OPTICAL INSTRUMENTS

Objectives:

To identify different optical instruments

To describe how these instruments work.

HUMAN EYE

Human eye is an optical instrument which forms real image of the objects
on retina. Retina colours contains lakhs of cone and rod cells which are of
light and intensities of light respectively.

Parts of the Human Eye

Cornea:

It is a thin transparent front part of sclera.

It forms a slight bulge at the front and covers an anterior 1/6 part of sclera.
Cornea is avascular and absorbs oxygen from air.
It refracts light to focus on retina
Choroid:

It is thick vascular and pigmented layer situated below sclera.

The pigmented cells absorbs light and prevent it from being reflected.
The function of choroid is to provide nutrition and to prevent reflection of light.
2. Ciliary body:

These are attached to choroid and present at the junction of sclera and cornea.
It consists of two sets of ciliary muscle and suspensory ligament.
Ciliary body is attached to lens and holds it in position
Its function is to change the shape of lens by contraction or relaxation of muscle
3. Iris:

It is muscular, pigmented and opaque diaphragm which hangs in the eye ball in
front of lens.
It has small circular opening called pupil.
It has two types of muscles; circular and radial muscle. The movement of these
muscles control the size of pupil.
Pigment in iris gives color to eye.
Iris control the amount of light entering into eye by controlling the size of pupil.

It consists of photoreceptor cells and photo sensitive elements.

1. Retina:

Retina is innermost layer.

Each eye ball has 125 millions of rod cells and 7 millions of cone cells..
The optic nerve enter retina at a point called blind spot. It does not contains any
rods or cone cells. It is least sensitive to light and forms no image when light
falls on blind spot

Rod cell:

rods are sensors for perception of black to white shades

Night vision is almost rod vision.
It function in dim light
Contains a photosensitive pigment rhodopsin formed from vitamin A.

Cone cell:

Cones are sensors for perception of colors.

It functions in bright light and differentiate colors.
Contains a photosensitive pigment iodopsin.
Lens:
It is a large, flexible, transparent biconvex and fibrous crystalline body situated
behind iris.
Lens is enclosed in a transparent elastic capsule.
Ciliary muscles control the thickness of lens and its power of accommodation.
It forms the image of the object on retina.
Lens separates the eye ball into two chamber
Aqueous chamber:

It is a smaller fluid filled chamber between cornea and lens.

It is filled with aqueous humour containing aminoacids, glucose, ascorbic acid,
hyaluronic acid and respiratory gases.
The aqueous humour nourishes the lens and cornea and refracts light rays to
focus on retina.
Vitreous chamber:

It is a larger fluid filled chamber between lens and retina.

It is filled with gelatinous vitreous humour containing salts and muco proteins
It supports retina and refracts light to focus on retina.

ACCOMMODATION: This is the ability of the eye to alter or adjust the focal length of
its lens so as to form clear images of objects at different distances on its retina. This
adjustment is made possible by the action of the ciliary muscles.

BINOCULAR VISION: this is the overlapping of the two images formed by both eyes
which gives an impression of depth and solidity and makes it possible for us to see
things in relief.

Persistence of vision: this is the retention of vision from an image after the source of
light is removed.

Different defects of vision of human eye are described below

Myopia or Short-Sightedness: It is a defect of eye due to which a person can

see nearby objects clearly but cannot see far away objects clearly. In this defect,
the far point of eye shifts from infinity to a nearer distance. This defect can be
removed by using a concave lens of appropriate power
 Hypermetropia or Long-Sightedness: In this defect, a person can see far away
objects clearly but cannot see near by objects clearly. In this defect the near
point of eye shifts away from the eye. This defect can be removed by using a
convex lens of appropriate power.

Astigmatism In this defect, a person cannot focus on horizontal and vertical

lines at the same distance at the same time. This defect can be removed by
using suitable cylindrical lenses.

CAMERA

A photograph camera consists of a light proof box, at one end of which a converging
lens system is fitted. A light sensitive film is fixed at the other end of the box,
opposite to the lens system. A real inverted image of the object is formed on the film
by the lens system.

The simple lens camera has a fixed distance between the lens and the film. This
distance is equal to the focal length of the lens. The diaphragm regulates the size of
the aperture which controls the amount of light falling on the film. The diaphragm acts
like the human eye’s Iris. The shutter controls the time interval during which light is
allowed to fall on the film. This time is called exposure time.

The amount of light (L) entering the camera is directly proportional to the area (A) of
the aperture, i.e., L ∝A∝ d2. Brightness of Image ∝ (d2/f2) where, d = diameter of the
lens and F = focal length of the lens
SIMPLE MICROSCOPE

It is used for observing magnified images of objects. It is consists of a converging

lens of small focal length.

Magnifying Power (i) When final image is formed at least distance of distinct vision or
the near point of the eye ( 25 cm), (D), then M=1+d/f where, f= focal length of the lens,
d = image distance. (ii) When final image is formed at infinity, then M = D/f

COMPOUND MICROSCOPE:

It is a combination of two convex lenses called objective lens and eye piece separated
by a distance. Both lenses are of small focal lengths but fo < fe , where fo and fe are
focal lengths of objective lens and eye piece respectively. The action of the two lenses
produce a magnified but inverted image of the object.

Magnifying Power M = v0 / u0 {1 + (D/f0) Where v0= distance of image, formed by

objective lens and u0 = distance of object from the objective. (ii) When final image is
formed at infinity, then M = v0/u0 . D/fe

ASTRONOMICAL TELESCOPE:

It is also a combination of two lenses, called objective lens and eye piece, separated
by a distance. It is used for observing distinct images of heavenly bodies like stars,
planets etc. The objective lens has a longer focal length than the eye piece.

Magnifying Power

(i) When final image is formed at least distance of distinct vision (D), then M = fo/fe
{1+ (D/fe)} where fo and fe are focal lengths of objective and eyepiece respectively.
Length of the telescope (L) = (fo + ue) where, ue = distance of object from the
eyepiece.

(ii) When final image is formed at infinity, then M = fo/fe Length of the telescope (L) =
fo + fe For large magnifying power of a telescope fo should be large and fe should be
small. For large magnifying power of a microscope; fo < fe should be small.

Resolving Power: The ability of an optical instrument to produce separate and clear
images of two nearby objects, is called its resolving power.

GALILEAN TELESCOPE:

This a telescope that uses a convex lens of long focal length as it’s and a concave
lens with short focal length as its eyepiece. The objective lens collects rays from a
distant object to form a real inverted image at its principal focus. However, before
these rays converge at the principal focus they are intercepted by the diverging lens
which causes the rays to diverge and emerge as a parallel beam. A virtual, erect and
magnified image is formed at infinity.
Magnifying power M, = focal length of objective / focal length of eyepiece = f0 / fe

N.B: when adjusted d = fo – fe.

CLASS ACTIVITY

Give three differences between the human eye and camera.

A long sighted person cannot see clearly objects closer to the eye than 75 cm.
recommend a suitable correcting lens for him to enable him read a book at a
distance of 25 cm. find the power of such a lens.
A magnifying glass gives a 4 times enlarged image at a distance of 25 cm from
the lens. Find the focal length of the lens.
Describe with diagram, the working a projector.