Yanet College

Hand Out For Level 3 & 4

Nursing Students

Providing Basic Nursing

Care

Microorganisms

A microbe or microorganism is a microscopic organism that comprises either a single cell

(unicellular); cell cluster or multicellular, relatively complex organisms. The study of
microorganism is called microbiology. Microbiology is a science defined by smallness. Its
creation was made possible by the invention of microscope (micro, small + skop, to look, see)
which allowed visualization of structure too small.

⚫ Types of Microorganisms
Based on morphological and functional properties microbes are grouped as:
⚫ Bacteria
⚫ Fungi
⚫ Algae
⚫ Protozoa
⚫ Viruses
Microorganism’s characteristics
⚫ Creatures that is not directly visible to the unaided eye.
⚫ They are large and diverse group
 ⚫ Nowhere is biologic diversity demonstrated more dramatically than by microorganisms
⚫ It has been estimated that 5 x 1030 microbial cells exist on earth.
⚫ Microorganisms may be: - Eukaryotes, Prokaryotes and other sub- cellular agents.
⚫ Microorganisms could be :-
⚫ Normal flora
⚫ Pathogenic
Habitat of Microorganisms: the place/environment where a microorganism normally lives is
known as Habitat.
o They are found everywhere in nature (air, water, food, soil, sewage, lakes, sea, etc.).
o They are also present in and on our body:
o on the skin and mucous membranes of gastrointestinal
o Urogenital, respiratory tracts and other parts of the body.
Note- the deeper sites of our body are normally free from normal microbial floras.
Medical Microbiology: Is the branch of microbiology that deals with the study of disease
producing microorganisms in human beings. It also includes prevention and control of the
disease.
Fields of Medical Microbiology
⚫ Bacteriology
⚫ Virology
⚫ Immunology
⚫ Mycology
⚫ Parasitology

Distinctive future of prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells

Cell component Prokaryotic Eukaryotic
Nuclease No membrane, single circular Membrane bounded, a number
chromosome of individual chromosomes
Extra chromosomal DNA Often present in form of In organelles
plasmid
Organelles in cytoplasm None Mitochondria (and
chloroplasts in photosynthetic
 organism)
Cell wall Rigid layer of peptidoglycan No peptidoglycan
Endoplasmic reticulum Absent Present

Bacteriology: study about bacteria

o Are relatively simple (smallest) in structure and independently living cell.
o They are unicellular, prokaryotic microorganisms with no true nucleus,
mitochondria, Golgi bodies, or endoplasmic reticulum.
o Reproduce by binary fission (asexual division).
o Contain rigid and complex cell wall, cytoplasmic membrane surrounded by cell
wall.
o Consisting of one of two basic forms: a gram-positive cell wall with a thick
peptidoglycan layer, and a gram-negative cell wall with a thin peptidoglycan
layer and an overlying outer membrane.
o Thousands of different bacterial species reside in body of man:-Some are living
transiently, others in a permanent parasitic relationship.
o Likewise, the environment that surrounds us, Including the air we breathe, water
we drink, and food we eat, is inhabited by bacteria,
o Many of which are relatively virulent and some of which are capable of producing
life-threatening disease.
o Disease can result from- the toxic effects of bacterial products (toxins) or when
bacteria inhabit normally sterile body sites.
Structure of Bacteria
 Bacterial structure is considered at three levels.
1. Cell envelope proper:
Cell wall and cell membrane
2. Cellular elements enclosed with in the cell envelope:
Cytoplasm ( Mesosomes, Ribosome, Polyamines & Granules) & nuclear material.
3. Cellular element external to the cell envelope (appendages) :
Flagellum, Pillus, capsule & slime layer
 3 Basic forms of bacterial shape
A. Cocci (coccus); spherical shaped bacteria
B. Bacilli (bacillus); rod shaped bacteria , stick appearance
 Coccobacilli (dwarf rods)
C. Spirilla (spirillum); spiral shaped bacteria
Benefits from bacteria includes:-
o Medical: production of antibiotics, hormone and vaccines.
o Food Production: cheese, yoghurt, vinegar.
o Our Health: mutualistic bacteria in our large intestine – vitamins B and D.
o Pollution Control: sewage treatment, bioremediation of polluted environments.
o Normal floras may prevent the colonization by pathogens by secreting inhibitory bi-
products & competing with pathogens for attachment sites & nutrient

Mycoplasma
 Mycoplasmas are tiny bacteria that lack cell wall but otherwise resemble bacteria. They
differ from viruses by having both DNA & RNA and by the ability to grow in cell-free
media.
 Evolutionary studies suggest they are derived from gram positive bacteria by reductive
evolution.
Characteristic of mycoplasma
 Very small in size
 Appear as coccoid bodies, filament & bottle-shaped form
 The cells are bounded only by a single trilaminar membrane which, unlike
bacteria contains sterol.
 Stain poorly or not stain.
NB. Mycoplasma pneumonia is second only to the pneumococcus as cause of community
acquired pneumonia.

Chlamydia
Chlamydias are obligate intracellular bacteria whose cell lack peptidoglycan in their cell
wall.
 Round cell between 0.3-1 nm in diameter.
  Their envelope is gram negative type
 They lack thin peptidoglycan layer between outer and plasma membrane.
 Three of the 9 species cause disease in humans.
 Chlamydia trachomatis is most important human pathogen as a major cause of genital
infection and conjunctivitis.
 A chronic form of C.trachomatis conjunctivitis called trachoma is leading preventable
cause of blindness in the world.

Rickettsia
 They are small coccobacilli which measure 0.3-05 nm
 Although the gram reaction is negative rickettsia take the usual bacterial stain poorly.
 They can grow only in living eukaryotic cells
 Chemically, the cell wall contains lipopolysaccharide and at least two large proteins in
the outer membrane, as well as peptidoglycan.
 Most rickettsia have animal reservoirs and are spread by ticks, lice, flea,a or mites which
are prominent components of their life cycle.

Actinomycetes
 The actinomycetes are large and heterogeneous group of gram positive filamentous
bacilli.
 These are traditionally considered to be transitional form between bacteria and fungi.
However they are actually true bacteria.
 They are non-motile, non-sporing, non capsulates filaments and mostly free living in
nature particularly in soil.

Mycology: study about fungi: - In contrast to bacteria, the cellular structure of fungi is more
complex.
o These are eukaryotic organisms
o Can exist either in: - unicellular form (yeast) that can replicate asexually (budding) and
in a filamentous form (mold) that can replicate asexually and sexually.
o Most fungi exist as:-Either yeasts or molds. However, some fungi can assume either
morphology at different ranges of temperature. These are known as dimorphic fungi.
o A disease that is caused by fungal infection is called Mycosis.
Morphology
• Two morphological forms of fungi are observed
• Hypha: this is the basic element of filamentous fungi with a branched, tubular
structure, 2–10 um in width.
• Yeast: the basic element of the unicellular fungi. It is round to oval and 3– 10 um in
diameter. Several elongated yeast cells chained together and resembling true hyphae are
called pseudohyphae.
• Mycelium: this is the web or mat like structure of hyphae..
• Dimorphic pathogenic fungi take the form of yeast cells in the parasitic stage and appear
as mycelia in the saprophytic stage.

Function of fungi
o As food play a role in human nutrition in the form of Mushrooms and also as agent
of fermentation in the production of bread, cheeses, alcoholic beverages, and
numerous other food preparation.
o Metabolites of fungi are used as medicines, such as antibiotics and anticoagulant.
o They are primary decomposers of substances in the ecological system.
o Together with bacteria, fungi are responsible for breaking down organic matter and
release carbon, oxygen, nitrogen and phosphorus into the soil and the atmosphere.
Virology: deals about virus
o They are the smallest from all infectious particles
o They are obligate intracellular microbes.
o They replicate obligately inside host cells by exploiting living cells
based on the information in the viral genome.
o More than 1550 species of viruses have been described, and many are associated
with human disease.
o Viruses consist of: - either deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) or ribonucleic acid (RNA) (but
not both) and May also contain proteins required for replication and pathogenesis.
o These components are then enclosed in a protein coat with or without a lipid
membrane coat.
Viruses differ widely from other microorganisms in a number of characteristics:
⚫ Viruses are inert (nucleoprotein ) filterable Agents
⚫ Viruses are obligate intracellular parasites
⚫ Viruses cannot make energy or proteins independent of a host cell
⚫ Viral genomes are RNA or DNA but not both.
⚫ Viruses have a naked capsid or envelope with attached proteins
⚫ Viruses do not have the genetic capability to multiply by division.
⚫ Viruses are non-living entities because they do not respire, do not move, do not grow,
but there is a challenge in defining life in this situation because they do most certainly
reproduce, and may adapt to new hosts.
Size of Viruses
 A small virus has a diameter of about 20nm.
 e .g: Parvovirus
 A large virus has a diameter of up to 400nm.
 E. g: Poxviruses
 Bacteria usually has a size ranging from 500nm up to 5000nm ( 0. 5um - 5um)
A mature virus particle is also known as a virion. It consists of either two or three
basic components.
i. Genome (central nuclic acid)
ii. Capsid
iii. an envelope ; optional
o The steps in viral replication are as follows:
• Adsorption / attachment of the virus to specific receptors on the cell surface.
• Penetration by the virus and intracellular release of nucleic acid.
• Proliferation of the viral components: virus-coded synthesis of capsid and non-
capsid proteins, replication of nucleic acid by viral and cellular enzymes.
• Assembly of replicated nucleic acid and new capsid protein.
• Release of virus progeny from the cell.

Parasitology
 The study of parasite and their interaction with the
host.
 Parasite: - is a plant or animal which lives up on or with in another living organism
(the host) at the expense or to obtains some advantage without compensation.
 Host: - It is an organism which provides protection and nourishment for the parasite.

Major groups of human parasites

1. Protozoa (Protozology)
2. Helminthes ( helminthologly)
3. Arthropods ( medical entomology)

Protozoan

 The protozoa are a microscopic, one celled (unicellular) organism they are the simplest
forms of animal life.
 Several species of protozoa are found in to intestinal tract and few of
them invade different part of human body. E.g. blood, tissue, internal organs.
 The protozoa are classified biologically according to their type of locomotory organelles
or according to their habitat in the body of the host
Locomotory organelles Habitat
 Ameba- pseudopodia - Intestinal protozoa
 Flagellate - Tissue protozoa
 Ciliate - Blood protozoa
 Helminthology

 The word “Helminthes” (Greek Helmins) means “Worm”. Helminthology is the study of
parasitic worms which are found on or in animals.
 Medical Helminthology:-is restricted to the study of those helminthes which is parasitizing
to man.
 Helminths or parasitic worms are multicellular, bilaterally symmetrical, elongated, flat or
round animals, helminthes which occur as parasites in humans belong to two phyla;

1. Phylum – Platy helminthes (Flat – Worm)

2. Phylum – Nemat helminthes (cylindrical worm)

Flat – Worm Cylindrical worm

Immunology:
o The study of immune system or immunity. The human body has the ability to resist almost
all types of organisms or toxins that tend to damage the tissues and organs. This capability
is called immunity.
 Immunity; State of protection from infectious diseases.
 The study of all aspects of host defense against infection and of adverse consequences
of immune responses.
 The study of the physiological mechanisms which enable the body to recognize
materials
as foreign and to neutralize, metabolize or eliminate them without injury to the host
tissue.
  Immune system protects against exogenous substances, microbial invasion & tumors.
 The human body is remarkably adapted to controlling exposure to pathogenic microbes.
 Physical barriers(skin and mucous membrane)prevent invasion by the microbe
 Unfortunately, the immune response is often too late or too slow.
 Infections can also be controlled with a variety of chemotherapeutic agents.
 Unfortunately, many microbes can alter their antigenic complexion (antigenic variation) or
Develop resistance to even the most potent antibiotics.
 Thus, the battle for control between microbe and host continues, with neither side yet able
to claim victory (although the microbes have demonstrated remarkable ingenuity).

Two type of immunity

1.Innate immunity: or natural immunity results from general processes, rather than
from processes directed at specific disease organisms.
o It includes the following:
o Phagocytosis of bacteria and other invaders by white blood cells and cells of the
tissue macrophage system,
o Destruction of swallowed organisms by the acid secretions of the stomach and the
digestive enzymes.
o Resistance of the skin to invasion by organisms.

2.Acquired (Adaptive) Immunity: does not develop until after the body is first attacked
by a bacterium, virus, or toxin, often requiring weeks or months to develop the immunity.
o Acquired immunity is caused by a special immune system that forms antibodies and/or
activated lymphocytes that attack and destroy the specific invading organism or toxin.
 o Vaccination is the administration of any vaccine or toxoid for prevention of disease.
o Immunization is inducing immunity against specific disease.
o Antigen(Ag)- a protein, when introduced into tissues stimulates antibody production.
o Antibody(Ab)- a protein substance produced as a result of antigenic stimulation.
Maternally acquired antibody
o In the first few months of life, protection is afforded by maternally derived antibodies
acquired by placental transfer and by colostral( milk) immunoglobulins (Igs).
o The major Ig in both colostrum and milk is secretory IgA, which is not absorbed by
the baby but remains in the intestine to protect the mucosal surfaces.