JATIYA KABI KAZI NAZRUL ISLAM UNIVERSITY

TRISHAL, MYMENSINGH

Environmental Biology Lab Report

Course Title: Environmental Biology-Lab
Course Code: ESE-1204

Submitted To
F.K. Sayema Tanzia
Assistant Professor
Dept. of Environmental Science & Engineering
Jatiya Kabi Kazi Nazrul Islam University

Submitted By
Md. Jakir Hossain
1st year, 2nd Semester
Session: 2021-22
Roll No: 22103437
Reg No: 10928
Dept. of Environmental Science & Engineering
Jatiya Kabi Kazi Nazrul Islam University

Submission Date: 22 February 2024

Acknowledgment
First of all, I would like to pay my grant thanks to Almighty for giving me a
chance to attend Environmental Biology Laboratory Class.
I would like to express my best regards to my honorable teacher, F. K. Sayema
Tanzia, Dept. of Environmental science and Engineering (ESE) at Jatiya Kabi
Kazi Nazrul Islam University (JKKNIU) who supervised the entire study very
cordially and also encourages, advice and direct us during preparation this
laboratory report work and also thanks her for her scholarly guidance, sincere
inspiration and generous support.
Md. Jakir Hossain
Roll No: 22103437

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 Table of Contents
SI No Name of the Topic Page No
1 Abstract 4
2 Introduction 5

Biological Science Laboratory

• Lab Aprons
• Microscopes
• Incubators
• Autoclaves
3 • Centrifuges 6-9
• Spectrophotometers
• Petri Dishes
• Pipettes
• pH Meter
• Fume Hood

Herbarium Sheet Preparation

• Collection
• Preparation
• Preservation
4 10-11
• Mounting
• Labeling
• Storage
• Identification
Study of Algae
• Characteristics of Algae
5 • Types of Algae 12-14
• Functions of Algae
• Environmental Impact
Study of Fungi
• Characteristics of Fungi
6 • Types of Fungi 15-17
• Functions of Fungi
• Environmental Impact
Study of Lichen
• Characteristics of Lichen
7 • Types of Lichen 18-20
• Functions of Lichen
• Environmental Impact
Demarcation of Phytoplankton
• Characteristics
8 20-22
• Types
• Functions
Demarcation of Zooplankton
• Characteristics
9 22-23
• Types
• Functions
10 Laboratory Awareness 24-26
11 Conclusion 27
12 Reference 27

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 Figure Contents

Figure No Name of Figure Content Page No

01 Lab Aprons 7
02 Microscopes 7
03 Incubators 7
04 Autoclaves 8
05 Centrifuges 8
06 Spectrophotometer 8
07 Petri Dishes 8
08 Pipettes 9
09 pH Meter 9
10 Fume Hood 9
11 Types of Algae 13
12 Types of Fungi 16
13 Lichen Verite’s 18
14 Types of Phytoplankton 21
15 Types of Zooplankton 23
16 Laboratory Environment 24
17 Chemical Safety 25
18 Personal Protective Equipment 26

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Abstract
Biological science, also known as biology, is the branch of science that deals with the study of
living organisms and their interactions with each other and their environments. It encompasses
a wide range of topics, including genetics, evolution, physiology, ecology, and more. Biological
science seeks to understand the fundamental principles that govern life and the mechanisms
underlying various biological processes.
A biological science laboratory is a facility equipped with specialized instruments and
equipment used for conducting experiments and research in various fields of biology. These
laboratories are essential for conducting hands-on experiments, collecting data, analyzing
samples, and testing hypotheses. Biological science laboratories may vary in size and
complexity depending on the specific research being conducted, ranging from small academic
labs to large research institutions.
This Lab Report is all about our Laboratory Work. The Biological Science Laboratory serves
as an essential component of scientific education, providing students with hands-on experience
and practical skills in the field of biology. Through a combination of experiments,
demonstrations, and data analysis, students gain a deeper understanding of biological concepts
and principles. This introduction aims to outline the purpose, structure, and benefits of the
biological science laboratory.
The primary purpose of the biological science laboratory is to complement theoretical
knowledge with practical experience. It offers students the opportunity to apply scientific
methods, techniques, and principles learned in lectures to real-world scenarios. Additionally,
the laboratory fosters critical thinking, problem-solving, and teamwork skills essential for
success in scientific research and professional endeavors.
In a laboratory, it’s important to have quality and reliable equipment that can be relied on.

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Introduction
Biology is a science that studies the natural world. It is a broad field that includes everything
from the study of plants and animals to the study of the environment and human health. There
are a number of different branches of biology, including cell biology, molecular biology, and
biochemistry.

Algae, fungi, and lichens are integral components of ecosystems, contributing to nutrient
cycling, primary production, decomposition, and ecological balance. Algae are a diverse group
of photosynthetic organisms that can be found in various aquatic environments like oceans,
lakes, and rivers, as well as in moist terrestrial habitats.

They are primary producers, meaning they form the base of many food chains by converting
sunlight into energy through photosynthesis. This makes them crucial in aquatic ecosystems
and contributes to global oxygen production. Algae also play a vital role in nutrient cycling, as
they can absorb nutrients like nitrogen and phosphorus from their surroundings, helping to
maintain the balance of these elements in ecosystems. Fungi are a diverse group of organisms
that play essential roles in nutrient cycling and decomposition. They are found in various
habitats, including soil, water, and living organisms.
In this first theme of Environmental Biology, we examine why an understanding of our species
is essential to understanding and conserving the diversity of life.
A lab experiment is a type of scientific experiment that is performed in a controlled
environment. For example, you might conduct a lab experiment to see if a certain drug works
better than another drug. Another common type of experiment in biology is called an animal
experiment. An animal experiment is a type of scientific experiment that involves an animal
(such as a mouse or rat). In animal experiments, you want to see if the animal responds
differently to different stimuli. There are also many other types of experiments in biology, such
as field studies and human studies.

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Biological Sciences Laboratory
The biological science laboratory is a vital part of science instruction since it gives students
real-world experience and useful biology skills. Students have a greater comprehension of
biological concepts and principles through a combination of experiments, demonstrations, and
data analysis. The goal of this introduction is to provide an overview of the benefits, goals, and
organization of the biological science laboratory.
The biological science laboratory's main goal is to supplement theory knowledge with real-
world experience. It gives students the chance to apply the scientific concepts, procedures, and
methodologies they have acquired in lectures to actual situations. The lab also develops critical
thinking, problem-solving, and collaborative abilities that are necessary for success in
professional and scientific pursuits.
An introduction to a biological science laboratory typically involves familiarizing students with
the equipment, safety protocols, and basic procedures they will encounter during their
laboratory work. Here's a basic outline of what might be covered:
• Laboratory Safety: Emphasize the importance of safety precautions in the lab,
including proper handling of chemicals, use of personal protective equipment (PPE)
such as lab coats, gloves, and safety goggles, as well as emergency procedures like
evacuation routes and equipment shutdown protocols.
• Laboratory Equipment: Introduce students to common laboratory equipment such as
microscopes, centrifuges, pipettes, beakers, test tubes, and petri dishes. Explain the
purpose of each piece of equipment and demonstrate how to use them properly.
• Experimental Techniques: Teach students fundamental experimental techniques such
as pipetting, measuring volumes, making dilutions, preparing solutions, and using
microscopes to observe specimens.
• Laboratory Notebooks: Stress the importance of keeping detailed and accurate
records of experimental procedures, observations, and results in laboratory notebooks.
Emphasize the importance of good record-keeping for reproducibility and scientific
integrity.
• Experimental Design: Introduce students to the principles of experimental design,
including the formulation of testable hypotheses, the selection of appropriate controls,
and the proper use of replicates and controls to ensure reliable results.
• Data Analysis: Teach students how to analyze experimental data using basic statistical
techniques such as calculating means, standard deviations, and performing t-tests or
ANOVA for hypothesis testing.
• Ethical Considerations: Discuss the ethical considerations involved in biological
research, including the responsible use of animals and human subjects, the proper
disposal of biological waste, and the importance of integrity and honesty in scientific
research.
• Introduction to Lab Projects: Provide an overview of the projects or experiments that
students will be conducting in the laboratory throughout the course. Explain the goals
of each project and how they relate to the broader concepts being covered in the course.
• Q&A Session: Encourage students to ask questions and clarify any doubts they may
have about laboratory procedures, safety protocols, or experimental techniques.

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Instruments of Biological Sciences Laboratory
The instrument in a laboratory is just as important as the chemicals and reagents that are used
in it. The right lab instrument can make the process of working with solids, liquids, and gases
easier, quicker, and more efficient.
Lab instrument names and pictures list will help you navigate through your first-time shopping
for lab supplies. In a laboratory, it’s important to have quality and reliable instrument that can
be relied on. Lab instrument names and pictures will help you recognize different types of lab
instrument more quickly. Now, we know about common types of lab instrument:

Lab Aprons

The lab aprons have a chemical resistant PVC-coated fabric which stays
flexible. There is reinforcement at the points of strain. Aprons include
cloth ties at the neck and waist.
Fig-01: Lab Apron
Microscopes

Microscopes are indispensable tools in any microbiology lab. They

allow scientists to observe microorganisms that are too small to be seen
with the naked eye. Microscopes come in various types, such as
compound microscopes, digital microscopes and fluorescent
microscopes. These instruments enable researchers to visualize the
morphology and structure of microorganisms, aiding in their
identification and classification.

Fig-02: Microscope

Incubators

Laboratory Incubators are used to create and maintain optimal

temperature and environmental conditions for the growth of
microorganisms. They provide a controlled environment that promotes
the cultivation of bacteria, fungi, and other microorganisms. Incubators
are equipped with temperature controls, humidity control, and
adjustable shelves to accommodate different types of cultures.

Fig-03: Incubator

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Autoclaves

Autoclaves are essential instruments for sterilizing equipment and

media in a microbiology lab. They use high-pressure steam to kill
microorganisms, including bacteria, viruses, and spores. Autoclaves
ensure that the lab's tools, such as glassware, pipettes, and media, are
free from any contaminating microorganisms, minimizing the risk of
cross-contamination and ensuring accurate experimental results.

Fig-04: Autoclave

Centrifuges

Centrifuges are used to separate substances based on their density

using centrifugal force. In a microbiology lab, centrifuges are
commonly used to separate microbial cells from culture media or to
isolate specific components, such as DNA or proteins. By spinning
samples at high speeds, centrifuges allow scientists to collect
microorganisms or their components for further analysis.
Fig-05: Centrifuges

Spectrophotometers

Spectrophotometers are instruments that measure the intensity of light

transmitted or absorbed by a substance. In a microbiology
lab, Spectrophotometers are used to determine the concentration of
microbial cultures, assess their growth rates, and monitor enzyme
activities. These instruments provide quantitative data, allowing
researchers to analyze and compare different samples accurately.
Fig-06: Spectrophotometer

Petri Dishes

Petri dishes are shallow, flat, cylindrical glass or plastic containers

with lids. They are widely used in microbiology labs for culturing
microorganisms. Petri dishes contain a solid growth medium, such as
agar, which provides a nutrient-rich environment for the growth of
bacteria, fungi, or other microorganisms. Researchers can streak or
spread a microbial sample onto the agar surface and observe the
formation of colonies, helping in the isolation and identification of
specific microorganisms.
Fig-07: Petri
Dish

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Pipettes

Pipettes are precise measuring instruments used in microbiology labs

to transfer small volumes of liquids. They come in different forms,
such as micropipettes and serological pipettes, and are essential for
accurately dispensing reagents, microbial cultures, or samples during
experiments. Pipettes enable researchers to handle small quantities
with precision and reduce the risk of contamination or error in
measurements.
Fig-08: Pipettes

pH Meter

A pH meter, also known as a pH tester or pH monitor, is a scientific

instrument used to measure the acidity or alkalinity (pH) of a liquid.
It is commonly used in various fields such as chemistry, biology,
environmental science, agriculture, and food science for monitoring
and controlling pH levels in solutions. Overall, pH meters are
essential tools for measuring and monitoring pH levels in various
liquids, providing valuable information for research, quality
control, process monitoring, and environmental testing.
Fig-09: pH Meter

Fume Hood

A fume hood, also known as a fume cupboard or fume cabinet, is a type of laboratory
equipment designed to provide a safe working environment for
handling hazardous or noxious chemicals. Fume hoods are
essential in laboratories where chemical reactions, experiments,
and manipulations are performed that may produce harmful
fumes, vapors, or gases. Overall, fume hoods play a critical role
in laboratory safety by providing a controlled environment for
working with hazardous chemicals and minimizing the risk of
exposure to harmful fumes and vapors. Proper use and
maintenance of fume hoods are essential to ensure their
effectiveness in protecting laboratory personnel and the Fig-10: Fume Hood
surrounding environment.

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Herbarium Sheet Preparation
An herbarium sheet is a standardized format used in botanical collections to preserve and store
plant specimens for scientific study, research, and reference. It consists of a single sheet of
heavy paper or cardstock onto which a dried plant specimen is mounted, along with
accompanying labels providing essential information about the specimen. Preparing a
herbarium sheet involves several steps to ensure the proper collection, preservation, mounting,
and labeling of plant specimens. Here are the main steps involved in preparing a herbarium
sheet:

1. Collection: The first step is to collect a plant specimen from its natural habitat. This
involves identifying the plant, selecting a healthy and representative specimen, and
documenting relevant information such as location, habitat, and associated species.
2. Pressing: After collection, the plant specimen is carefully pressed to remove moisture
and flatten it for mounting. This is typically done using a plant press or by placing the
specimen between sheets of absorbent paper and applying pressure using weights or
straps. The pressed specimen is left to dry for several days to several weeks.
3. Mounting: Once dried, the pressed plant specimen is mounted onto a herbarium sheet
using archival-quality adhesive or glue. The specimen is arranged on the sheet in a
standardized format, with the stem, leaves, flowers, and fruits spread out and arranged
in a natural position for identification and study.
4. Labeling: Each herbarium sheet is accompanied by one or more labels providing
essential information about the collected specimen. This information typically
includes the scientific name (genus and species), collector's name, collection date,
location (including geographical coordinates if available), habitat, elevation, and any
additional notes or observations about the specimen.
5. Drying and Preservation: After mounting and labeling, the herbarium sheet is
allowed to dry completely to ensure that the specimen is preserved for long-term
storage. The sheet is then placed in a protective sleeve or folder made of acid-free and
archival-quality materials to shield it from light, dust, and physical damage while
allowing easy access for study and handling.
6. Storage: Finally, the prepared herbarium sheet is stored in a large cabinet or drawer
specifically designed for herbarium collections. The cabinets are usually organized
systematically, with specimens arranged alphabetically, by family, or by other
taxonomic criteria for efficient retrieval and reference.
7. Identification: Identifying plant specimens on herbarium sheets involves several
steps:

• Visual Examination: Start by examining the physical characteristics of the

specimen, such as leaf shape, flower structure, and overall morphology.
• Consulting Reference Materials: Use botanical keys, field guides, and
taxonomic databases to compare the specimen's features with known plant
species.

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• Microscopic Analysis: Sometimes, microscopic examination of pollen grains,
leaf hairs, or other structures is necessary for accurate identification.
• Comparative Analysis: Compare the specimen with similar species,
considering geographic location, habitat, and ecological preferences.
• Expert Consultation: If uncertain, seek guidance from experienced botanists
or taxonomists who specialize in the relevant plant group.
• Documentation: Record detailed observations, measurements, and
characteristics of the specimen for future reference.

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Study of Algae

Algae, a diverse group of photosynthetic organisms, play crucial roles in aquatic ecosystems,
contributing to oxygen production, nutrient cycling, and food webs. This lab report aims to
explore the taxonomy, diversity, and ecological significance of algae. Algae are a diverse group
of photosynthetic organisms that can be found in various aquatic environments, including
freshwater, marine habitats, and even damp soil.
Characteristics of Algae
▪ Photosynthetic Organisms: Algae are primarily autotrophic, meaning they produce
their own food through photosynthesis.
▪ Diversity: Algae encompass a wide range of organisms, from unicellular to
multicellular forms. They include green algae, red algae, brown algae, and diatoms,
among others.
▪ Habitats: Algae can be found in diverse habitats, including oceans, rivers, lakes, ponds,
and even on damp surfaces such as rocks, tree trunks, and soil. They play a crucial role
in aquatic ecosystems as primary producers.
▪ Cell Structure: Algal cells can vary in complexity. Some are unicellular, such as
Chlorella and diatoms, while others are multicellular, forming colonies or filaments.
▪ Reproduction: Algae reproduce through various mechanisms, including asexual
reproduction (binary fission, fragmentation) and sexual reproduction (fusion of
gametes).
▪ Pigments: Algae contain various pigments besides chlorophyll, such as carotenoids and
phycobilin’s. These pigments give algae their characteristic colors, ranging from green
to red, brown, or golden.
▪ Ecological Importance: Algae are critical components of aquatic food webs, providing
food and oxygen for many organisms. They also contribute to nutrient cycling and play
a vital role in carbon sequestration.

Understanding these characteristics helps elucidate the diverse roles algae play in ecosystems
and their significance for human society.
Types of Algae
Algae are classified into several groups based on their pigmentation, cellular organization, and
other features. The main groups include

▪ Green algae (Chlorophyta): These are mostly freshwater algae but can also be found
in marine environments and damp soil.

▪ Red algae (Rhodophyta): Typically found in marine environments, red algae are
known for their red pigmentation due to the presence of phycoerythrin’s.

▪ Brown algae (Phaeophyta): Primarily marine algae, they are often large and include
kelp and seaweeds.

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 ▪ Diatoms (Bacillariophyta): These are unicellular or colonial algae with intricate silica
cell walls, commonly found in both marine and freshwater habitats.

▪ Golden algae (Cryophyte): Often unicellular, they possess yellowish or golden-brown

pigments and can be found in both freshwater and marine environments.

▪ Dinoflagellates (Dinophyte): Single-celled algae with two flagella, commonly found

in marine environments; some are photosynthetic, while others are heterotrophic.

▪ Euglenophyta (Euglenoids): Single-celled algae with a unique structure called a

pellicle, which allows them to change shape. They are often found in freshwater
habitats.

Fig-11: Types of Algae

Functions of Algae

Algae perform a variety of functions in ecosystems, contributing to both ecological balance

and human welfare. Here are the functions of algae in detail

• Primary Production: Algae are primary producers, converting solar energy into
organic matter through photosynthesis.
• Oxygen Production: Through photosynthesis, algae release oxygen into the
environment, contributing significantly to the oxygen content of aquatic habitats.
• Carbon Sequestration: Algae absorb carbon dioxide (CO2) from the atmosphere
during photosynthesis, helping to mitigate climate change by sequestering carbon. They
store carbon in their biomass and in sediment layers when they die and decompose.

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 • Nutrient Cycling: Algae participate in nutrient cycling by assimilating nutrients such
as nitrogen, phosphorus, and trace elements from the water. When algae die and
decompose, they release these nutrients back into the environment, making them
available for other organisms.
• Habitat and Shelter: Algae provide habitats and shelter for various aquatic organisms,
including microorganisms, invertebrates, and small fish.
• Erosion Control: Algae, particularly macroalgae like seaweeds, can help stabilize
coastal ecosystems and prevent erosion. Their dense growth and root-like structures
anchor sediment and reduce the impact of wave action, protecting shorelines and coastal
habitats.

Environmental Impact

The importance of algae spans ecological, economic, and scientific realms, making them
indispensable components of various ecosystems and human societies.

• Algae are significant contributors to the oxygen content of the atmosphere and aquatic
environments.
• Algae play a role in mitigating climate change by sequestering carbon dioxide (CO2)
from the atmosphere. They absorb CO2 during photosynthesis and store carbon in their
biomass, helping to reduce greenhouse gas concentrations.
• Algae participate in nutrient cycling by assimilating nutrients such as nitrogen and
phosphorus from their surroundings. When algae die and decompose, they release these
nutrients back into the environment, contributing to nutrient recycling.
• Certain types of algae have the ability to improve water quality by filtering pollutants
and absorbing excess nutrients.
• Algae have immense potential for various biotechnological applications. They are used
in the production of biofuels, bioplastics, pharmaceuticals, cosmetics, and nutritional
supplements, offering sustainable alternatives to fossil fuels and synthetic materials.
• Excessive growth of algae, fueled by nutrient pollution from sources like agricultural
runoff and wastewater, can lead to eutrophication.
• Eutrophication is the process by which water bodies become enriched with nutrients,
particularly nitrogen and phosphorus, leading to an overgrowth of algae and other
aquatic plants.
• This can result in decreased water quality, harmful algal blooms, and disruptions to
aquatic ecosystems, including fish kills and loss of biodiversity.

Overall, the importance of algae transcends individual ecosystems, impacting global

biogeochemical cycles, human nutrition, industry, and scientific advancement. Understanding
and conserving algae are essential for maintaining ecosystem health, biodiversity, and human
well-being in the face of environmental challenges.

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Study of Fungi

The study of fungi, known as mycology, explores the fascinating world of organisms like
molds, yeasts, and mushrooms. Fungi play critical roles in ecosystems, medicine, food
production, and industry. From decomposition to symbiotic relationships, their diverse
functions make them integral to life on Earth.

Characteristics of Fungi
• Eukaryotic: Fungi are multicellular organisms with complex cellular structures,
including a nucleus and organelles enclosed within membranes.
• Heterotrophic: Fungi obtain nutrients by absorbing organic matter from their
environment. They secrete enzymes to break down complex molecules into simpler
forms that can be absorbed through their cell walls.
• Cell wall composition: Unlike plants, fungi have cell walls primarily made of chitin, a
tough polysaccharide. This provides structural support and protection.
• Reproduction: Fungi reproduce sexually or asexually. Sexual reproduction involves the
fusion of specialized reproductive cells called gametes, while asexual reproduction
occurs through the production of spores.
• Symbiotic relationships: Fungi form symbiotic associations with other organisms, such
as mycorrhizal fungi that form mutualistic relationships with plant roots, aiding in
nutrient uptake, and lichens, which are partnerships between fungi and algae or
cyanobacteria.

Understanding these characteristics helps researchers appreciate the complexity and

importance of fungi in various aspects of life.

Types of Fungi

Fungi encompass a diverse range of organisms, including:

• Mycorrhizae: Mycorrhizae are symbiotic associations between fungi and plant

roots. These fungi enhance nutrient uptake by the plant, particularly phosphorus and
nitrogen, in exchange for carbohydrates produced by the plant through
photosynthesis.
• Zygomycetes: Zygomycetes are a diverse group of fungi characterized by the
formation of zygospores during sexual reproduction. They include molds like
Rhizopus spp., which are commonly found in soil and decaying organic matter.
• Ascomycetes: Ascomycetes are a large and diverse group of fungi that produce
spores in sac-like structures called asci. They include molds like Penicillium spp.,
yeast species like Saccharomyces cerevisiae, and morels and truffles, which are
prized as gourmet fungi.

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 • Basidiomycetes: Basidiomycetes are another diverse group of fungi that produce
spores on club-shaped structures called basidia. They include mushrooms like
Agaricus Bosporus and wood-decay fungi like Ganoderma spp.

Fig-12: Types of Fungi

Functions of Fungi

Fungi perform numerous functions that are essential for ecosystems, human societies, and the
environment:

• Decomposition: Fungi play a crucial role in breaking down dead organic matter, such
as leaves, wood, and animal remains.

• Nutrient cycling: By decomposing organic matter, fungi release nutrients such as

carbon, nitrogen, and phosphorus back into the soil, making them available for plant
uptake. This process is vital for maintaining soil fertility and ecosystem health.

• Plant pathology: While some fungi are beneficial to plants, others are pathogens that
cause diseases in crops, trees, and ornamental plants. Fungal diseases can lead to
significant agricultural losses and impact food security.

• Bioremediation: Certain fungi have the ability to degrade or detoxify environmental

pollutants, including pesticides, petroleum products, and industrial waste. They can be
used in bioremediation efforts to clean up contaminated sites and restore ecosystems.

• Food production: Fungi are integral to food production processes. Yeasts, such as
Saccharomyces cerevisiae, are used in fermentation to produce bread, beer, wine, and
other fermented foods.

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Environmental Impact

Fungi are crucial for maintaining ecosystem health by decomposing organic matter, recycling
nutrients, and forming symbiotic relationships with plants. They contribute to soil fertility,
water retention, and overall ecosystem resilience.

• Fungi play dual roles in agriculture. Beneficial fungi form mycorrhizal associations
with plant roots, improving nutrient uptake and enhancing plant growth.

• Fungi produce a plethora of bioactive compounds with medicinal properties.

Antibiotics like penicillin and cephalosporin have revolutionized medicine by
combating bacterial infections.

• Biotechnology: Fungi have diverse industrial applications in biotechnology. They are

used in enzyme production for various industrial processes, including food processing,
textile manufacturing, and biofuel production.

• Fungi also play a role in bioremediation, wastewater treatment, and the production of
bio-based materials.

• Environmental sustainability: Fungi contribute to environmental sustainability through

bioremediation, the process of using living organisms to degrade or detoxify
environmental pollutants.
• Some fungi are pathogens that cause diseases in plants, animals, and humans. For
example, fungi like Candida albicans can cause infections in humans, while plant
pathogens like Fusarium and Phytophthora can devastate crops.

• Fungal diseases can lead to reduced agricultural yields, economic losses, and threats to
food security. They can also cause health issues in humans and animals, ranging from
mild infections to life-threatening illnesses.

• Fungi are responsible for the decomposition of organic matter, including food items.
While this is essential for nutrient recycling in ecosystems, it can lead to food spoilage
and economic losses in agriculture, food processing, and storage industries.

• Mold growth on food products can produce toxins (mycotoxins) that pose health risks
to consumers if ingested.

Overall, the importance of fungi cannot be overstated. They are integral to ecosystems,
agriculture, medicine, industry, and scientific research, highlighting their diverse roles and
contributions to human society and the environment.

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Study of Lichen
The study of lichens, called lichenology, explores the symbiotic relationship between fungi and
algae or cyanobacteria. Lichens are fascinating organisms that thrive in diverse environments
and have ecological, medicinal, and cultural significance. They serve as indicators of
environmental health and play essential roles in nutrient cycling and soil formation.
Characteristics of Lichen

• Thallus Structure: They have a thallus structure, which is the body of the lichen. Thalli
can vary greatly in shape, size, and color.

• Environmental Adaptability: Lichens can survive in a wide range of environments,

from polar regions to deserts, and from rocky surfaces to tree bark.

• Slow Growth: Lichens grow very slowly, often just a few millimeters per year, making
them long-lived organisms.

• Reproduction: Lichens reproduce both sexually (by producing spores) and asexually
(by propagules such as sporidia or isidia).

• Sensitive Bioindicators: They are sensitive to environmental changes and are used as
bioindicators for air quality, pollution levels, and habitat disturbance.

• Chemical Diversity: Lichens produce a variety of secondary metabolites, some of

which have medicinal, antimicrobial, or dyeing properties.

Fig-13: Lichen Verite’s

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Function of Lichen
• Primary Succession: Lichens are often the first colonizers of bare rock surfaces,
contributing to soil formation and initiating the process of primary succession.
• Habitat Provision: They create microhabitats for other organisms by trapping moisture
and organic matter, providing shelter and nutrients for small invertebrates and
microorganisms.
• Nutrient Cycling: Lichens contribute to nutrient cycling by fixing atmospheric
nitrogen and weathering rock surfaces, releasing minerals that can be utilized by other
organisms.
• Soil Stabilization: Lichens help stabilize soils and prevent erosion, particularly in
harsh environments like deserts and polar regions.
• Food Source: Lichens are an essential food source for various animals, including
reindeer, caribou, and some insects, especially during winter when other food sources
are scarce.
• Air Quality Indicators: Because they are sensitive to air pollution, lichens serve as
bioindicators of air quality, helping scientists monitor environmental pollution levels.
• Medicinal and Cultural Uses: Some lichens have medicinal properties and are used
in traditional medicine for treating various ailments. Additionally, lichens have cultural
significance in many indigenous communities worldwide.

Environmental Impact

• Ecological Significance: Lichens play crucial roles in ecosystem functioning, such as

soil formation, nutrient cycling, and habitat provision. They are pioneers in colonizing
harsh environments and contribute to the establishment of other plant species.

• Bioindicators of Environmental Health: Lichens are highly sensitive to air pollution

and habitat disturbance, making them valuable indicators of environmental quality.
Monitoring lichen populations helps assess the impacts of air pollution and climate
change on ecosystems.

• Medicinal and Pharmaceutical Potential: Some lichens produce bioactive

compounds with medicinal properties, such as antibiotics, anti-inflammatory agents,
and antioxidants. These compounds have potential applications in pharmaceuticals and
biotechnology.

• Food Source for Wildlife: Lichens are an important food source for various wildlife
species, including reindeer, caribou, and certain insects. In regions with harsh climates,
lichens provide essential nutrition during winter when other food sources are scarce.

• Cultural and Artistic Value: Lichens have cultural significance in many indigenous
societies worldwide, where they are used in rituals, ceremonies, and traditional

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 medicine. Additionally, lichens are used for dyeing textiles and as decorative elements
in crafts and artwork.

• Scientific Research: Lichens are subjects of scientific research in fields such as

ecology, microbiology, and biogeography. Studying lichens provides insights into
symbiotic relationships, adaptation to extreme environments, and ecosystem dynamics.

Overall, lichens are invaluable components of ecosystems, contributing to biodiversity,

ecological resilience, and human well-being. Understanding and conserving lichen diversity is
essential for maintaining healthy ecosystems and sustainable societies.

Demarcation of Phytoplankton

The demarcation of phytoplankton refers to defining their boundaries or delineating their

presence in a particular area, often done through various methods such as microscopy, satellite
imaging, or chemical analysis. It's crucial for understanding their distribution, abundance, and
ecological roles in marine ecosystems.

Characteristics

The demarcation of phytoplankton involves various methods, primarily based on their size,
pigmentation, and cellular characteristics:

• Size Classification: Phytoplankton can be categorized based on their size into three
main groups: picoplankton (0.2-2μm), nanoplankton (2 - 20μm), and microplankton
(20-200μm).
• Pigmentation: Phytoplankton contain different pigments that absorb light for
photosynthesis. Chlorophyll a is the most common pigment, but accessory pigments
like chlorophyll b, c, and various carotenoids are also used for identification.
• Microscopic Examination: Microscopy is a fundamental technique for identifying
phytoplankton. Different species have distinct cell shapes, sizes, and structures, which
can be observed under a microscope.
• Chemical Analysis: Chemical techniques can be used to analyze the composition of
phytoplankton cells, including their lipid content, cell wall structure, and biochemical
markers.

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Types of Phytoplankton

• Diatoms: Single-celled algae with a silica shell, often found in both freshwater and
marine environments. They are a major component of plankton and play a crucial role
in oceanic carbon cycling.

• Dinoflagellates: These are single-celled organisms with two flagella, enabling them to
move through the water. They can be photosynthetic or heterotrophic and are known
for their ability to produce bioluminescence.

• Coccolithophores: Single-celled algae covered in small calcium carbonate plates called

coccoliths. They are important contributors to global carbon cycling and are abundant
in nutrient-rich waters.

• Cyanobacteria (Blue-green algae): Photosynthetic bacteria capable of producing

oxygen through photosynthesis. They are often found in freshwater and marine
environments and can form harmful algal blooms under certain conditions.

• Euglenophytes: Single-celled organisms with a flexible outer covering and a flagellum.

They are found in freshwater environments and can be both photosynthetic and
heterotrophic.

Fig-14: Types of Phytoplankton

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Function

• Primary Production: Phytoplankton perform photosynthesis, converting sunlight,

carbon dioxide, and nutrients into organic matter, providing the foundation of the
aquatic food web.
• Oxygen Production: Through photosynthesis, phytoplankton release oxygen into the
water, contributing significantly to the oxygen levels in aquatic environments.
• Nutrient Cycling: They play a vital role in nutrient cycling by absorbing nutrients like
nitrogen, phosphorus, and others from the water, which are then passed on to higher
trophic levels when consumed.
• Carbon Sequestration: Phytoplankton sequester carbon dioxide from the atmosphere,
helping to regulate the global carbon cycle and mitigate climate change.
• Habitat and Shelter: They provide habitat and shelter for various marine organisms,
including larval stages of many fish and invertebrates, contributing to biodiversity.
• Base of Food Chain: Phytoplankton are the primary food source for zooplankton,
which are then consumed by larger organisms, forming the base of the marine food
chain and supporting higher trophic levels.

Overall, Phytoplankton contribute to the biological pump by transporting carbon from the
surface ocean to deeper layers through the sinking of organic matter, thus influencing oceanic
carbon storage and fluxes.

Demarcation of Zooplankton

Zooplankton are small, often microscopic, drifting organisms that inhabit the water column of
oceans, seas, and freshwater bodies. They are an essential component of aquatic ecosystems,
forming a vital link in the food chain

Characteristics

• Zooplankton inhabit various aquatic environments, including marine, freshwater, and

brackish water bodies.
• They can be found throughout the water column, from the surface to considerable
depths.
• Herbivorous: Feed on phytoplankton (Phyto zooplankton).
• Carnivorous: Prey on smaller zooplankton or other organisms.
• Omnivorous: Consume both phytoplankton and other zooplankton.
• Zooplankton exhibit diverse life cycles, often involving complex developmental stages.
• Many species have planktonic larvae that later metamorphose into adult forms.

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Types of Zooplankton

• Protozoans: Single-celled organisms like ciliates, flagellates, and dinoflagellates.

• Metazoans: Multicellular animals, including copepods, krill, jellyfish larvae, and
larvae of various marine organisms.
• Microzooplankton: Typically, less than 200 micrometers in size, including small
protozoans and larvae.
• Microzooplankton: Ranging from 200 micrometers to 20 millimeters, including
larger copepods, krill, and jellyfish larvae.

Fig-15: Types of Zooplankton

Function

▪ Zooplankton serve as a vital food source for a wide range of organisms, including fish
larvae, small fish, and various marine animals.
▪ They support commercial fisheries and contribute to the diet of many marine species,
forming the base of complex marine food webs Zooplankton populations help regulate
the abundance of phytoplankton through grazing.
▪ By consuming phytoplankton, they can prevent algal blooms and maintain ecological
balance in aquatic ecosystems.
▪ Zooplankton are primary consumers in aquatic food webs, feeding on phytoplankton
(microscopic algae) and other organic matter. They serve as a vital link between primary
producers and higher trophic levels, transferring energy and nutrients through the food
chain.

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Laboratory Awareness

Biology laboratory awareness refers to understanding and adhering to safety practices,

protocols, and ethical considerations when working in a biology laboratory setting. This
includes being aware of potential hazards, following proper procedures, and promoting a
culture of safety and responsibility. To develop awareness for biology laboratory safety, it's
crucial to cover various aspects related to the laboratory environment, equipment handling,
chemical safety, biological safety, emergency procedures, and personal protective equipment
(PPE). Here's a detailed overview:

Laboratory Environment

• Familiarize students with the layout of the laboratory, including emergency exits, safety
showers, eyewash stations, fire extinguishers, and spill kits.
• Emphasize the importance of keeping the laboratory clean and organized to prevent
accidents and contamination.
• Highlight the significance of proper ventilation to ensure a safe working environment
and minimize exposure to hazardous fumes or gases.

Fig-16: Laboratory Environment

Equipment Handling

• Provide instruction on the proper use and handling of laboratory equipment such as
microscopes, pipettes, centrifuges, and glassware.
• Emphasize the importance of calibrating and maintaining equipment regularly to ensure
accuracy and reliability.
• Demonstrate proper techniques for handling sharp objects, such as scalpels and needles,
to prevent injuries.

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Chemical Safety

• Educate students on the safe handling, storage, and disposal of chemicals used in
laboratory experiments.
• Provide information on the potential hazards of specific chemicals and how to mitigate
risks through proper handling techniques and the use of appropriate personal protective
equipment.
• Stress the importance of reading and understanding safety data sheets (SDS) for all
chemicals used in the laboratory.

Fig-17: Chemical Safety

Biological Safety

• Teach students about the risks associated with handling biological materials such as
microorganisms, cell cultures, and genetically modified organisms.
• Discuss containment measures, such as biosafety cabinets, autoclaving, and
disinfection protocols, to prevent the spread of pathogens and protect laboratory
personnel.
• Emphasize the importance of following standard operating procedures (SOPs) and
maintaining good microbiological techniques to minimize the risk of contamination and
exposure.

Emergency Procedures

• Review emergency procedures with students, including protocols for evacuating the
laboratory in the event of a fire, chemical spill, or other emergency.
• Teach students how to use safety equipment such as fire extinguishers, safety showers,
and eyewash stations effectively.

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 • Provide guidance on how to respond to injuries, accidents, or exposure incidents and
who to contact for assistance.

Regular Training and Reinforcement

• Conduct regular safety training sessions and refresher courses to reinforce safety
protocols and address any new hazards or concerns.
• Encourage open communication and feedback from students regarding safety issues or
suggestions for improvement.
• Foster a culture of safety awareness and responsibility among students and laboratory
staff to promote a safe working environment for everyone.

Personal Protective Equipment (PPE)

• Instruct students on the proper use of personal protective equipment, including lab
coats, gloves, safety goggles, and face shields.
• Emphasize the importance of wearing appropriate PPE at all times when working in the
laboratory to protect against chemical splashes, biological hazards, and other potential
risks.
• Provide guidance on how to select and properly fit PPE to ensure maximum protection
and comfort.

Fig-18: Personal Protective Equipment

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Conclusion
The study of zooplankton, phytoplankton, algae, fungi, and lichen is crucial in understanding
various ecological processes and environmental health. This laboratory report aims to provide
an overview of the equipment, techniques, and safety measures necessary for conducting
experiments and observations related to these organisms in a biological science laboratory
setting.
In conclusion, this laboratory report highlights the essential equipment, techniques, and safety
measures required for studying zooplankton, phytoplankton, algae, fungi, and lichen in a
biological science laboratory setting. By employing these tools and practices, researchers can
enhance their understanding of the ecological roles and environmental impacts of these diverse
organisms. Additionally, adherence to safety protocols ensures the well-being of laboratory
personnel and minimizes environmental risks associated with experimental procedures.

Reference
▪ de Jong, Hidde, and France Saint Ismier CEDEX. "Benjamin J. Bornstein, NASA Jet Propulsion
Laboratory, 4800 Oak Grove Drive, Pasadena, CA 91109, USA. Emery Conrad, Department of
Biological Sciences, MC 0406, Virginia Polytech-nic Institute & State University, Blacksburg, VA 24061,
USA." (2006).
▪ Basu, B. K., and F. R. Pick. "Phytoplankton and zooplankton development in a lowland, temperate
river." Journal of Plankton Research 19.2 (1997): 237-253.

▪ Irigoien, Xabier, Jef Huisman, and Roger P. Harris. "Global biodiversity patterns of marine
phytoplankton and zooplankton." Nature 429.6994 (2004): 863-867.

▪ Honegger, R., 2009. Lichen-forming fungi and their photobionts. In Plant relationships (pp. 307-333).
Berlin, Heidelberg: Springer Berlin Heidelberg.

▪ Hawksworth, D. L. "Secondary fungi in lichen symbioses: parasites, saprophytes and

parasymbionts." The Journal of the Hattori Botanical Laboratory 52 (1982): 357-366.

▪ El Gamal, Ali A. "Biological importance of marine algae." Saudi pharmaceutical journal 18.1 (2010):
1-25.

▪ Hoek, Christiaan, David Mann, and Hans Martin Jahns. Algae: an introduction to phycology. Cambridge
university press, 1995.

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