Histology

Integumentary
system
 Integumentary Introductio
System
• Skin and its n
appendages
• Study: Dermatology Epidermis

• The skin, the body's Dermis

largest organ
• Consists of: two layers
Epidermal derivatives of the skin :
Epidermis, a superficial • Hair and hair follicles
• Sebaceous glands
cellular layer • Sweat glands
• Nails
• Mammary Glands
Dermis, a deep connective
tissue layer.
 Integumentary System
Functions
•A barrier
– against physical, chemical, and biologic agents in the external
environment
• mechanical barrier, permeability barrier, ultraviolet barrier
•Synthesis and storage of vitamin D.
•Homeostasis
•Excretion
•Sensory reception (nerve endings)
•Immunologic information
•Communication- Reflects emotions through facial expressions, gland
secretions
 5/25/2021

*Dermis layers *Dermal papillae

Elias W. 2021
 Introduction

Integumentary System
Skin contains many specialize
structures d
In Deep layer of the
–Hair follicles, with dermis
smooth arrector associated
mus sebaceous cles and
glands.
–Sweat glands
•Skin structures or d erivatives
Nails (fingernails, to enails)
Mammary glands

Elias W. 2021
 Skin Types

1. Thick Skin
– Found on soles of feet
and palms of hands
and corresponding
parts of fingers and
toes.
– Contains 5 epidermal
layers
 Skin Types
2. Thin skin
– Found everywhere else
on the body.
– Contains only 4 layers.
The remaining 4 layers
are thinner than those of
thick skin.
• Why is thick skin found
on the palms and
soles? What is the
advantage of that?
 Thin skin

Thick skin
 Skin Structure
• The skin has 2 main
layers:
1. The superficial,
avascular
e pidermis
consisting of
layers of epithelial
cells resting upon
a basement
membrane.

2. The deep, vascular

d ermis consisting
tissue.
of Contains
fibrous Elias W. 2021
multiple blood vessels,
connective
and the
accessory appendages.
 The
• Keratinized stratified
Epidermis
squamous epithelium.
• Avascular.
• Consists of 4 distinct
cell types arranged in
4 or 5 distinct
layers.
• Epidermal cell types:
1. Keratinocytes
(structure)
2. Melanocytes
(pigment)
3. Merkel cells
(sensatio
n)
4. Langerhans’ cells
(phagocytes - immune
 Keratinocytes
•Most numerous epidermal

cell –85%
•Chief function is the production of keratin –
– a tough fibrous protein that gives strength and confers
a lot of
protective ability.
•Tightly connected to one another by desmosomes.
– Provides continuity, strength, and protection.
– Is the reason skin flakes off in sheets rather than as
individual cells.
 Keratinocyte
• s
Cytoplasm: basophilic at basal region and eosinophilic at s.
spinosum

• New cells are continuously made in the deepest

layer pushing the older cells up.

• As the keratinocytes move farther from the deepest layer,

they make the keratin that eventually dominates their cell
contents.

• in the stratum spinosum, produce Laminar bodies

• Contribute for Epidermal water barrier
• Desquamation
• turnover time ~47 days
 Melanocyte
• s
Spider-shaped (dendritic cells )
epithelial cells that synthesize the
protein pigment melanin.
• Neural crest–derived
• Found in the deepest layer of
the epidermis.

• No desmosomal attachments
with keratinocytes

• In humans, 1 melanocyte
associated with approximately
36 keratinocytes*
– This ratio is constant in all races
 Melanocyte
s
• Melanin is made and
then packaged
into membrane-
bound granules
called
melanosomes.

• Granules are transferred

to the keratinocytes in
the 2 deepest layers
of the epidermis by
pigment donation
 Melanocyte
• s
Melanin granules
accumulate
on the “sunny side” of the
nucleus of the
keratinocytes.
• Melanin
granules
protect
the DNA
within the
nucleus from
• melanin pigment
being
comprises two
damaged by
distinct forms.
the
–Eumelanin, is a brownish
ultraviolet radiation from
black pigment.
the sun. , is a reddish
–Pheomelanin
yellow pigment.
 Skin pigmentation

• Numerous intrinsic and extrinsic factors are also

responsible for skin pigmentation, including
– Age
– Ethnicity
– gender differences
– variable hormone levels and affinities of their
receptors
– genetic defects,
– ultraviolet radiation,
– climate and season changes,
– chemical exposure to toxins and pollutants
 Langerhans Cells
• Antigen-presenting cells (APCs)
• Seen in the spinous layer,
• Represent 2% to 8% of the epidermal cells.
• They originate from common lymphoid progenitor
(CLP) cells in bone marrow.
• Cytoplasmic processes extend from these dendritic
cells between keratinocytes of all the layers,
forming a fairly dense network in the epidermis.
• Langerhans cells bind, process, and present
antigens to T lymphocytes
 Merkel Cells
• epithelial tactile cells
• function in cutaneous sensation.
• located in the stratum basale
• are sensitive mechanoreceptors essential
for light touch sensation.
• most abundant in skin where sensory
perception is acute, such as the fingertips
and at the bases of some hair follicles.
• Joined by desmosomes to keratinocytes of
the basal epidermal layer
 Merkel Cells
• Merkel cells originate from the same stem cells as
keratinocytes*
• The nucleus is lobed, and cytoplasm IS denser than
melanocytes & Langerhans’ cells.
• Contains small Golgi-derived dense-core
neurosecretory granules containing peptides
• The basolateral surfaces of the cells contact
expanded terminal discs of unmyelinated
sensory fibers penetrating the basal lamina.
• Merkel cell carcinoma (MCC) is a rare but highly
aggressive type of skin cancer
the 4 layers of thin skin
1. Stratum basale
2. Stratum spinosum
3. Stratum
granulosum
4. Stratum lucidum
5. Stratum corneum
•
Stratum
Single row of
cuboidal Basale
keratinocytes with
melanocytes
Merkel cells
interspersed.
• Cells in this layer
are highly
mitotic

• a.k.a. the stratum

germinativum.
 Stratum
Spinosum
• 2nd deepest layer.
• Consists of 8-10 layers of
cells.
• Cells of the lower layers can
still be mitotic.
• As cells get pushed upward,
they begin to flatten and
begin to make the
precursors of keratin.
• Called the “prickly layer,”
• because in tissue sections,
they shrink and pull back.
This makes their exposed
desmosomes connecting
 5/25/2021

Elias W. 2021
 Stratum Granulosum
•3-5 cell layers thick.
• Cell morphology begins to change dramatically as
cells continue to flatten and their nuclei and
organelles disintegrate.

• Accumulate granules containing a precursor of keratin

and granules (keratohyalin granules)
containing a waterproofing agent.
– If water can’t diffuse upward, how would the cells above this
layer receive nutrients? What would happen to them?
Stratum
Lucidum

• flat, dead
keratinocytes.
• Appears clearin the
light microscope
because it lacks nuclei
and organelles
which typically stain
well.

Elias W. 2021
 Stratum Corneum
• Outermost stratum. 20 – 30 layers of squamous,
highly keratinized, dead cells.
• Protects against mechanical abrasion – cells
can absorb impacts and simply flake off if
necessary.

• Prevents pathogen entry.

• Prevents desiccation (drying out).

• A.k.a. the cornified layer.

• Strong, flexible fibrous
tissue.
connective Dermis
• reticular
Divided dermis.
into papillary dermis
&
•Papillary dermis is the upper 1/5 of the dermis and consists of loose
(areolar) CT.
– Provides an arena for immune cells to fight invaders.
– Projects upward (as) to interdigitate and form a strong
connection with the epidermis.
– Heavily invested with blood vessels – they constrict in cold
weather and dilate in warm weather.Why?
–Also contains multiple sensory
receptors.
D
e
r
m
a
l
•Reticular dermis is lower 4/5 Dermis
and

consists of dense
irregular connective tissue.
–The prominent, horizontally running collagenous fibers
give the skin
strength and resiliency. papillary dermis

–Elastin gives the skin the ability to stretch and recoil.

•The majority of the appendages of theReticular dermis
skin are contained
within the dermis.
 SENSORY
RECEPTORS
• Diverse sensory receptors are present in skin,
• including both simple nerve endings with no Schwann
cell or collagenous coverings and more complex
structures with sensory fibers enclosed by glia and
delicate connective tissue capsules.

• The unencapsulated receptors include the following:

– Merkel cells
– Free nerve endings
– Root hair plexuses
 SENSORY
RECEPTORS
• Merkel cells, each associated with expanded nerve
endings, which function as tonic receptors for
sustained light touch and for sensing an object’s texture.

have high tactile sensitivity

function as mechanoreceptors

Elias W. 2021
 SENSORY
RECEPTORS
• Free nerve endings in the papillary dermis and
extending into lower epidermal layers, which respond primarily
to high and low temperatures, pain, and itching, but also
function as tactile receptors.
– most numerous neuronal receptors in the epidermis.

• Root hair plexuses, a web of sensory fibers surrounding

the bases of hair follicles in the reticular dermis that
detects movements of the hairs.
 SENSORY
RECEPTORS
• The encapsulated receptors are all phasic
mechanoreceptors, responding rapidly to stimuli on
the skin.

• Four are recognized in human skin,

– Meissner corpuscles

– Lamellated (pacinian) corpuscles

– Krause end bulbs

– Ruffini corpuscles
 SENSORY
RECEPTORS
• Meissner corpuscles
–consisting of sensory
axons winding among
flattened Schwann cells
arranged perpendicular to
the epidermis in the
dermal papillae.
–are responsible for
sensitivity to light touch in
the papillary layer of
hairless skin
 SENSORY
RECEPTORS
• Lamellated (pacinian) corpuscles
– Found deep in the reticular dermis and hypodermis,
with an outer capsule and 15-50 thin, concentric
lamellae of flattened Schwan cells and collagen
surrounding a highly branched, unmyelinated
axon

– Detect pressure changes and vibrations applied on

the skin surface.
– Also found in the connective tissue of organs located
deep in the body, including the wall of the rectum
and urinary bladder,
• where they also produce the sensation of pressure when
the surrounding tissue is distorted.
Pacinian corpuscle
 SENSORY
RECEPTORS
• Krause end
– extremely thin, collagenous capsules penetrated
by a sensory fiber.
– found primarily in the skin of the penis and clitoris
where they sense low frequency vibrations.

• Ruffini corpuscles
– have collagenous, fusiform capsules anchored
firmly to the surrounding connective tissue,
– with sensory axons stimulated by stretch (tension)
or twisting (torque) in the skin.
Pacinian corpuscle Krause’s end bulb

Ruffini’s corpuscle

Elias W. 2021

Meissner’s corpuscle
Pacinian corpuscle Meissner’s corpuscle
 Appendages of the
Skin
• Cutaneous gland
– Sebaceous glands
– Sudoriferous gland
– Ceruminous glands
1
• Hair
• Nails
3
2
• Simple alveolar glands
• found everywhere except Sebaceous
palms of the hands and soles Glands
of the feet.
• Secrete an oily, lipid-rich
secretion called
sebum.
– typically secreted into a hair
follicle or occasionally onto
the body surface.
• Sebum softens and
lubricates the
skin.
• It also decreases the skin’s
permeability to water and
The sebaceous gland -> arrow. duct is unbranched and empties into
a

hair follicle.

Elias W. 2021
 Sweat
glands
• Distributed over the
entire body except
the nipples and
portions of the
external genitalia.
• Over 2.5 million

2 types:
1. Merocrine(Eccrine)
sweat glands
2. Apocrine sweat
glands
 Merocrine Sweat
Glands
• More numerous
• Especially prominent on the palms, soles, and
forehead.
• Simple, coiled, tubular glands.

• Duct empties into a funnel-shaped pore at the

skin surface.

• Major function of merocrine sweating is to cool

the body
– t hermoregulation.

• Secretory portion: clear cells, dark cells &

• Merocrine sweat is a
dilute watery solution of
some salts (including
NaCl), vitamin C,
antibodies, small amounts
of nitrogenous wastes
(urea, uric acid, and
ammonia), and lactic
acid.

• Such environment is
bacteriostatic – prevents
bacterial reproduction
and growth.
• serves, in part, as an
excretory organ
 Apocrine Sweat
Glandsprimarily in the
• Found
axillary, pubic, areola &
nipple and anal regions
of the body.
– Also found in the facial
region in men only.
• Larger and thicker then
merocrine sweat glands.
– more lipids and proteins
– Viscous, odourless

• Ducts empty into hair

follicles.
 Apocrine Sweat Glands

• Secretory portion: wider lumen, Single cell type

• Duct portion: stratified cuboidal, no myoepithelial
cells. Narrow lumen

• Become active at puberty.

• Secrete sweat during times of pain, stress, and
sexual activity.

• May have a possible pheromone-like function.

• Play no role in thermoregulation.
 Ceruminous Glands

• Modified apocrine glands

• found in the inner lining of the external ear canal.
• Secrete a sticky waxy substance called cerumen
(earwax).
• It combines with sebum and dead epidermal cells to
form a bitter compound that offers a barrier to entry
of the ear.
 Hair and Hair
Follicles
• present over almost the entire body

• Hair is a flexible strand made of highly keratinized

dead cells.

• The keratin in both hair and nails is hard keratin,

a stiffer, more compact version of the soft keratin
that dominates the epidermis.

• It is tougher and its cells do not individually flake

off.

• The hair is made by the living hair follicle.

 Hair and Hair Follicles
• Hair consists of
–Shaft
–Root
• At the base, the root gets wider forming
the hair bulb.
• The hair consists of 3
concentric regions:
– Medulla
– Cortex
– Cuticle
 The 3 layers of the hair

– Medulla  the innermost

region consisting of large
cells and air spaces.

– Cortex  surrounds the

medulla and consists of
flattened keratinized cells

– Cuticle  outer layer of flat

keratinized cells that overlap
like shingles with their free
edges pointing upward.
 Hair and Hair
Follicles
• The hair follicle surrounds
much of the hair root.

• It contains an outer
connective tissue
sheath and an inner
epithelial root sheath.

• At the base of the hair

follicle is a single layer
of mitotic cells derived
from the stratum basale. Elias W. 2021

• This is the hair matrix.

 Hair and Hair
• Follicles
All the cells of the hair are
derived from the hair
matrix.

• Just beneath the hair

matrix is an obvious
dermal papilla called the
hair papilla.

• It contains the blood

vessels that nourish the
matrix and the cells of
Elias W. 2021
the hair follicle.
• Glassy membrane,
 Hair and Hair
Follicles
• Wrapped around the bulb of the
follicle is a network of sensory
nerve endings known as the
hair root plexus.
• Allow the hairs to serve a
sensory function.
• Attached to each hair
(follicular
bulge)is a bundle of
smooth
muscle known as an
arrector pili muscle.
• In times of fright or cold, these
muscles contract and cause
the
hair to stand on end – and
The arrow indicates an arrector pili muscle. also try to identify
the shaft, root, follicle, hair papilla, and sebaceous gland.
 Nail
s
• Plates of stratified squamous epithelial cells with
hard keratin

• Protect distal ends of phalanges

• Cells are keratinized in the nail root
• Nail growth occurs in the lunula
• Cuticle is a fold of stratum corneum on the
proximal end of nail
 Nail
s
• Nail bed overlaid by
nail plate

• Nail growth originates

from root; cells
become keratinized

• Cuticle is formed
from stratum
corneum
Structure of
Nails
• Tightly packed keratinized cells
• Nail body
– visible portion pink due to
underlying capillaries
– free edge appears white
• Nail root
– buried under skin layers
• lunula is white due to
thickened
– stratum basale
• Eponychium (cuticle)
– stratum corneum layer
 5/25/2021

Elias W. 2021
Histology slides
 Development of
Integumentary
System
 Epidermis
• from surface ectoderm

• 2nd month ectodermal cells

proliferate and form a
layer of squamous
epithelium, the periderm
(epitrichium), and a
basal layer.

• Periderm continually
undergo
keratinization
 Epidermis
• basal layer form stratum
germinativum.

• By 11 weeks, cells from the stratum

germinativum have formed an
intermediate layer.

• 21st week; stratum corneum, lucidum

formed, and then periderm
disappears.
• At end of 4th month, epidermis
consists of four Elias W. 2021

layers.
• Melanocytes, form NCC
 Formation of Epidermal Ridges and
Dermal Papillae

• The epidermis shows

thickenings that project in the
dermis to form epidermal
ridges.
• The parts of dermis
projecting the
between ridges
epidermal are called
dermal papillae
• epidermal ridges produce
grooves on the surface of
the palms and soles,
including the digits.
– The type of pattern
determined genetically
• Four basic types of dermatoglyphic patterns in the digits.
 Dermis
• develops from mesenchyme
• This mesenchyme is derived from 3 sources:
–Paraxial mesoderm,
–Somatopleuric layer of lateral plate mesoderm,
–Neural crest cells.
• The mesenchymal cells differentiate into
– connective tissue cells that form
connective tissue fibers and amorphous
ground substance
–Blood vessels (completed by 3rd month)
 Dermis
• During 3-4 months dermis forms dermal papillae,
which project into the epidermis and interdigitate
with the epidermal ridges.

• The dermis differentiates into two

layers: 1.Superficial papillary layer
2.Deeper reticular layer.
• Late in the embryonic period, neural crest cells
migrate into the mesenchyme of the developing
dermis and differentiate into melanoblasts .

• These cells migrate to the dermoepidermal

junction
and differentiate into melanocytes.
– Appear 40 to 50 days
 Glands of the skin

• include eccrine and apocrine sweat glands,

sebaceous glands, and mammary glands.

• They are derived from the epidermis and grow

into the dermis.
 Sebaceous gland

• develops as a bud from the epithelial root sheath of

hair follicle.

• The bud grows into the surrounding dermis and divides

into a number of branches to form primordia
of several alveoli and their associated ducts.

• The cells in the center of alveoli (acini) degenerate

to produce an oily secretion called sebum.

• In glans penis and labia mi n o r a the sebaceous

E lias W. 20 21

glands develop independent of the hair follicles as

buds from the epidermis
Development of a hair and a sebaceous gland. A. 4 months. B. 6 months. C. Newborn
 Eccrine sweat gland
• from downgrowth of the epidermis into the underlying dermis
form bud of sweat gland

• downgrowth elongates and its terminal part becomes coiled.

• Later on this solid downgrowth is canalized to form lumen.

• The terminal coiled part of downgrowth forms

secretory part of the sweat gland and myoepithelial cells.

• While the proximal straight part forms duct of the sweat gland.
• The site of beginning of downgrowth from the surface
epithelium forms pore of the duct of the sweat gland.

• The eccrine sweat glands start functioning shortly after birth

 Apocrine sweat glands

• They develop from same epidermal buds that form the

hair follicles.
– Consequently these glands open into the
canals of the hair follicles superficial to the entry of
the sebaceous gland ducts.
• They begin to function during puberty.
– Sweat contains lipids, proteins, and
pheromones
Development of sweat glands.
 Development of Hair
• begin to develop early in 7–12 weeks but not recognized
until 20th week.
• Each hair develops from downgrowth of the epidermis
into underlying dermis.
• The cells of the stratum germinativum proliferate to form
a solid epithelial cord, hair bud into the dermis.

• The terminal part of the hair bud becomes club shaped

and forms the hair bulb.

• It is invaginated by the mesenchymal condensation of the

dermis and the hair bulb now becomes inverted cup-
shaped structure.
 Development of Hair
• The cells of the hair bulb at the summit of dermal papilla
form the ‘germinal matrix’ that later produces the hair .

• The peripheral cells of developing hair follicle form epithelial

root sheath. The dermis condenses around this sheath to
form dermal root sheath.

• The cells of the germinal matrix proliferate to form root of

the hair.
• As it grows, it is pushed outside the hair follicle on the
surface of skin as a shaft of the hair.
 Development of Hair

• The root and shaft of hair become keratinized.

• The melanoblasts migrate into the hair bulbs and

differentiate into the melanocytes.

• Melanin is transferred to proliferating cells of the

germinal matrix.
 Development of Hair
• First hairs that appear are lanugo hairs
– fine, soft, lightly pigmented, and silky
– They help to hold the vernix caseosa on the skin
surface. These hairs are called
lanugo.

• lanugos are replaced by coarser hairs during the

perinatal period, whichover most of the body except in axillary
persists
and pubic regions where they are replaced at puberty by even
coarser terminal hair.
 Development of Hair
• In men similar coarse hairs appear on the face (e.g.,
moustaches and beard) and often on the chest.

• The definitive hair grows to a certain length and then

cease to grow, e.g., hairs of eyelashes, eyebrows,
pubic, and axillary regions.

• At certain sites, e.g., scalp of males and females and

the face of males, the hair grows continuously throughout
life. They are called angora.
Elias W. 2021
Elias W. 2021
 Arrector Pili Muscle
• differentiate from the mesenchyme
surrounding the hair follicle usually on
one side and attach the dermal root
sheath of hair follicle and papillary
layer of the dermis

• The contraction of arrector pili

muscles causes ‘goose bumps.’
Development of Mammary Glands
• In the 4 week, mammary ridge or line
– the surface ectoderm thickens extending from the axilla to the
inguinal region

• About 15–20 mammary buds develop in each side

• Mammary buds disappear, except in the pectoral region.
• mammary bud presents depression called mammary pit.

• About 15–20 epithelial cords grow inwards from the pit

into the underlying dermis. Are primordia of
lactiferous ducts.

– At the end of fetal life, the epithelial cords and their branches
are canalized and form lactiferous ducts.
 Development of Mammary Glands
• The deeper ends of the epithelial cords subdivide further
and terminate as ampullated ends—the primordia of
ductules and alveoli.
– Develop at puberty

• rudimentary mammary glands of newborn males and

females are similar

• The full development of breast occurs at about 19 years

of age.
Elias W.
2021
 Nails
• Toenails and fingernails begin to develop at the tips of the digits
at approximately 10 weeks

• Development of fingernails precedes that of toenails by

approximately 4 weeks

• The primordia of nails appear as thickened areas or nail fields of

the epidermis at the tip of each digit.
• Later, these fields migrate onto the dorsal surfaces of the nails,
carrying their innervation from the ventral surface.

• The nail fields are surrounded laterally and proximally by folds

of epidermis, the nail folds.

• Cells from the proximal nail fol d g r o w over the nail

Elias W .2 02 1

field
and become keratinized to form the nail plate
 Nails
•At first, the developing nail is covered by a narrow
band of epidermis, the eponychium (corneal layer of
epidermis).

• It later degenerates, exposing the nail except at

its base, where it persists as the cuticle.
– a thin layer of the deep surface of the proximal
nail fold
(eponychium).
– The skin under the free margin of the nail is the
hyponychium
Elias W. 2021
 Nails

• The fingernails reach the fingertips by approximately 32

weeks;

• the toenails reach the toe tips by approximately 36

weeks.

• Nails that have not reached the tips of the digits at birth
indicate prematurity.

Elias W. 2021