, spiral-shaped microorganisms with multiple
coils
3. Mycoplasmas:
o Lack a rigid cell wall.
o Highly pleomorphic and of indefinite shape
 48
CONT’D

4. Rickettsiae and Chlamydiae:

o Small, obligate parasites
o Formerly considered related to viruses but now recognized
as bacteria
THE GROWTH, SURVIVAL, AND DEATH OF
49
MICROORGANISMS
• Microorganisms, whether bacteria, fungi, or viruses, exhibit
complex life cycles that involve growth, adaptation, and
eventual death
 50
1. Growth of Microorganisms
a. The Meaning of Growth
 Growth refers to the orderly increase in size and the sum of all
components within an organism
 In unicellular organisms, growth leads to an increase in the
number of individuals within a population or culture
 Bacteria, for instance, reproduce through binary fission,
where one parent cell divides to form two progeny cells
 The time required for a bacterium to give rise to two daughter
cells under optimal conditions is known as generation time or
population doubling time
 51
CONT’D
b. The Growth Curve
 The growth curve of bacteria typically has four major phases:
1. Lag Phase:
 During this phase, vigorous metabolic activity occurs,
but cells do not divide
 It can last from minutes to several hours
2. Exponential (Log) Phase:
 Cells are in a steady state, actively dividing
 New cell materials are synthesized at a constant rate
 Growth continues until nutrients become exhausted or
toxic metabolic products accumulate
 52
CONT’D
1. Stationary Phase:
 Nutrient exhaustion or toxin accumulation slows growth

 The number of new cells produced balances the cells

that die
 Total cell count increases, but viable count remains

constant
2. Decline (Death) Phase:
 Marked by a decline in viable bacteria due to cell death

 Causes include nutritional exhaustion, toxin buildup,

and autolysis
 A small number of survivors may persist for months
 53
CONT’D

2. The Meaning of Death

 For microbial cells, death signifies the irreversible loss of the
ability to reproduce (grow and divide)
 Factors contributing to death include nutritional exhaustion,
toxic metabolites, and autolysis
 Understanding microbial growth and death is crucial for fields
like medicine, food safety, and environmental science
THE BACTERIAL GROWTH CURVE 54
CULTIVATION OF MICROORGANISMS 55

• Microorganisms thrive and multiply under specific

environmental conditions
• Cultivating them in the laboratory allows us to study their
characteristics, metabolism, and behavior
• The methods and principles of microbial cultivation
1. Isolation of Microorganisms in Pure Culture
 Pure culture: Contains only one type of microorganism
 Isolation involves separating individual microbial species from
a mixed sample
 Techniques include streak plate method, pour plate method,
and spread plate method
CONT’D 56

2. Cultivation Methods
a. Nutrient Media
 Nutrient Agar:
o Solid medium containing nutrients for bacterial growth
o Supports the growth of various bacteria
 Nutrient Broth:
o Liquid medium used for bacterial cultivation
o Provides nutrients in a soluble form
CONT’D 57

b. Enriched Media
 Contains additional nutrients (e.g., blood, serum) to support
the growth of fastidious microorganisms
 Examples: Blood Agar, Chocolate Agar
c. Selective Media
 Designed to favor the growth of specific microorganisms while
inhibiting others
 Examples: MacConkey Agar (selects for Gram-negative
bacteria), Mannitol Salt Agar (selects for staphylococci)
 58

d. Differential Media
 Differentiates between microorganisms based on their
biochemical properties
 Examples: EMB Agar (distinguishes lactose fermenters), Triple
Sugar Iron Agar (detects hydrogen sulfide production)
e. Anaerobic Cultivation
 Some microorganisms thrive in oxygen-free environments
 Anaerobic jars or chambers create low-oxygen conditions
f. Temperature and pH Control
 Incubators maintain optimal temperature (e.g., 37°C for
human pathogens)
 pH-adjusted media ensure suitable pH levels
 59
CONT’D

3. Preservation of Cultures
 Lyophilization (Freeze-Drying):
o Removes water from cultures, allowing long-term storage
o Revivable by rehydrating
 Cryopreservation:
o Stores cultures at ultra-low temperatures (liquid nitrogen)
o Preserves viability
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THANK
YOU
Hanibale A. Zegeye,
2004