ANA 213: CLINICAL NEURO-AND ORGAN SYSTEM ANATOMY EPIDERMIS

AND PHYSIOLOGY
WEEK 16b: INTEGUMENTARY SYSTEM

INTEGUMENTARY SYSTEM: OVERVIEW OF FUNCTIONS

1. Protection. The skin protects against abrasion and the

harmful effects of ultraviolet light. It also keeps
microorganisms from entering the body and prevents
dehydration by reducing water loss from the body.

2. Sensation. The integumentary system has sensory

receptors that can detect heat, cold, touch, pressure, and
pain.

3. Temperature regulation. The amount of blood flow through

the skin and the activity of sweat glands help regulate body
temperature.

4. Vitamin D production. When exposed to ultraviolet light,

the skin produces a molecule that can be transformed into
vitamin D, an important regulator of calcium homeostasis.

5. Excretion. Small amounts of waste products are excreted

through the skin and glands. The epidermis is composed of keratinized stratified squamous
epithelium.
STRUCTURES OF THE SKIN 1. The epidermis is not as thick as the dermis and contains no
blood vessels.
2. The living cells of the epidermis receive nutrients and
excrete waste products by the diffusion of substances
between the epidermis and the capillaries of the dermis

TYPES OF CELLS IN THE EPIDERMIS

It contains four principal types of cells: keratinocytes, melanocytes,

The skin, also referred to as the cutaneous membrane, covers the
external surface of the body and is the largest organ of the body in
weight. In adults, the skin covers about 7 percent of total body weight.
The superficial, thinner portion, which is composed of epithelial tissue,
is the avascular epidermis. For this reason, if you scratch the
epidermis there is no bleeding.
The deeper, thicker, connective tissue portion is the dermis. It is
vascular and a cut that penetrates to the dermis produces bleeding.
Deep to the dermis, but not part of the skin, is the subcutaneous
(subQ) layer or hypodermis, which consists of areolar and adipose
tissues.
intraepidermal macrophage cells, and tactile epithelial cells.
About 90 percent of epidermal cells are keratinocytes which are
arranged in four or five layers and produce the protein keratin.
Keratin - helps protect the skin and underlying tissues from abrasions,
heat, microbes, and chemicals.
1. Keratinocytes release a water-repellent sealant that
decreases water entry and water loss and inhibits the
passage of foreign materials.
2. Melanocytes produce melanin.

The skin and subcutaneous layer form the integument.

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 - Melanin a yellow-red or brown-black pigment that
contributes to skin color and absorbs damaging
ultraviolet (UV) light.
o Once inside keratinocytes, the melanin
granules cluster to form a protective veil over
the nucleus, on the side toward the skin
surface. In this way, they shield the nuclear
DNA from damage by UV light. Although their
melanin granules effectively protect
keratinocytes, melanocytes themselves are
particularly susceptible to damage by UV
light.

3. Intraepidermal macrophage (Langerhan cells). They

participate in immune responses mounted against microbes
that invade the skin. Intraepidermal macrophage cells and
other cells of the immune system recognize a foreign
microbe or substance so that it can be destroyed.
Intraepidermal macrophage cells are easily damaged by UV
light.

4. Merkel cell (Tactile epithelial cells) are located in the

deepest layer of the epidermis, where they contact the
flattened process of a sensory neuron (nerve cell), a
structure called a tactile (Merkel) disc. Tactile epithelial cells
and tactile discs detect touch sensations.

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 LAYERS OF THE EPIDERMIS

LAYERS OF THE EPIDERMIS (Deep to Superficial)

Stratum basale Composed of a single row of cuboidal or columnar keratinocytes, some of which are stem cells that undergo cell
division to continually produce new keratinocytes.

The stratum basale is sometimes referred to as the stratum germinativum to indicate its role in forming new
cells. Keratinocyte stem cells of the stratum basale undergo mitotic divisions approximately every 19 days. It takes
approximately 40–56 days for the cell to reach the epidermal surface and slough off.

Stratum spinosum Cells in the more superficial layers become somewhat flattened. The keratinocytes in the stratum spinosum
have the same organelles as cells of the stratum basale, and some retain their ability to divide. The keratinocytes
of this region produce coarser bundles of keratin intermediate filaments than those of the basal layer. Although
they are rounded and larger in living tissue, cells of the stratum spinosum shrink and pull apart when prepared for
microscopic examination, so they appear to be covered with thornlike spines (thus the name).

At each spinelike projection, bundles of keratin intermediate filaments insert into desmosomes, which
tightly join the cells to one another. This arrangement provides both strength and flexibility to the skin.
Intraepidermal macrophage cells and projections of melanocytes are also present in the stratum spinosum.

Stratum granulosum Consists of three to five layers of flattened keratinocytes that are undergoing apoptosis. (Recall from that apoptosis
is an orderly, genetically programmed cell death in which the nucleus fragments before the cells die.) The nuclei
and other organelles of these cells begin to degenerate as they have moved farther from their source of nutrition
(the dermal blood vessels).

A distinctive feature of cells in the stratum granulosum is the presence of darkly staining protein granules; this
protein, called keratohyalin is involved in assembling the keratin intermediate filaments into keratin.

Also present in the keratinocytes are membrane-enclosed lamellar granules which fuse with the plasma
membrane and release a lipid-rich secretion. This secretion is deposited in the spaces between cells of three
epidermal layers: the stratum granulosum, stratum lucidum, and stratum corneum

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Stratum lucidum Present in the thick skin of areas such as the fingertips, palms, and soles. It consists of four to six layers of
clear, flat, dead keratinocytes that contain large amounts of keratin and thickened plasma membranes.

The keratin is more regularly arranged parallel to the skin surface. This probably provides an additional level of
toughness in this region of thick skin.

Stratum corneum Consists on average of 25 to 30 layers of flattened dead keratinocytes, but can range in thickness from a few cells
in thin skin to 50 or more cell layers in thick skin. The cells, which are extremely thin, flat, plasma membrane-
enclosed packages of keratin, are called corneocytes or squames.

Corneocytes no longer contain nuclei or any internal organelles. They are the final product of the differentiation
process of the keratinocytes. The corneocytes within each layer overlap one another like the scales on the skin of
a snake. Neighboring layers of corneocytes also form strong connections with one another.

The plasma membranes of adjacent corneocytes are arranged in complex, wavy folds that fit together like pieces
of a jigsaw puzzle to hold the layers together.

In this outer stratum of the epidermis, often referred to as the cornified layer, cells are continuously shed and
replaced by cells from the deeper strata.

Its multiple layers of dead cells help the stratum corneum to protect deeper layers from injury and microbial
invasion.

Constant exposure of skin to friction stimulates increased cell production and keratin production, and that results
in the formation of a callus, an abnormal thickening of the stratum corneum.

TYPES OF SKIN (EPIDERMIS) PIGMENTS (EPIDERMIS)

PIGMENTS
Melanin Produced by melanocytes in the stratum basale.
Another common form of melanin is pheomelanin,
a red-brown polymer of benzothiazine units largely
responsible for red hair and freckles
Carotene A yellow pigment found in plants, such as carrots
and corn. Humans normally ingest carotene and
use it as a source of vitamin A.

Carotene is lipid-soluble and, when large amounts

of carotene are consumed, the excess
accumulates in the stratum corneum and in
adipocytes of the dermis and subcutaneous tissue,
causing the skin to develop a yellowish tint. The
yellowish tint slowly disappears once carotene
intake is reduced.
1. Thin (hairy) skin covers all body regions except the palms,
palmar surfaces of digits, and soles.
The location of pigments and other substances in the skin affects the
2. Thick (hairless) skin covers the palms, palmar surfaces of color produced. For example, light reflected off dark pigment in the
digits, and soles. dermis or subcutaneous tissue can be scattered by collagen fibers of
the dermis to produce a blue color.
The same effect produces the blue color of the sky as light is reflected
from dust particles in the air. The deeper within the dermis or
subcutaneous tissue any dark pigment is located, the bluer the
pigment appears because of the light-scattering effect of the overlying
tissue. This effect causes the blue color of tattoos, bruises, and some
superficial blood vessels.
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 CONDITIONS OF THE EPIDERMIS DERMIS

COLORS OF THE SKIN

Erythema Blood flowing through the skin imparts a reddish
hue. An inflammatory response stimulated by
infection, sunburn, allergic reactions, insect bites,
or other causes can produce erythema, as can
expo- sure to the cold and blushing or flushing
when angry or hot.
Jaundice Due to a buildup of the yellow pigment bilirubin in
the skin. This condition gives a yellowish
appearance to the skin and the whites of the eyes,
and usually indicates liver disease.
Cyanosis Bluish discoloration due to lack of oxygen
Pallor Paleness of the skin, may occur in conditions such
as shock and anemia.
Hematoma Abnormal bleeding that is not released in the skin
Vitiligo Chronic disorder that causes depigmentation
patches in the skin. The precise cause, is not
known, but is most likely a combination of genetic The second, deeper part of the skin, the dermis, is composed of a
factors coupled with a disorder of the immune strong dense irregular connective tissue containing collagen and
system (autoimmune disease). elastic fibers.
Albinism Congenital disorder characterized by the
complete or partial absence of pigment in the It is much thicker than the epidermis and this thickness varies from
skin, hair, and eyes due to a defect of an enzyme region to region in the body, reaching its greatest thickness on the
involved in the production of melanin. palms and soles. Because the dermis is typically thinner in women
than in men, many women have the appearance of dimples in the skin
referred to as cellulite.

The dermis has great tensile strength (resistance to pulling or

stretching forces). It also has the ability to stretch and recoil easily.
Leather, used for belts, shoes, baseball gloves, and basketballs, is
dried and treated animal dermis.

As is typical of all general connective tissue, the cells present in the

dermis are scattered and include fixed cells and wandering cells. The
predominant fixed cells are fibroblasts; the wandering cells include
macrophages, mast cells, eosinophils, neutrophils, and dermal
interstitial dendritic cells (immune surveillance cells).

Blood vessels and nerves, along with glands and hair follicles
(two epithelial invaginations of the epidermis), are embedded in the
dermal layer. The dermis is essential to the survival of the epidermis,
and these adjacent layers form many important structural and
functional relations.

Based on its tissue structure, the dermis can be divided by an indistinct

boundary into a thin, superficial papillary region and a thick,
deeper reticular region.

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 REGIONS OF THE DERMIS CLEAVAGE LINES
PAPILLARY REGION

- Makes up about one-fifth of the thickness of the total

layer. It contains thin collagen fibers and fine elastic
fibers. Its surface area is greatly increased by small,
fingerlike structures that project into the undersurface
of the epidermis called dermal papillae, these greatly
increase the surface contact between the papillary
region and the epidermis.

- The dermal papillae can vary greatly in size and

number throughout different parts of the dermis; they
are taller and more numerous in sensitive regions of
skin that experience more mechanical stress. In the thin
skin covering most of the body, the dermal papillae are
relatively few in number, small, and irregularly
scattered.

- The papillary layer also contains blood vessels that

supply the overlying epidermis with oxygen and
nutrients, remove waste products, and aid in regulating
body temperature.

- The dermal papillae under the thick skin of the palms of

the hands and soles of the feet lie in parallel, curving
ridges that shape the overlying epidermis into
fingerprints and footprints.

o The ridges increase friction and improve the

grip of the hands and feet. Everyone has
unique fingerprints and footprints, even
identical twins.
Tension lines (lines of cleavage) in the skin indicate the predominant
direction of underlying collagen fibers. Knowledge of tension lines is
RETICULAR REGION
especially important to plastic surgeons. For example, a surgical
incision running parallel to the collagen fibers will heal with only a fine
- Attached to the subcutaneous layer, contains bundles
scar. A surgical incision made across the rows of fibers disrupts the
of thick collagen fibers, scattered fibroblasts, various
collagen, and the wound tends to gape open and heal in a broad, thick
wandering cells (such as macrophages), and some
scar.
coarse elastic fibers.
The combination of collagen and elastic fibers in the reticular
- In addition, some adipose cells can be present in the
region provides the skin with strength, extensibility, the ability to
deepest part of the layer. The collagen fibers in the
stretch, and elasticity, the ability to return to original shape after
reticular region are arranged in a netlike manner and in
stretching. The extensibility of skin can be seen readily around joints
a more regular formation than those in the papillary
and in pregnancy and obesity.
region. The more regular orientation of the large
collagen fibers aligns with the local tensile forces to
- Senile Skin is present in older people. It has less
help the skin resist stretching.
strength, flexibility and will not usually go back to its
earlier elasticity
- Blood vessels, nerves, hair follicles, sebaceous (oil)
glands, and sudoriferous (sweat) glands occupy the
spaces between fibers.

In certain regions of the body, collagen fibers within the reticular region
of the dermis tend to orient more in one direction than another because
of natural tension resulting from bony projections, orientation of
muscles, and movements at joints.

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 EPIDERMAL RIDGES TATTOO

The surfaces of the palms, fingers, soles, and toes are marked by
series of ridges and grooves. They appear either as straight lines or
as a pattern of loops and whorls, as on the tips of the digits. These
epidermal ridges are produced during the third month of fetal
development as the epidermis projects downward into the dermis
between the dermal papillae of the papillary region. he epidermal
ridges serve multiple functions:

1. They increase the surface area of the epidermis and thus

function to increase the grip of the hand or foot by increasing Tattoos are created by injecting ink with a needle that punctures the
friction; epidermis and moves between 50 and 3000 times per minute as the
ink is deposited in the dermis. Since the dermis is stable (unlike the
2. The interdigitating pattern between epidermal ridges and epidermis, which is shed about every four to six weeks), tattoos are
dermal papillae creates a stronger bond between the permanent.
epidermis and dermis in regions of high mechanical stress;
However, they can fade over time due to exposure to sunlight,
improper healing, picking scabs, and flushing away of ink particles by
3. They greatly increase the surface area, which increases the
the lymphatic system. Tattoos can be removed by lasers in a series of
number of corpuscles of touch and thus increases tactile
treatments that use concentrated beams of light. In the procedure, the
sensitivity.
tattoo inks and pigments selectively absorb the high- intensity laser
light without destroying normal surrounding skin tissue. The laser
Because the ducts of sweat glands open on the tops of the epidermal
causes the tattoo to dissolve into small ink particles that are eventually
ridges as sweat pores, the sweat and ridges form fingerprints (or
removed by the immune system.
footprints) when a smooth object is touched. The epidermal ridge
pattern is in part genetically determined, but even identical twins have
different patterns. SENSORY RECEPTORS
In addition to forming epidermal ridges, the complex papillary surface
of the dermis has other functional properties. The dermal papillae
greatly increase the contact area between the dermis and epidermis.

This increased dermal contact area, with its extensive network of small
blood vessels, serves as an important source of nutrition for the
overlying epidermis.

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 The skin contains different types of sensory receptors found in
different layers: - Shock Absorption. In certain regions, such as the skin
of the soles and palms, the subcutaneous layer forms
Superficially Deep tough fat pads, composed of fibrous bands of collagen
Type I cutaneous Lamellated corpuscles and adipose tissue, which absorb shock and protect
mechanoreceptors underlying muscle and bone.

free nerve endings - Metabolism. As noted previously, the subcutaneous

layer is also the principal site of energy storage in the
corpuscles of touch and hair body. Adipose tissue is an active metabolic tissue with
root plexuses numerous nerve endings and rich vascular networks
that help regulate and mobilize the energy stores.
Like some areas of the dermis, the subcutaneous layer also contains
encapsulated nerve endings called lamellated (pacinian) corpuscles - Finally, the subcutaneous layer serves as a layer of
that are sensitive to pressure. insulation that helps retard heat loss from the body.

SUBCUTANEOUS LAYER ACCESSORY STRUCTURES OF THE SKIN

HAIR FOLLICLES

The subcutaneous (under the skin) layer, which is deep to the dermis,
is also referred to as the hypodermis. This connective tissue layer,
which is not part of the skin, differs from region to region in the body.
In some areas it is a thin layer comprised of the loose connective tissue
called areolar tissue, while in other regions it is a thick, tough layer of
fibrous bands of collagen accompanied by adipose tissue. - Present on most surfaces EXCEPT the palms, anterior
surfaces of fingers, and the soles of the feet.
Fibers that extend from the dermis anchor the skin to the - Composed of dead, keratinized epidermal cells.
subcutaneous layer, which in turn attaches to the underlying fascia, - Genetics determines thickness and distribution.
the connective tissue that surrounds muscles and bones.
Hair follicles develop at about 12 weeks after fertilization as down
The subcutaneous layer serves as a storage depot for fat and growths of the stratum basale of the epidermis into the dermis.
contains large blood vessels that supply and drain the capillaries of
the skin. The amount of fat deposited in subcutaneous regions of Usually by the fifth month of development, the follicles produce very
adipose tissue varies greatly among different individuals. A lean fine, nonpigmented hairs called lanugo, that cover the body of the
person could have a very thin layer with minimal fat deposits, while an fetus.
obese individual could have a layer of fat four to six inches thick.
This hair is shed before birth, except from the scalp, eyebrows, and
The subcutaneous layer has multiple functions. eyelashes. A few months after birth, slightly thicker hairs replace these
- Unites the skin’s upper layers to the deeper layers. hairs. Over the remainder of the body of an infant, a new growth of
It functions as a loose binding tissue that unites the short, fine hair occurs. These hairs, known as vellus hairs, are
upper layers of the skin to deeper structures, while at commonly called “peach fuzz.”
the same time allowing the skin to move freely over
these deeper structures.
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The hairs that develop at puberty, together with those of the head,
eyebrows, and eyelashes, are called terminal hairs.
- About 95 per- cent of body hair on males is terminal hair
(the other 5 percent is vellus hair). Only about 35
percent of body hair on females is terminal hair; the
other 65 percent is vellus hair.
ARRECTOR PILLI
Sebaceous (oil) glands (discussed shortly) and a bundle of smooth
muscle cells are also associated with hairs. The smooth muscle, called
arrector pili, extends from the superficial dermis of the skin to the
connective tissue sheath around the hair follicle.
In its normal position, hair emerges at a less than 90 degrees angle to
the surface of the skin.
Under physiological or emotional stress, such as cold, fright, or
anger, autonomic nerve endings stimulate the arrector pili
muscles to contract, which pulls the hair shafts perpendicular to
the skin surface.
This action, which results in a slight elevation around each shaft of
hair, causes “goose bumps” or “goose flesh.”
- Why does this happen? It is difficult to see the
significance of this function in humans. However, in
animals with a lot of hair, this mechanism can be very
important for survival. By erecting the hairs on their
bodies, most mammals can trap dead (unmoving) air
between the hairs, creating dead air space, the most
effective form of insulation known.
- Similar to the principle behind double-pane insulated
glass windows, this thin layer of dead air space helps
re- duce heat loss when the body is exposed to cold.
Hair erection can also make mammals look bigger and
more formidable, which might help them intimidate
predators. Humans continue to exhibit hair erection, but
it has lost its effectiveness in reducing heat loss or
intimidating enemies because our hair has become
relatively sparse.
©Sham Adato – BSPT 2023
GLANDS
SEBACEOUS (OIL) GLANDS
Connected to hair follicles. This helps prevent water loss and inhibit
bacterial growth on the surface of the skin.
Sebaceous glands, or oil glands, are simple, branched acinar
(rounded) glands. With few exceptions, they are connected to hair
follicles. The secreting portion of a sebaceous gland lies in the dermis,
typically situated in the angle the arrector pili muscle forms with the
outer wall of a hair follicle, and usually opens into the neck of the hair
follicle.
In other locations, such as the lips, glans penis, and labia minora,
sebaceous glands open directly onto the surface of the skin.
Sebaceous glands, which vary in size and shape, are found in the skin
over all regions of the body except the palms and soles. Because of
their relationship to hairs, sebaceous glands are most numerous
where hairs are most numerous.
They are small in most areas of the trunk and limbs, but large in the
skin of the breasts, face, neck, and upper chest. The sac-like base of
a sebaceous gland has a lining of cuboidal cells that resemble basal
epithelial cells.
Like the basal epithelial cells, these cells divide and produce cells that
are pushed away from the lining as newer generations of cells are
produced. As multiple generations of cells pile on top of each other,
the lumen gradually fills with cells. These cells differentiate by
developing large lipid-filled vesicles in their cytoplasm, and eventually
become so distended that they rupture and fill the duct of the gland
with an oily secretion called sebum, which is derived from the released
lipid-filled vesicles and cellular debris.
Sebum is a mixture of fats, cholesterol, proteins, and inorganic salts.
Sebum coats the surface of hairs and helps keep them from drying and
becoming brittle. Sebum also prevents excessive evaporation of water
from the skin, keeps the skin soft and pliable, and inhibits the growth
of certain bacteria.
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ECCRINE SWEAT GLANDS
Also known as merocrine sweat glands, are simple, coiled tubular
glands that are much more common than apocrine sweat glands. They
are distributed throughout the skin of most parts of the body, except
for the margins of the lips, nail beds of the fingers and toes, glans
penis, glans clitoris, labia minora, and eardrums.
Eccrine sweat glands are most numerous in the skin of the
forehead, palms, and soles; their density can be as high as 450 per
square centimeter (3000 per square inch) in the palms.
The secretory portion of eccrine sweat glands is located mostly in
the deep dermis (sometimes in the upper subcutaneous layer). The
excretory duct projects through the dermis and epidermis and ends
as a pore at the surface of the epidermis (see also Figures 5.1 and
5.4c). On the palms and soles, they open all along the apex of the
epidermal ridges.
The sweat produced by eccrine sweat glands (about 600 mL per day)
consists primarily of water, with small amounts of ions (mostly Na and
Cl), urea, uric acid, ammonia, amino acids, glucose, and lactic acid.
The main function of eccrine gland sweat is to help regulate body
temperature through evaporation. As sweat evaporates, large
quantities of heat energy leave the body surface.
The homeostatic regulation of body temperature is known as
thermoregulation. The role of eccrine sweat glands in helping the
body to achieve thermoregulation is known as thermoregulatory
sweating. During thermoregulatory sweating, sweat first forms on the
forehead and scalp and then extends to the rest of the body, forming
last on the palms and soles.
Sweat that evaporates from the skin before it is perceived as moisture
is termed insensible perspiration.
Sweat that is excreted in larger amounts and is seen as moisture on
the skin is called sensible perspiration.
Eccrine sweat glands also release sweat in response to an emotional
stress such as fear or embarrassment. This type of sweating is referred
to as emotional sweating or a cold sweat. Emotional sweating first
occurs on the palms, soles, and axillae and then spreads to other
areas of the body. (Opposite with thermoregulatory sweating which
starts at the scalp)
APOCRINE SWEAT GLANDS
Located mainly in hairy skin. Apocrine sweat glands like eccrine
sweat glands, are simple, coiled tubular glands but they have larger
ducts and lumens than the eccrine sweat glands.
They are found mainly in the skin of the axilla (armpit), groin,
areolae (pigmented areas around the nipples) of the breasts, and
bearded regions of the face in adult males.
©Sham Adato – BSPT 2023
Their secretory product is slightly viscous compared to eccrine
secretions and contains the same components as eccrine sweat plus
lipids and proteins.
At first this substance is odorless, but as it spreads onto the hairs,
bacteria decompose the proteins, creating a strong musky odor that is
called body odor.
In women, cells of apocrine sweat glands enlarge at about the time of
ovulation and shrink during menstruation. Eccrine sweat glands start
to function soon after birth, but apocrine sweat glands do not begin to
function until puberty.
Apocrine sweat glands are stimulated during emotional stress and
sexual excitement; these secretions are commonly known as a “cold
sweat.” In contrast to eccrine sweat glands, apocrine sweat glands are
not active during thermoregulatory sweating.
CERUMINOUS GLANDS
These are modified sweat glands located in the ear canal. The
combined secretion of the ceruminous and sebaceous glands is called
cerumen or earwax.
Cerumen in the external auditory canal provides a sticky barrier that
prevents the entrance of foreign bodies, such as insects. Cerumen
also waterproofs the canal and keeps bacteria and fungi from entering
cells
FUNCTIONS OF THE INTEGUMENTARY SYSTEM
PROTECTION
The skin provides protection to the body in various ways. Keratin
protects underlying tissues from microbes, abrasion, heat, and
chemicals; the tightly interlocked keratinocytes resist invasion by
microbes. Lipids released by lamellar granules inhibit evaporation of
water from the skin surface, thus protecting against dehydration; they
also retard entry of water across the skin surface during showers and
swims. The oily sebum from the sebaceous glands protects skin and
hairs from drying out and contains bactericidal chemicals (substances
that kill bacteria). The acidic pH of perspiration retards the growth of
some microbes. The pigment melanin helps shield against the
damaging effects of ultraviolet light. Two types of skin cells carry out
protective functions that are immunological in nature. Intraepidermal
macrophage cells alert the immune system to the presence of
potentially harmful microbial invaders by recognizing and processing
them, and macrophages in the dermis phagocytize bacteria and
viruses that manage to bypass the intraepidermal macrophage of the
epidermis.
CUTANEOUS SENSATIONS
These are sensations that arise in the skin, including tactile
sensations—touch, pressure, vibration, and tickling—as well as
thermal sensations such as warmth and coolness. Another cutaneous
sensation, pain, usually is an indication of impending or actual tissue
damage. There is a wide variety of nerve endings and receptors
distributed throughout the skin; you have already read about the tactile
discs of the epidermis, the corpuscles of touch in the dermis,
and hair root plexuses around each hair follicle.
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THERMOREGULATION
The skin contributes to thermoregulation, the homeostatic regulation
of body temperature, in two ways: by liberating sweat at its surface and
by adjusting the flow of blood in the dermis. In response to high
environmental temperature or heat produced by exercise, sweat
production from eccrine sweat glands increases; the evaporation of
sweat from the skin surface helps lower body temperature. In addition,
blood vessels in the dermis of the skin dilate (become wider);
consequently, more blood flows through the dermis, which increases
the amount of heat loss from the body. In response to low
environmental temperature, production of sweat from eccrine sweat
glands is decreased, which helps conserve heat. Also, the blood
vessels in the dermis of the skin constrict (become narrow), which
decreases blood flow through the skin and reduces heat loss from the
body. In addition, skeletal muscle contractions generate body heat.
SYNTHESIS OF VITAMIN D
This requires activation of a precursor molecule in the skin by
ultraviolet (UV) rays in sunlight. Enzymes in the liver and kidneys then
modify the activated molecule, finally producing calcitriol, the most
active form of vitamin D.
Calcitriol is a hormone that aids in the absorption of calcium from
foods in the gastrointestinal tract into the blood. Only a small amount
of exposure to UV light (about 10 to 15 minutes at least twice a week)
is required for vitamin D synthesis. People who avoid sun exposure
and individuals who live in colder, northern climates may require
vitamin D supplements to avoid vitamin D deficiency. Most cells of the
immune system have vitamin D receptors and the cells activate vitamin
D in response to an infection, especially a respiratory infection, such
as influenza.
Vitamin D is believed to enhance phagocytic activity, increase the
production of antimicrobial substances by phagocytes, regulate
immune functions, and help reduce inflammation.
EXCRETION
The skin normally has a small role in excretion, the elimination of
substances from the body, and absorption, the passage of materials
from the external environment into body cells. Despite the almost
waterproof nature of the stratum corneum, about 400 mL of water
evaporates through it daily. A sedentary person loses an additional
200 mL per day as sweat; a physically active person loses much more.
Besides removing water and heat from the body, sweat also is the
vehicle for excretion of small amounts of salts, carbon dioxide, and two
organic molecules that result from the breakdown of proteins—
ammonia and urea.
©Sham Adato – BSPT 2023
SKIN PHYSIOLOGY
VASCULAR SUPPLY
The dermis contains several microvascular blood vessel plexuses and
lymphatic vessels that are parallel to the skin surface. (See FIGURE
1-1)
The larger arterioles and venules are in the deep reticular layer with
smaller vessels extending into the papillary layer and terminating in
capillary loops. Blood flow through the capillary loops is controlled by
highly innervated arterioles and their close proximity to the basement
membrane allows the blood supply to feed the deep keratinocytes of
the epidermis.
Between the larger deep plexus and the capillary loops are numerous
arteriovenous anastomoses or shunts that play a major role in
maintaining constant body temperature during hot and cold weather
conditions. Lymphatic terminal vessels are little sacs interspersed with
the capillary loops, controlled by a filament anchored to the connective
tissue. As the filament moves, it opens a flap to the lymphatic vessels,
thereby facilitating transport of excess interstitial fluid, protein
molecules, and fat molecules out of the dermis. (Refer to Chapter 5,
Lymphedema.)
NERVE SUPPLY
Because of its large and superficial surface area, the skin contains the
sensory receptors necessary for the body to process the external
environment. The nerve endings are either unencapsulated (have no
glial or collagenous covering) or encapsulated (have a covering of
glia and connective tissue capsules).
When the nerves cross the dermal/epidermal junction, they lose the
Schwann cell covering and exist in the epidermal pegs as free nerve
endings.
Also, in the granulosum basale are unencapsulated
mechanoreceptors termed tactile or Merkel cells. It is also thought
that in addition to external stimuli, the keratinocytes have a role in
stimulating the nerve receptors by the release of neuropeptides.
SKIN NUTRITION
Much has been written, and even more spent, on nutrients,
supplements, and topicals to maintain skin nutrition and ergo youth.
While there are no double-blind, placebo-controlled studies to support
what is call the “inside-out” approach to maintaining skin integrity,
there are certain vitamins and antioxidants that are known to play a
role in skin health, in large part by their antioxidant effects
SKIN RENEWAL
The skin continuously renews itself and forms new keratinocytes.
Fibroblasts are the main cells responsible for skin renewal and are
located in the dermis. They produce collagen that is needed for
synthesis for both fibroblasts and other cells in the body. (Joint
Cartilages)
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 WOUND HEALING
There are two kinds of wound-healing processes that can occur,
depending on the depth of the injury:
TYPES OF WOUND HEALING
Epidermal Wound Healing Deep Wound Healing
occurs following superficial occurs when an injury extends
wounds that affect only to the dermis and subcutaneous
the epidermis. layer.
SKIN LOSS
A manifestation that occurs when there is affectation of the superficial
and deep layer of the dermis.
Erosion is loss of the superficial epidermis only. No involvement of the
dermis. No bleeding but there will be redness as seen in the image
since it is close enough to the vessels in the dermal papillae and the
dermis. (ex. 1st degree burns, Stage 1 Pressure Ulcer, abrasions)
Partial Thickness Skin Loss is already loss of the epidermis and part
of the dermis. There would be bleeding. Examples include Stage 2
Pressure Ulcer, 2nd Degree Burns, Skin tears and deep abrasions.
Full Thickness Skin Loss involves the loss of the epidermis, dermis
and even extend to the subcutaneous tissue (sometimes the bone,
muscle and tendon). Examples include Stage 3 & 4 pressure ulcers,
surgical incisions, traumatic wound and necrotic tissue.
©Sham Adato – BSPT 2023
AGING
The integumentary system changes with age:
- Wrinkles develop. (lack of hydration)
- Dehydration and cracking occur.
- Sweat production decreases.
- A decrease in the numbers of functional
melanocytes results in grey hair and atypical skin
pigmentation.
- Subcutaneous fat is lost, and there is a general
decrease in skin thickness which results to skin
sagging.
- Nails may also become more brittle.
With age, there is also an increased susceptibility to pressure ulcers
(‘bed sores’)
SKIN CANCER
Excessive exposure to ultraviolet light (from the sun or tanning salons)
is the most common cause of skin cancer. The three major types are:
1. basal cell carcinoma
2. squamous cell carcinoma
3. malignant melanoma.
BURNS
A burn is tissue damage caused by excessive heat, electricity,
radioactivity, or corrosive chemicals that denature (destroy) the
proteins in the skin cells. Burns destroy some of the skin’s important
contributions to homeostasis—protection against microbial invasion
and dehydration, and regulation of body temperature
Burns are graded according to their severity.
FIRST DEGREE BURN
Involves only the epidermis. It is characterized by mild pain and
erythema (redness) but no blisters. Skin functions remain intact. The
pain and damage caused by a first-degree burn may be lessened by
immediately flushing it with cold water. Generally, a first-degree burn
will heal in about 3–6 days and may be accompanied by flaking or
peeling. One example of a first-degree burn is a mild
sunburn.
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 THE RULE OF NINES

SECOND DEGREE BURN

Destroys a portion of the epidermis and possibly parts of the
dermis. Some skin functions are lost. In a second-degree burn,
redness, blister formation, edema, and pain result.

(Blister formation is caused by separation of the epidermis from the

dermis due to the accumulation of tissue fluid between the layers.)
Associated structures, such as hair follicles, sebaceous glands, and
sweat glands, usually are not injured. If there is no infection, second-
degree burns heal without skin grafting in about 3–4 weeks, but
scarring may result.
First and second-degree burns are collectively referred to as partial-
thickness burns.
A quick means for estimating the surface area affected by a burn in
an adult is the rule of nines.
1. Count 9 percent if both the anterior and posterior
surfaces of the head and neck are affected.
2. Count 9 percent for both the anterior and posterior
surfaces of each upper limb (total of 18 percent for both
upper limbs).
3. Count four times nine or 36 percent for both the anterior
and posterior surfaces of the trunk, including the
buttocks.

4. Count 9 percent for the anterior and 9 percent for the

posterior surfaces of each lower limb as far up as the
buttocks (total of 36 percent for both lower limbs).

5. Count 1 percent for the perineum.

THIRD DEGREE BURN

Full-thickness burn, destroys a portion of the epidermis, the
underlying dermis, and associated structures.

Most skin functions are lost. Such burns vary in appearance from
marble-white to mahogany colored to charred, dry wounds. There is
marked edema, and the burned region is numb because sensory nerve
endings have been destroyed. Regeneration occurs slowly, and much
granulation tissue forms before being covered by epithelium. Skin
grafting may be required to promote healing and to minimize scarring.
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©Sham Adato – BSPT 2023