✶ ❙■❙❚❊▼ ❇■▲❆◆●❆◆ ❘❊❆▲

❇✐❧❛♥❣❛♥ r❡❛❧ s✉❞❛❤ ❞✐❦❡♥❛❧ ❞❡♥❣❛♥ ❜❛✐❦ s❡❥❛❦ ♠❛s✐❤ ❞✐ s❡❦♦❧❛❤ ♠❡♥❡♥❣❛❤✱ ❜❛❤❦❛♥ s❡❥❛❦
❞❛r✐ s❡❦♦❧❛❤ ❞❛s❛r✳ ◆❛♠✉♥ ✉♥t✉❦ ♠❡♠✉❧❛✐ ♠❡♠♣❡❧❛❥❛r✐ ♠❛t❡r✐ ♣❛❞❛ ❇❆❇ ✐♥✐ ❛♥❣❣❛♣❧❛❤
❞✐r✐ ❦✐t❛ ❜❡❧✉♠ t❛❤✉ ❛♣❛✲❛♣❛ t❡♥t❛♥❣ ❜✐❧❛♥❣❛♥ r❡❛❧✳ ❑✐t❛ ❛❦❛♥ ♠❡♠♣❡❧❛❥❛r✐ ❜❛❣❛✐♠❛♥❛
s✐st❡♠ ❜✐❧❛♥❣❛♥ r❡❛❧ ✐t✉ ❞✐❜❛♥❣✉♥✳
P❡rt❛♠❛✲t❛♠❛ ❦✐t❛ ❤❛♥②❛ ❞✐❜❡r✐❦❛♥ s✉❛t✉ ❤✐♠♣✉♥❛♥ ❜✐❧❛♥❣❛♥ t❡t❛♣✐ ❜❡❧✉♠ t❛❤✉ ❛♥❣❣
♦t❛✲
♥②❛ s❡♣❡rt✐ ❛♣❛✱ ❜❡❧✉♠ ❛t✉r❛♥ ②❛♥❣ ❜❡r❧❛❦✉ ❞✐ ❞❛❧❛♠♥②❛✳ ❑❡♠✉❞✐❛♥ ❦❡❞❛❧❛♠ ❤✐♠♣✉♥❛♥
✐♥✐ ❞✐❜❡r✐❦❛♥ ❞✉❛ ♦♣❡r❛s✐ ❜✐♥❛✐r✱ ♣❡♥❥✉♠❧❛❤❛♥ ✭✰✮ ❞❛♥ ♣❡r❦❛❧✐❛♥ ✭·✮✳ ❉❡♥❣❛♥ ❞✉❛ ♦♣✲
❡r❛s✐ ✐♥✐ ❞✐s✉s✉♥ ❜❡❜❡r❛♣❛ ❛❦s✐♦♠❛✳ ❉✉❛ ❛❦s✐♦♠❛ ♣❡♥t✐♥❣ ❛❞❛❧❛❤ ❦❡✉❥✉❞❛♥ ❡❧❡♠❡♥ ✵ ❞❛♥
❡❧❡♠❡♥ ✶✳ ■♥✐❧❛❤ ❛♥❣❣♦t❛ ❜✐❧❛♥❣❛♥ r❡❛❧ ♣❡rt❛♠❛ ②❛♥❣ ❦✐t❛ ❦❡t❛❤✉✐✳ ❙❡❧❛♥❥✉t♥②❛ ❞❡♥❣❛♥
❛❦s✐♦♠❛✲❛❦s✐♦♠❛ ✐♥✐ ❞✐❞❡✜♥✐s✐❦❛♥ ❛♥❣❣♦t❛✲❛♥❣❣♦t❛ ❧❛✐♥♥②❛✱ s❡♣❡rt✐ ❜✐❧❛♥❣❛♥ ❛s❧✐✱ ❜✐❧❛♥✲
❣❛♥ ❜✉❧❛t✱ ❜✐❧❛♥❣❛♥ r❛s✐♦♥❛❧ ❞❛♥ ❜✐❧❛♥❣❛♥ ✐rr❛s✐♦♥❛❧✳ ❏✉❣❛ ❞✐❞❡✜♥✐s✐❦❛♥ s✐❢❛t✲s✐❢❛t ②❛♥❣
♠❡♥❣❛t✉r ❤✉❜✉♥❣❛♥ ❛♥t❛r ❛♥❣❣♦t❛✱ s❡♣❡rt✐ s✐❢❛t ✉r✉t❛♥✱ s✐❢❛t ❥❛r❛❦✱ s✐❢❛t ❦❡❧❡♥❣❦❛♣❛♥
❞❛♥ s✐❢❛t ❦❡♣❛❞❛t❛♥✳

✶✳✶ ❙✐❢❛t ❛❧❥❛❜❛r ❜✐❧❛♥❣❛♥ r❡❛❧

❇✐❧❛♥❣❛♥ r❡❛❧ ❞✐♣❛♥❞❛♥❣ s❡❜❛❣❛✐ s✉❛t✉ ❤✐♠♣✉♥❛♥✱ s❡t❡r✉s♥②❛ ❞✐❧❛♠❜❛♥❣❦❛♥ ❞❡♥❣❛♥ R✳
❙❡❧❛♥❥✉t♥②❛✱ ❞✐❞❡✜♥✐s✐❦❛♥ ❞✉❛ ♦♣❡r❛s✐ ❜✐♥❛✐r ✬+✬ ❞❛♥ ✬·✬ ♠❛s✐♥❣✲♠❛s✐♥❣ ❞✐s❡❜✉t ♦♣❡r❛s✐
♣❡♥❥✉♠❧❛❤❛♥ ❞❛♥ ♦♣❡r❛s✐ ♣❡r❦❛❧✐❛♥✳ ❑❡❞✉❛ ♦♣❡r❛s✐ ❜✐♥❛✐r ✐♥✐ ❞✐t❡r❛♣❦❛♥ ♣❛❞❛ R ❞❛♥
♠❡♠❡♥✉❤✐ s✐❢❛t✲s✐❢❛t s❡❜❛❣❛✐ ❜❡r✐❦✉t✿
✭❆✶✮ a + b = b + a ✉♥t✉❦ s❡t✐❛♣ a, b ∈ R✱ ②❛✐t✉ ❦♦♠✉t❛t✐❢ t❡r❤❛❞❛♣ ♣❡♥❥✉♠❧❛❤❛♥✳
✭❆✷✮ (a + b) + c = a + (b + a) ✉♥t✉❦ s❡t✐❛♣ a, b, c ∈ R✱ ②❛✐t✉ ❛s♦s✐❛t✐❢ t❡r❤❛❞❛♣
♣❡♥❥✉♠❧❛❤❛♥✳
✭❆✸✮ ❚❡r❞❛♣❛t ❡❧❡♠❡♥ 0 ∈ R s❡❤✐♥❣❣❛ a + 0 = 0 + a = a ✉♥t✉❦ s❡t✐❛♣ a ∈ R✳ ❊❧❡♠❡♥ 0
✐♥✐ ❞✐s❡❜✉t ❡❧❡♠❡♥ ♥♦❧✳
✭❆✹✮ ❯♥t✉❦ s❡t✐❛♣ a ∈ R s❡❧❛❧✉ t❡r❞❛♣❛t (−a) ∈ R s❡❤✐♥❣❣❛ a + (−a) = (−a) + a = 0✳
❊❧❡♠❡♥ (−a) ✐♥✐ ❞✐s❡❜✉t ♥❡❣❛t✐❢ ❞❛r✐ a✳
✭▼✶✮ a · b = b · a ✉♥t✉❦ s❡t✐❛♣ a, b ∈ R✱ ②❛✐t✉ ❦♦♠✉t❛t✐❢ t❡r❤❛❞❛♣ ♣❡r❦❛❧✐❛♥✳
✭▼✷✮ (a · b) · c = a · (b · c) ✉♥t✉❦ s❡t✐❛♣ a, b, c ∈ R✱ ②❛✐t✉ ❛s♦s✐❛t✐❢ t❡r❤❛❞❛♣ ♣❡r❦❛❧✐❛♥✳
✭▼✸✮ ❚❡r❞❛♣❛t ❡❧❡♠❡♥ 1 ∈ R s❡❤✐♥❣❣❛ a · 1 = 1 · a = a ✉♥t✉❦ s❡t✐❛♣ a ∈ R✳ ❊❧❡♠❡♥ 1 ✐♥✐
❞✐s❡❜✉t ❡❧❡♠❡♥ s❛t✉❛♥✳

✶
 ❇❛❜ ✶✳ ❙■❚❊▼ ❇■▲❆◆●❆◆ ❘❊❆▲ ❜② ❏✉❧❛♥

✭▼✹✮ ❯♥t✉❦ s❡t✐❛♣ a ∈ R✱ a = 0 s❡❧❛❧✉ t❡r❞❛♣❛t (1/a) ∈ R s❡❤✐♥❣❣❛ a·(1/a) = (1/a)·a =

1✳ ❊❧❡♠❡♥ (1/a) ✐♥✐ ❞✐s❡❜✉t ❦❡❜❛❧✐❦❛♥ ❞❛r✐ a✳
✭❉✮ a · (b + c) = (a · b) + (a · c) ❞❛♥ (b + c) · a = (b · a) + (c · a) ✉♥t✉❦ s❡t✐❛♣ a, b, c ∈
R✳
❙✐❢❛t ✐♥✐ ❞✐s❡❜✉t ❞✐str✐❜✉t✐❢ ♣❡r❦❛❧✐❛♥ t❡r❤❛❞❛♣ ♣❡♥❥✉♠❧❛❤❛♥✳
❉✐♣❡r❤❛t✐❦❛♥ ❜❛❤✇❛ ❛❞❛ ✹ s✐❢❛t ②❛♥❣ ❜❡r❦❛✐t❛♥ ❞❡♥❣❛♥ ♦♣❡r❛s✐ ♣❡♥❥✉♠❧❛❤❛♥ ②❛✐t✉ ❆✶✱
❆✷✱ ❆✸ ❞❛♥ ❆✹ ✭♥♦t❛s✐ ❆ ✉♥t✉❦ ❆❞✐s✐✱ ❛t❛✉ ♣❡♥❥✉♠❧❛❤❛♥✮✱ ✹ s✐❢❛t ②❛♥❣ ❜❡r❦❛✐t❛♥
❞❡♥❣❛♥
♣❡r❦❛❧✐❛♥ ②❛✐t✉ ▼✶✱ ▼✷✱ ▼✸ ❞❛♥ ▼✹ ✭▼ ✉♥t✉❦ ▼✉❧t✐♣❧✐❦❛s✐✱ ❛t❛✉ ♣❡r❦❛❧✐❛♥✮ ❞❛♥ ✶ s✐❢❛t
②❛♥❣ ♠❡♥❣❣❛❜✉♥❣❦❛♥ ❦❡❞✉❛♥②❛ ②❛✐t✉ ❉ ✭❉ ✉♥t✉❦ ❉✐str✐❜✉t✐❢✮✳ ❑❡s❡♠❜✐❧❛♥ s✐❢❛t
✐♥✐
❞✐s❡❜✉t s✐❢❛t ❛❧❥❛❜❛r ❛t❛✉ ❛❦s✐♦♠❛ ❜✐❧❛♥❣❛♥ r❡❛❧✳
❙❛♠♣❛✐ s❛❛t ✐♥✐ ❜❡❧✉♠ ❞✐❞❡✜♥✐s✐❦❛♥ ❜✐❧❛♥❣❛♥ ♥❡❣❛t✐❢ ❞❛♥ ♦♣❡r❛s✐ ♣❡♥❣✉r❛♥❣❛♥✳ ◆♦t❛s✐
(−a) ❞✐❛♥❣❣❛♣ s❛t✉ ❡❧❡♠❡♥ ❞✐❞❛❧❛♠ R✳ ❇❡❣✐t✉ ❥✉❣❛ ❡❧❡♠❡♥ ❦❡❜❛❧✐❦❛♥ (1/a) ❞✐❛♥❣❣❛♣
s❛t✉ ❡❧❡♠❡♥ ❞❛♥ ♦♣❡r❛s✐ ♣❡♠❜❛❣✐❛♥ ❜❡❧✉♠ ❞✐❞❡✜♥✐s✐❦❛♥✳ ❇❡r✐❦✉t ❞✐❜❡r✐❦❛♥ ❜❡❜❡r❛♣❛
t❡♦r❡♠❛ s❡❞❡r❤❛♥❛ ②❛♥❣ ❞✐t✉r✉♥❦❛♥ ❧❛♥❣s✉♥❣ ❞❛r✐ s✐❢❛t✲s✐❢❛t ❛❧❥❛❜❛r ✐♥✐✳
❚❡♦r❡♠❛ ✶✳✶✳ ❏✐❦❛ a ❜✐❧❛♥❣❛♥ r❡❛❧ s❡❜❛r❛♥❣ ♠❛❦❛ ♣❡rs❛♠❛❛♥ a + x = b ♠❡♠♣✉
♥②❛✐
♣❡♥②❡❧❡s❛✐❛♥ t✉♥❣❣❛❧✱ ②❛✐t✉ x = (−a) + b✳
❇✉❦t✐✳ P❡rt❛♠❛ ❞✐t✉♥❥✉❦❦❛♥ ❡❦s✐st❡♥s✐ ♣❡♥②❡❧❡s❛✐❛♥♥②❛✳

a+x = b ✭❞✐❦❡t❛❤✉✐✮
(−a) + (a + x) = (−a) + b
((−a) + a) + x = (−a) + b ✭❆✷✮
0+x = (−a) + b ✭❆✹✮
x = (−a) + b ✭❆✸✮

❙❡❧❛♥❥✉t♥②❛ ❞✐t✉♥❥✉❦❦❛♥ ❜❛❤✇❛ ♣❡♥②❡❧❡s❛✐❛♥ ✐♥✐ ❛❞❛❧❛❤ t✉♥❣❣❛❧✳ ▼✐s❛❧❦❛♥ x1

♣❡♥②❡❧❡s❛✐❛♥ ❧❛✐♥♥②❛ ♠❛❦❛ ❞✐♣❡♥✉❤✐ a + x1 = b✳ ❏❛❞✐ ❞✐♣❡r♦❧❡❤ ❤✉❜✉♥❣❛♥ a + x1 =
a + x✳ ❇❡r❞❛s❛r❦❛♥ ❧❛♥❣❦❛❤ s❡❜❡❧✉♠♥②❛ ❞✐♣❡r♦❧❡❤ x1 = (−a) + (a + x)✳ ❉❡♥❣❛♥
♠❡♥❣❣✉♥❛❦❛♥ ✭❆✷✮ ❦❡♠✉❞✐❛♥ ✭❆✹✮ ♠❛❦❛ ❞✐♣❡r♦❧❡❤ x1 = x s❡❤✐♥❣❣❛ ❞✐s✐♠♣✉❧❦❛♥
♣❡♥②❡❧❡s❛✐❛♥♥②❛ t✉♥❣❣❛❧✳
▲❛t✐❤❛♥ ✶✳✶✳ ❇✉❦t✐❦❛♥ ❥✐❦❛ a ❜✐❧❛♥❣❛♥ r❡❛❧ t✐❞❛❦ ♥♦❧ ♠❛❦❛ ♣❡rs❛♠❛❛♥ a · x = b ♠❡♠✲
♣✉♥②❛✐ ♣❡♥②❡❧❡s❛✐❛♥ t✉♥❣❣❛❧✱ ②❛✐t✉ x = (1/b)✳

❚❡♦r❡♠❛ ✶✳✷✳ ❇✐❧❛ a s✉❛t✉ ❡❧❡♠❡♥ ♣❛❞❛ R ♠❛❦❛ ❜❡r❧❛❦✉ ♣❡r♥②❛t❛❛♥ ❜❡r✐❦✉t✳

✶✳ a · 0 = 0 ✱
✷✳ (−1) · a = −a✱
✸✳ −(−a) = a✱
✹✳ (−1) · (−1) = 1.

✷
 ❇❛❜ ✶✳ ❙■❚❊▼ ❇■▲❆◆●❆◆ ❘❊❆▲ ❜② ❏✉❧❛♥

❇✉❦t✐✳ ✶✮ ❇❡r❞❛s❛r❦❛♥ ✭▼✸✮ ❦✐t❛ ♠❡♠♣✉♥②❛✐ a · 1 = a✳ ❙❡❧❛♥❥✉t♥②❛ ❦❡❞✉❛ r✉❛s ✐♥✐

❞✐t❛♠❜❛❤❦❛♥ a, ❞✐♣❡r♦❧❡❤

a + a ·0 = a ·1+ a ·0
= a · (1 + 0) ❬♠❡♥❣❣✉♥❛❦❛♥ ❉❪
= a · 1 ❬♠❡♥❣❣✉♥❛❦❛♥ ❆✸❪
= a ❬♠❡♥❣❣✉♥❛❦❛♥ ▼✸❪

❙❡❧❛♥❥✉t♥②❛ ❞❡♥❣❛♥ ♠❡♥❣❣✉♥❛❦❛♥ ❚❡♦r❡♠❛ ✶✳✶ ❞❡♥❣❛♥ ♠❡♥❣❛♥❣❣❛♣ x s❡❜❛❣❛✐ a · 0

❞✐♣❡r♦❧❡❤
a · 0 = (−a) + a = 0.
✷✮ ❉❛r✐ ✭▼✸✮ ❦✐t❛ ♠❡♠♣✉♥②❛✐ a = 1 · a✳ ❚❛♠❜❛❤❦❛♥ ♣❛❞❛ ❦❡❞✉❛ r✉❛s ❞❡♥❣❛♥
(−1) · a✱ ❞✐♣❡r♦❧❡❤

a + (−1) · a = 1 · a + (−1) · a
= (1 + (−1)) · a ❬♠❡♥❣❣✉♥❛❦❛♥ ❉❪
= 0 · a ❬♠❡♥❣❣✉♥❛❦❛♥ ❆✹❪
= 0 ❬♠❡♥❣❣✉♥❛❦❛♥ ❜❛❣✐❛♥ i✱ s❡t❡❧❛❤ ♠❡♥❡r❛♣❦❛♥ ✭❆✶✮❪

❙❡❧❛♥❥✉t♥②❛ ❞❡♥❣❛♥ ♠❡♥❣❣✉♥❛❦❛♥ ❚❡♦r❡♠❛ ✶✳✶ ❞❛♥ ♠❡♥❣❛♥❣❣❛♣ x

s❡❜❛❣❛✐
(−1) · a✱ ❦❡♠✉❞✐❛♥ ♠❡♥❣❣✉♥❛❦❛♥ ✭❆✸✮ ❞✐♣❡r♦❧❡❤

(−1) · a = (−a) + 0 = −a.

▲❛t✐❤❛♥ ✶✳✷✳ ▲❛♥❥✉t❦❛♥ ♣❡♠❜✉❦t✐❛♥ ❚❡♦r❡♠❛ ✶✳✷ ②❛♥❣ ❜❡❧✉♠ s❡❧❡s❛✐✳

❚❡♦r❡♠❛ ✶✳✷ ✭✶✮ ♠❡♥❣❛t❛❦❛♥ ❜❛❤✇❛ ❜✐❧❛♥❣❛♥ ❛♣❛♣✉♥ ❥✐❦❛ ❞✐❦❛❧✐❦❛♥ ❞❡♥❣❛♥ ♥♦❧
♠❛❦❛
❤❛s✐❧♥②❛ ♥♦❧✳ ❋❛❦t❛ ✐♥✐ ♠❡r✉♣❛❦❛♥ t❡♦r❡♠❛ ②❛♥❣ ❦❡❜❡♥❛r❛♥♥②❛ ❞❛♣❛t ❞✐❜✉❦t✐❦❛♥✱ ❜✉❦❛♥
s✉❛t✉ ❦❡s❡♣❛❦❛t❛♥ ❛t❛✉ ❛❦s✐♦♠❛✳ ❇❡❣✐t✉ ❥✉❣❛ ❞❡♥❣❛♥ ❢❛❦t❛ ❧❛✐♥♥②❛ ♣❛❞❛ t❡♦r❡♠❛ ✐♥✐✳
❚❡♦r❡♠❛ ✶✳✸✳ ▼✐s❛❧❦❛♥ a, b, c ❡❧❡♠❡♥ ♣❛❞❛ R✳ ▼❛❦❛ ♣❡r♥②❛t❛❛♥ ❜❡r✐❦✉t ❜❡r❧❛❦✉
✶✳ ❏✐❦❛ a = 0 ♠❛❦❛ 1/a = 0 ❞❛♥ 1/(1/a) = a✱
✷✳ ❏✐❦❛ a · b = a · c ❞❛♥ a = 0 ♠❛❦❛ b = c✱
✸✳ ❏✐❦❛ a · b = 0 ♠❛❦❛ ❜❡r❧❛❦✉ s❛❧❛❤ s❛t✉✿ a = 0 ❛t❛✉ b = 0✳
❇✉❦t✐✳ ✶✮ ❑❛r❡♥❛ a = 0 ♠❛❦❛ ♠❡♥✉r✉t ✭▼✹✮ s❡❧❛❧✉ ❛❞❛ 1/a ∈ R✳ ❆♥❞❛✐❦❛♥ 1/a = 0
♠❛❦❛ ❞✐♣❡r♦❧❡❤
1 = a · (1/a) = a · 0 = 0.
❍❛s✐❧ ✐♥✐ ❜❡r❧❛✇❛♥❛♥ ❛t❛✉ ❦♦♥tr❛❞✐❦s✐ ❞❡♥❣❛♥ ✭▼✸✮✳ ❏❛❞✐ ♣❡♥❣❛♥❞❛✐❛♥ ✐♥✐ s❛❧❛❤✱
❞❛♥ ❤❛r✉s❧❛❤ 1/a = 0✳ ❙❡❧❛♥❥✉t♥②❛ ❦❛r❡♥❛ 1/a = 0 ❞❛♥ ❦❛r❡♥❛ (1/a) · a = 1 ♠❛❦❛

✸
 ❇❛❜ ✶✳ ❙■❚❊▼ ❇■▲❆◆●❆◆ ❘❊❆▲ ❜② ❏✉❧❛♥

❞❡♥❣❛♥ ▲❛t✐❤❛♥ ✶ ❞❡♥❣❛♥ ♠❡♠❛♥❞❛♥❣ a s❡❜❛❣❛✐ x ♠❛❦❛ ❞✐♣❡r♦❧❡❤ a = 1/(1/a)✳ ✷✮

❑❡❞✉❛ r✉❛s ♣❛❞❛ a · b = a · c ❞✐❦❛❧✐❦❛♥ ❞❡♥❣❛♥ (1/a) ❞✐s❡rt❛✐ ❞❡♥❣❛♥ ♠❡♥❣❣✉♥❛❦❛♥
✭▼✷✮✱ ❞✐♣❡r♦❧❡❤

((1/a) · a) · b = ((1/a) · a) · c
⇔ 1 · b = 1 · c ❬♠❡♥❣❣✉♥❛❦❛♥ ▼✹❪
⇔ b = c ❬♠❡♥❣❣✉♥❛❦❛♥ ▼✸❪

▲❛t✐❤❛♥ ✶✳✸✳ ❇✉❦t✐❦❛♥ ♣❡r♥②❛t❛❛♥ ✸ ♣❛❞❛ ❚❡♦r❡♠❛ ✶✳✸✳

❇❡❜❡r❛♣❛ ♦♣❡r❛s✐ ❧❛✐♥♥②❛ ♣❛❞❛ R

❙❡❥❛✉❤ ✐♥✐ ❤❛♥②❛ ❛❞❛ ❞✉❛ ♦♣❡r❛s✐ ♣❛❞❛ ❜✐❧❛♥❣❛♥ r❡❛❧✳ ▼❡❧❛❧✉✐ ❞✉❛ ♦♣❡r❛s✐ ✐♥✐ ❞✐t✉r✉♥❦❛♥
❜❡❜❡❞❛♣❛ ♦♣❡r❛s✐ ❧❛✐♥♥②❛ ②❛♥❣ ❞✐❞❡✜♥✐s✐❦❛♥ s❡❜❛❣❛✐ ❜❡r✐❦✉t ✿
✶✳ ❖♣❡r❛s✐ ♣❡♥❣✉r❛♥❣❛♥✳ ❇✐❧❛ a, b ∈ R ♠❛❦❛ ♥♦t❛s✐ a−b ❞✐❜❛❝❛ a ❞✐❦✉r❛♥❣ ❞❡♥❣❛♥
b ❞❛♥ ❞✐❞❡✜♥✐s✐❦❛♥ ♦❧❡❤
a − b := a + (−b).

✷✳ ❖♣❡r❛s✐ ♣❡♠❜❛❣✐❛♥✳ ❇✐❧❛ a, b ∈ R✱ b = 0 ♠❛❦❛ ♥♦t❛s✐ a/b ❛t❛✉ a

❞✐❜❛❝❛ a ❞✐❜❛❣✐
❞❡♥❣❛♥ b ❞❛♥ ❞✐❞❡✜♥✐s✐❦❛♥ ♦❧❡❤ b

a/b := a · (1/b).

✸✳ ❖♣❡r❛s✐ ♣❛♥❣❦❛t✳ ❇✐❧❛ a ∈ R ♠❛❦❛ ♥♦t❛s✐ a2 ❞✐❜❛❝❛ a ❞✐♣❛♥❣❦❛t❦❛♥ ❞❡♥❣❛♥

❞✉❛ ❛t❛✉ a ❦✉❛❞❛r❛t ❞❛♥ ❞✐❞❡✜♥✐s✐❦❛♥ s❡❜❛❣❛✐ a2 := a · a✳ ❙❡❝❛r❛ ✉♠✉♠ ✉♥t✉❦ n
❜✐❧❛♥❣❛♥ ❛s❧✐✱ an ❛❞❛❧❛❤ a ❞✐♣❛♥❣❦❛t❦❛♥ ❞❡♥❣❛♥ n ❞✐❞❡✜♥✐s✐❦❛♥ ♦❧❡❤

an := a ·|a · a · ·{ · z· · a .
s❡❜❛♥②❛ }❦ ♥
❢❛❦t♦r

❯♥t✉❦ a = 0✱ ♥♦t❛s✐ a−1 ❞✐♠❛❦s✉❞❦❛♥ ✉♥t✉❦ 1/a ❞❛♥ ♥♦t❛s✐ a−n ✉♥t✉❦ (1/a)n ✳

❇❡❜❡r❛♣❛ ❤✐♠♣✉♥❛♥ ❜❛❣✐❛♥ ♣❡♥t✐♥❣ ♣❛❞❛ R

✶✳ ❇✐❧❛♥❣❛♥ ❛s❧✐✳ ❍✐♠♣✉♥❛♥ ❜✐❧❛♥❣❛♥ ❛s❧✐ ❞✐❧❛♠❜❛♥❣❦❛♥ ❞❡♥❣❛♥ N ❞✐♣❛♥❞❛♥❣ s❡❜❛✲
❣❛✐ ❤✐♠♣✉♥❛♥ ❜❛❣✐❛♥ R ❞❛♥ n ∈ N ❞✐❞❡✜♥✐s✐❦❛♥ s❡❜❛❣❛✐

n := 1 + 1 + 1 +←· · · +
| 1. { z
} ❦ ♥ s✉❦✉
s❡❜❛♥②❛

✹
 ❇❛❜ ✶✳ ❙■❚❊▼ ❇■▲❆◆●❆◆ ❘❊❆▲ ❜② ❏✉❧❛♥

R
Q himpunan bilangan rasional
R\Q
Misal: -3/4, -1, 0, 2, 1/2, 4/5.
himpunan bilangan irrasional
Z: himpunan bilangan bulat
{ . . . ,-2, -1, 0, 1, 2, . . . } Misal:
2,

N: himpunan bilangan asli

{1, 2, 3, . . . }

●❛♠❜❛r ✶✳✶✿ ❙tr✉❦t✉r ❜✐❧❛♥❣❛♥ r❡❛❧

✷✳ ❇✐❧❛♥❣❛♥ ❜✉❧❛t✳ ❍✐♠♣✉♥❛♥ ❜✐❧❛♥❣❛♥ ❜✉❧❛t ❞✐❧❛♠❜❛♥❣❦❛♥ ❞❡♥❣❛♥ ❩ ❞❛♥ ❦❡❛♥❣✲

❣♦t❛♥♥②❛ ❞❛♣❛t ❞✐❞❡✜♥✐s✐❦❛♥ s❡❜❛❣❛✐ ❜❡r✐❦✉t ✿

Z := {−n : n ∈ N} ∪ N ∪ {0}

❞❡♥❣❛♥ −n := |(−1) + (−1) + (−1)

{ z + · · · + (−1)✳}
s❡❜❛♥②❛ ❦ ♥ s✉❦✉

✸✳ ❇✐❧❛♥❣❛♥ r❛s✐♦♥❛❧ ❞❛♥ ✐rr❛s✐♦♥❛❧✳ ❍✐♠♣✉♥❛♥ ❜✐❧❛♥❣❛♥ r❛s✐♦♥❛❧ ❞✐❧❛♠❜❛♥❣❦❛♥

❞❡♥❣❛♥ Q ❛❞❛❧❛❤ ❡❧❡♠❡♥ ❜✐❧❛♥❣❛♥ r❡❛❧ ②❛♥❣ ❞❛♣❛t ❞✐t✉❧✐s ❞❛❧❛♠ ❜❡♥t✉❦ ♣❡❝❛❤❛♥✳
❏❛❞✐✱
b
Q :=
a : a, b ∈ Z, a = 0 .
❇✐❧❛♥❣❛♥ r❡❛❧ s❡❧❛✐♥ ❜✐❧❛♥❣❛♥ r❛s✐♦♥❛❧ ❞✐s❡❜✉t ❜✐❧❛♥❣❛♥ ✐rr❛s✐♦♥❛❧ ❞❛♥ ❤✐♠♣✉♥❛♥
❜✐❧❛♥❣❛♥ ✐rr❛s✐♦♥❛❧ ✐♥✐ ❜✐❛s❛ ❞✐❧❛♠❜❛♥❣❦❛♥ ❞❡♥❣❛♥ R \ Q✳
◆♦t❛s✐ ✧✿❂✧ ❜❡r❛rt✐ ✧❞✐❞❡✜♥✐s✐❦❛♥ ♦❧❡❤✧ ✭❞❡✜♥❡❞ ❜② ✮✳ P❡♥❣❣✉♥❛❛♥ ♥♦t❛s✐ ✐♥✐ ❧❡❜✐❤ t❡♣❛t
❞❛r✐♣❛❞❛ ♠❡♥❣❣✉♥❛❦❛♥ ✧❂✧ ❦❛r❡♥❛ t❛♥❞❛ s❛♠❛ ❞❡♥❣❛♥ s❡❤❛r✉s♥②❛ ❞✐❣✉♥❛❦❛♥ ✉♥t✉❦
♠❡♥②❛t❛❦❛♥ ❦❡s❛♠❛❛♥ ❦❡❞✉❛ r✉❛s✳
❙tr✉❦t✉r ❜✐❧❛♥❣❛♥ r❡❛❧ ❞✐❜❡r✐❦❛♥ ♣❛❞❛ ●❛♠❜❛r ✶✳✶✳
❚❡♦r❡♠❛ ✶✳✹✳ ❚✐❞❛❦ ❛❞❛ ❜✐❧❛♥❣❛♥ r❛s✐♦♥❛❧ r s❡❤✐♥❣❣❛ r 2 = 2✳

Pr♦♦❢✳ ❆♥❞❛✐ ❛❞❛ ❜✐❧❛♥❣❛♥ r❛s✐♦♥❛❧ ②❛♥❣ ❦✉❛❞r❛t♥②❛ s❛♠❛ ❞❡♥❣❛♥ ❞✉❛✳ ❯♥t✉❦ ✐t✉ ❞❛♣❛t
❞✐t✉❧✐s r = m ❞❡♥❣❛♥ m ❞❛♥ n t✐❞❛❦ ♠❡♠♣✉♥②❛✐ ❢❛❦t♦r ♣❡rs❡❦✉t✉❛♥ s❡❧❛✐♥ ✶✳ ❉✐♣❡r♦❧❡❤
n
m2
r 2 = 2 = 2 ⇒ m 2 = 2 n2 ,
n
❜❡r❛rt✐ m2 ❜✐❧❛♥❣❛♥ ❣❡♥❛♣✳ ❑❛r❡♥❛ ✐t✉ m ❥✉❣❛ ❣❡♥❛♣ ✭❧✐❤❛t ❧❛t✐❤❛♥ ❜❡r✐❦✉t✦✮✳ ❑❛r❡♥❛ m
❣❡♥❛♣ ♠❛❦❛ ❞❛♣❛t ❞✐t✉❧✐s m = 2p✳ ❙✉❜st✐t✉s✐ m ✐♥✐ ❦❡ ❦❡s❛♠❛❛♥ s❡❜❡❧✉♠♥②❛✱ ❞✐♣❡r♦❧❡❤
2 2 2 2 2 2
(2p) = 2n ⇒ 4p = 2n ⇒ n = 2p .

✺
 ❇❛❜ ✶✳ ❙■❚❊▼ ❇■▲❆◆●❆◆ ❘❊❆▲ ❜② ❏✉❧❛♥

■♥✐ ❜❡r❛rt✐ n2 ❜✐❧❛♥❣❛♥ ❣❡♥❛♣✱ ❛❦✐❜❛t♥②❛ n ❥✉❣❛ ❜✐❧❛♥❣❛♥ ❣❡♥❛♣✳ ❇❡r❛♥❣❦❛t ❞❛r✐ ♣❡♥✲
❣❛♥❞❛✐❛♥ t❛❞✐ ❞✐♣❡r♦❧❡❤ ❞✉❛ ♣❡r♥②❛t❛❛♥ ❜❡r✐❦✉t
❛✳ m ❞❛♥ n t✐❞❛❦ ♠❡♠♣✉♥②❛✐ ❢❛❦t♦r ♣❡rs❡❦✉t✉❛♥ s❡❧❛✐♥ ✶✱ ❜❡r❛rt✐ m ❞❛♥ n t✐❞❛❦
♠✉♥❣❦✐♥ ❦❡❞✉❛♥②❛ ❣❡♥❛♣✳
❜✳ m ❞❛♥ n ❜✐❧❛♥❣❛♥ ❣❡♥❛♣✳
❑❡❞✉❛ ♣❡r♥②❛t❛❛♥ ✐♥✐ ❜❡rt❡♥t❛♥❣❛♥ ✭❦♦♥tr❛❞✐❦s✐✮✱ s❡❤✐♥❣❣❛ ♣❡♥❣❛♥❞❛✐❛♥ ❤❛r✉s ❞✐✐♥❣❦❛r✐✳
❑❡s✐♠♣✉❧❛♥♥②❛ ❚❡♦r❡♠❛ t❡r❜✉❦t✐✳

❇❡❜❡r❛♣❛ s♦❛❧ ②❛♥❣ ❞✐♣❡❝❛❤❦❛♥

❈♦♥t♦❤ ✶✳✶✳ ❇✉❦t✐❦❛♥ ❜❛❤✇❛ ❥✐❦❛ z ∈ R ❜✐❧❛♥❣❛♥ ✐rr❛s✐♦❛♥❧ ❞❛♥ r = 0 ❜✐❧❛♥❣❛♥ r❛s✐♦♥❛❧
♠❛❦❛ r + z ❞❛♥ rz ❜✐❧❛♥❣❛♥ ✐rr❛s✐♦♥❛❧✳
P❡♥②❡❧❡s❛✐❛♥✳
❉✐❜✉❦t✐❦❛♥ ❞❡♥❣❛♥ ❦♦♥tr❛❞✐❦s✐✳ ❆♥❞❛✐ r + z r❛s✐♦♥❛❧✱ ♠❛❦❛ ❞❛♣❛t ❞✐t✉❧✐s
m p
r+z= ❞❛♥ r = , m, n, p, q ∈ Z, n, q = 0.
n q
❉❛r✐ s✐♥✐ ❞✐♣❡r♦❧❡❤
m − p = mq − np
z=
n q nq ,
②❛✐t✉ z r❛s✐♦♥❛❧✱ s❡❜❛❜ mq − np, nq ∈ Z, nq = 0✳ ❑♦♥tr❛❞✐❦s✐ ❞❡♥❣❛♥ z ✐rr❛s✐♦♥❛❧✳
❏❛❞✐ ♣❡♥❣❛♥❞❛✐❛♥ r + z r❛s✐♦♥❛❧ s❛❧❛❤✱ ❞❛♥ ❤❛r✉s❧❛❤ r + z ✐rr❛s✐♦♥❛❧✳ ❉❡♥❣❛♥
❛r❣✉♠❡♥ ②❛♥❣ s❛♠❛ ❞❛♣❛t ❞✐❜✉❦t✐❦❛♥ s✐s❛♥②❛✳

❈♦♥t♦❤ ✶✳✷✳ ❇✉❦t✐❦❛♥ ❜❛❤✇❛ ❥✐❦❛ a, b ∈ R ♠❛❦❛

✶✳ −(a + b) = (−a) + (−b)

✷✳ (−a) · (−b) = a · b
✸✳ 1/(−a) = −(1/a), a = 0
✹✳ −(a/b) = (−a)/b, b = 0✳
❇✉❦t✐✳ ✶✮✳ ❉❡♥❣❛♥ ♠❡♥❣❣✉♥❛❦❛♥ ❚❡♦r❡♠❛ ✶✳✷✭✷✮ ❞❛♥ s✐❢❛t ❞✐str✐❜✉t✐❢ ❞✐♣❡r♦❧❡❤

−(a + b) = (−1) · (a + b)
= (−1) · a + (−1) · b
= (−a) + (−b).

✻
 ❇❛❜ ✶✳ ❙■❚❊▼ ❇■▲❆◆●❆◆ ❘❊❆▲ ❜② ❏✉❧❛♥

✷✮✳ ❉✐♣❡r❤❛t✐❦❛♥ ♣❡♥❥❛❜❛r❛♥ ❜❡r✐❦✉t✱ ❝♦❜❛ ❥✉st✐✜❦❛s✐ s❡t✐❛♣ ❧❛♥❣❦❛❤ ②❛♥❣ ❞✐❜❡r✐❦❛♥

(−a) · (−b) = ((−1) · a) · ((−1) · b)

= (a · (−1)) · ((−1) · b)
= a · ((−1) · ((−1) · b))
= a · (((−1) · (−1)) · b)
= a · (1 · b)
= a ·b

▲❛t✐❤❛♥ ✶✳✹✳ ❑❡r❥❛❦❛♥ ❜❛❣✐❛♥ ✸ ❞❛♥ ✹ ♣❛❞❛ ❈♦♥t♦❤ ✶✳✶✳

❈♦♥t♦❤ ✶✳✸✳ ❇✐❧❛ ❜✐❧❛♥❣❛♥ r❡❛❧ a ♠❡♠❡♥✉❤✐ a · a = a ♠❛❦❛ s❛❧❛❤ s❛t✉♥②❛ ❜❡r❧❛❦✉✿
a = 0 ❛t❛✉ a = 1✳
❇✉❦t✐✳ ❉✐❦❡t❛❤✉✐ a · a = a✳ ❈♦❜❛ ❧❡♥❣❦❛♣✐ ❥✉st✐✜❦❛s✐ ✉♥t✉❦ t✐❛♣✲t✐❛♣ ❧❛♥❣❦❛❤ ❜❡r✐❦✉t✳

a · a + (−a) = a + (−a)
a · a + (−1) · (a) = 0
(a + (−1)) · a = 0.

❉❡♥❣❛♥ ♠❡♥❣❣✉♥❛❦❛♥ ❚❡♦r❡♠❛ ✶✳✸✭✐✐✐✮ ❞✐♣❡r♦❧❡❤ a + (−1) = 0 ❛t❛✉ a = 0✳ ▲❛♥✲

❥✉t❦❛♥ ❧❛♥❣❦❛❤ ✉♥t✉❦ ♠❡♥②✐♠♣✉❧❦❛♥ a = 1 ❞❛r✐ a + (−1) = 0✳

❈♦♥t♦❤ ✶✳✹✳ ❇✐❧❛ a = 0 ❞❛♥ b = 0✱ ❜✉❦t✐❦❛♥ 1/(ab) = (1/a) · (1/b)✳

❇✉❦t✐✳ ❑❛r❡♥❛ a = 0 ❞❛♥ b = 0 ♠❛❦❛ ab = 0 s❡❤✐♥❣❣❛ ❜❡r❞❛s❛r❦❛♥ ❚❡♦r❡♠❛ ✶✳✸ ✭✐✮
❞✐♣❡r♦❧❡❤
1
= a ·b
(1/ab)
1 · (1 ) = a · (b · (1/b))
/b
(1/ab)
1 · (1 ) = a
/b
(1/ab)
1
· ((1/b) · (1/a)) = a · (1/a)
(1/ab)
1 · ((1 ) · (1 )) = 1.
/b /a
(1/ab)
1
❉❛r✐ ❜❛r✐s t❡r❛❦❤✐r ❞❛♣❛t ❞✐s✐♠♣✉❧❦❛♥ (1/a) · (1/b) = = 1/(ab) ❦❛r❡♥❛
(1/(1/
1
(1/ab) ♠❡r✉♣❛❦❛♥ ❡❧❡♠❡♥ ❦❡❜❛❧✐❦❛♥ ❞❛r✐ (1/a) · (1/b)✳

✼
 ❇❛❜ ✶✳ ❙■❚❊▼ ❇■▲❆◆●❆◆ ❘❊❆▲ ❜② ❏✉❧❛♥

✶✳✷ ❙✐❢❛t ✉r✉t❛♥ ❜✐❧❛♥❣❛♥ r❡❛❧

❯r✉t❛♥ ♣❛❞❛ ❜✐❧❛♥❣❛♥ r❡❛❧ ♠❡r✉❥✉❦ ♣❛❞❛ ❤✉❜✉♥❣❛♥ ❦❡t✐❞❛❦s❛♠❛❛♥ ❛♥t❛r❛ ❞✉❛ ❜✐❧❛♥❣❛♥
r❡❛❧✳ ❙❡❜❡❧✉♠ ❞✐❞❡✜♥✐s✐❦❛♥ ✉r✉t❛♥ t❡r❧❡❜✐❤ ❞✉❧✉ ❞✐❞❡✜♥✐s✐❦❛♥ ❜✐❧❛♥❣❛♥ ♣♦s✐t✐❢✳
❉❡✜♥✐s✐ ✶✳✶✳ P❛❞❛ R t❡r❞❛♣❛t ❤✐♠♣✉♥❛♥ ❜❛❣✐❛♥ t❛❦❦♦s♦♥❣ P ❞❡♥❣❛♥ s✐❢❛t✲s✐❢❛t ❜❡r✐❦✉t
✶✳ ❏✐❦❛ a, b ∈ P ♠❛❦❛ a + b ∈ P✳
✷✳ ❏✐❦❛ a, b ∈ P ♠❛❦❛ a · b ∈ P✳
❍✐♠♣✉♥❛♥ P ✐♥✐ s❡❧❛♥❥✉t♥②❛ ❞✐s❡❜✉t ❤✐♠♣✉♥❛♥ ❜✐❧❛♥❣❛♥ ♣♦s✐t✐❢✳

❙❡❧❛♥❥✉t♥②❛ ❞✐t✉r✉♥❦❛♥ s✐❢❛t tr✐❦♦t♦♠✐ ♣❛❞❛ ❜✐❧❛♥❣❛♥ r❡❛❧✱ ②❛✐t✉ ❜✐❧❛ a ∈ R s❡❜❛r❛♥❣
♠❛❦❛ t❡♣❛t s❛t✉ ♣❡r♥②❛t❛❛♥ ❜❡r✐❦✉t ❞✐♣❡♥✉❤✐✱ ②❛✐t✉

a ∈ P, ❛t❛✉ a = 0, ❛t❛✉ − a ∈ P.

❙❡❧❛♥❥✉t♥②❛ ❤✐♠♣✉♥❛♥ ❜✐❧❛♥❣❛♥ ♥❡❣❛t✐❢ ❞✐❞❡✜♥✐s✐❦❛♥ s❡❜❛❣❛✐ ❤✐♠♣✉♥❛♥

{−a : a ∈ P} .

❏❛❞✐ ❤✐♠♣✉♥❛♥ ❜✐❧❛♥❣❛♥ r❡❛❧ t❡r❜❛❣✐ ❛t❛s t✐❣❛ ❤✐♠♣✉♥❛♥ s❛❧✐♥❣ ❛s✐♥❣ ②❛✐t✉ ❜✐❧❛♥❣❛♥
♣♦s✐t✐❢✱ ❜✐❧❛♥❣❛♥ ♥❡❣❛t✐❢ ❞❛♥ ♥♦❧✳ ❙❡❧❛♥❥✉t♥②❛ ✉r✉t❛♥ ♣❛❞❛ ❜✐❧❛♥❣❛♥ r❡❛❧ ❞✐❞❡✜♥✐s✐❦❛♥
s❡❜❛❣❛✐ ❜❡r✐❦✉t
❉❡✜♥✐s✐ ✶✳✷✳ ❇❡r✐❦✉t ✐♥✐ ❞❡✜♥✐s✐ ❦❡t✐❞❛❦s❛♠❛❛♥ ❛♥t❛r❛ ❡❧❡♠❡♥✲❡❧❡♠❡♥ ♣❛❞❛ R ✿
✶✳ ❇✐❧❛♥❣❛♥ a ∈ P ❞✐s❡❜✉t ❜✐❧❛♥❣❛♥ ♣♦s✐t✐❢ ❞❛♥ ❞✐t✉❧✐s a > 0✳ ◆♦t❛s✐ a ≥ 0 ❜❡r❛rt✐
a ∈ P ∪ {0}✱ ❞❛♥ a ❞✐s❡❜✉t ❜✐❧❛♥❣❛♥ t❛❦♥❡❣❛t✐❢✳
✷✳ ❇✐❧❛♥❣❛♥ a ∈ P s❡❤✐♥❣❣❛ −a ∈ P ❞✐s❡❜✉t ❜✐❧❛♥❣❛♥ ♥❡❣❛t✐❢✱ ❞✐t✉❧✐s a < 0✳ ◆♦t❛s✐
a ≤ 0 ❜❡r❛rt✐ −a ∈ P ∪ {0}✱ ❞❛♥ a ❞✐s❡❜✉t ❜✐❧❛♥❣❛♥ t❛❦♣♦s✐t✐❢✳
✸✳ ❇✐❧❛♥❣❛♥ r❡❛❧ a ❞✐❦❛t❛❦❛♥ ❧❡❜✐❤ ❜❡s❛r ❞❛r✐ b✱ ❞✐t✉❧✐s a > b ❥✐❦❛ ❤❛♥②❛ ❥✐❦❛ a − b ∈ P

◆♦t❛s✐ a < b < b ❞✐♠❛❦s✉❞❦❛♥ ❜❡r❧❛❦✉ ❦❡❞✉❛♥②❛ a < b ❞❛♥ b < c✳ ❇✐❧❛ a ≤ b ❞❛♥ b < c✱
♠❛❦❛ ❞✐t✉❧✐s a ≤ b < c✳
❚❡♦r❡♠❛ ✶✳✺✳ ▼✐s❛❧❦❛♥ a, b, c t✐❣❛ ❜✐❧❛♥❣❛♥ r❡❛❧✳ ▼❛❦❛ ♣❡r♥②❛t❛❛♥ ❜❡r✐❦✉t ❜❡r❧❛❦✉
✶✳ ❏✐❦❛ a > b ❞❛♥ b > c ♠❛❦❛ a > c✱
✷✳ ❚❡♣❛t s❛t✉ ♣❡r♥②❛t❛❛♥ ❜❡r✐❦✉t ♠❡♠❡♥✉❤✐ ✿ a > b✱ a = b✱ a < b✳
❇✉❦t✐✳ ✶✮❑❛r❡♥❛ a > b ❞❛♥ b > c ♠❛❦❛ ❜❡r❞❛s❛r❦❛♥ ❞❡✜♥✐s✐ ❜❡r❧❛❦✉ a − b ∈ P✱ ❞❛♥
b − c ∈ P✳ ❉❡♥❣❛♥ s❡❞✐❦✐t tr✐❦ ❞✐♣❡r♦❧❡❤

a − c = (a − b) + (b − c) ∈ P, ②❛❦♥✐ a > c.

✷✮ ❚❡r❛♣❦❛♥ s✐❢❛t tr✐❦♦t♦♠✐ ♣❛❞❛ a − b✳

✽
 ❇❛❜ ✶✳ ❙■❚❊▼ ❇■▲❆◆●❆◆ ❘❊❆▲ ❜② ❏✉❧❛♥

❚❡♦r❡♠❛ ✶✳✻✳ ▼✐s❛❧❦❛♥ a, b, c, d ❜✐❧❛♥❣❛♥✲❜✐❧❛♥❣❛♥ r❡❛❧✳ ▼❛❦❛ ❜❡r❧❛❦✉

✶✳ ❏✐❦❛ a > b ♠❛❦❛ a + c > b + c✳
✷✳ ❏✐❦❛ a > b✱ c > d ♠❛❦❛ a + c > b + d✳
✸✳ ❏✐❦❛ a > b ❞❛♥ c > 0 ♠❛❦❛ ca > cb✳
✹✳ ❏✐❦❛ a > b ❞❛♥ c < 0 ♠❛❦❛ ca < cb✳
❇✉❦t✐✳ ✶✮ ❑❛r❡♥❛ ❞✐❦❡t❛❤✉✐ a−b ∈ P ♠❛❦❛ (a+c)−(b+c) = a−b ∈ P✱ ②❛✐t✉ a+c > b+c✳
✷✮ ❑❛r❡♥❛ ❞✐❦❡t❛❤✉✐ a−b ∈ P ❞❛♥ c−d ∈ P ♠❛❦❛ (a+c)−(b+d) = (a−b)+(c−d) ∈
P✱ ②❛✐t✉ a + c > b + d✳
✸✮ ❑❛r❡♥❛ ❞✐❦❡t❛❤✉✐ a − b ∈ P✱ c ∈ P ♠❛❦❛ (a − b)c = ac − bc ∈ P✱ ②❛✐t✉ ac > bc✳

▲❛t✐❤❛♥ ✶✳✺✳ ❇✉❦t✐❦❛♥ ❜❛❣✐❛♥ ✹ ♣❛❞❛ ❚❡♦r❡♠❛ ✶✳✺✳

1
❚❡♦r❡♠❛ ✶✳✼✳ ❏✐❦❛ a ❞❛♥ b ❜✐❧❛♥❣❛♥ r❡❛❧ ❞❡♥❣❛♥ a < b ♠❛❦❛ a < (a + b) < b✳
2
❇✉❦t✐✳ ❑❛r❡♥❛ a < b ♠❛❦❛ 2a = a + a < a + b✳ ❉❡♥❣❛♥ ❛r❣✉♠❡♥ ②❛♥❣ s❛♠❛ ❞✐♣❡r♦❧❡❤
❥✉❣❛ a + b < b + b = 2b✳ ❉❡♥❣❛♥ ♠❡♥❣❣❛❜✉♥❣❦❛♥ ❦❡❞✉❛ ❤❛s✐❧ ✐♥✐✱ ❞✐♣❡r♦❧❡❤
a+b
2a < a + b < 2b ←→ a < b.
< 2
1
▲❛t✐❤❛♥ ✶✳✻✳ ❇✉❦t✐❦❛♥ ❜❛❤✇❛ ❥✐❦❛ a > 0 ♠❛❦❛ 0 < a < a✳
2

❚❡♦r❡♠❛ ❜❡r✐❦✉t ♠❡♥❥❛♠✐♥ ❜❛❤✇❛ s✉❛t✉ ❜✐❧❛♥❣❛♥ t❛❦♥❡❣❛t✐❢ ②❛♥❣ ❦✉r❛♥❣ ❞❛r✐ ❜✐❧❛♥❣❛♥
♣♦s✐t✐❢ ❛♣❛♣✉♥ ❛❞❛❧❛❤ ♥♦❧✳

❚❡♦r❡♠❛ ✶✳✽✳ ❇✐❧❛ a ∈ R ❞❡♥❣❛♥ 0 ≤ a < ✉♥t✉❦ s❡t✐❛♣ ε > 0 ♠❛❦❛ a = 0✳

❇✉❦t✐✳ ❇✉❦t✐ ❞❡♥❣❛♥ ❦♦♥tr❛❞✐❦s✐✳ ❆♥❞❛✐❦❛♥ a > 0✳ ❇❡r❞❛s❛r❦❛♥ ▲❛t✐❤❛♥ s❡❜❡❧✉♠♥②❛✱
1 1
❜❡r❧❛❦✉ 0 < a < a✳ ❙❡❦❛r❛♥❣ ❛♠❜✐❧ ε0 := a > 0✱ s❡❤✐♥❣❣❛ ❜❡r❧❛❦✉ 0 < ε0 <
a✳ 2 2
❍❛❧ ✐♥✐ ❦♦♥tr❛❞✐❦s✐ ❞❡♥❣❛♥ ❤✐♣♦t❡s✐s ❜❛❤✇❛ 0 ≤ a < ✉♥t✉❦ s❡t✐❛♣ ε > 0✳ ❏❛❞✐
♣❡♥❣❛♥❞❛✐ s❛❧❛❤✱ ❞❛♥ ❤❛r✉s❧❛❤ a = 0✳

▲❛t✐❤❛♥ ✶✳✼✳ ❇✐❧❛ a, b ❜✐❧❛♥❣❛♥ r❡❛❧ ❞❡♥❣❛♥ a < b + ε ✉♥t✉❦ s❡t✐❛♣ ε > 0 ♠❛❦❛ a ≤ b✳

❇❡r❞❛s❛r❦❛♥ ❞❡✜♥✐s✐ ❜✐❧❛♥❣❛♥ ♣♦s✐t✐❢ ❜❛❤✇❛ ♣❡r❦❛❧✐❛♥ ❞✉❛ ❜✐❧❛♥❣❛♥ ♣♦s✐t✐❢ ❛❦❛♥ ♠❡♥❣✲
❤❛s✐❧❦❛♥ ❜✐❧❛♥❣❛♥ ♣♦s✐t✐❢✳ ❚❡t❛♣✐ s❡❜❛❧✐❦♥②❛✱ ❜✐❧❛ ❤❛s✐❧ ❦❛❧✐ ❞✉❛ ❜✐❧❛♥❣❛♥ r❡❛❧ ❛❞❛❧❛❤
♣♦s✐t✐❢ ❜❡❧✉♠ t❡♥t✉ ❦❡❞✉❛ ❜✐❧❛♥❣❛♥ r❡❛❧ t❛❞✐ ♣♦s✐t✐❢✳

❚❡♦r❡♠❛ ✶✳✾✳ ❏✐❦❛ ab > 0 ♠❛❦❛ ❜❡r❧❛❦✉ s❛❧❛❤ s❛t✉ ❞❛r✐ ❞✉❛ ❦❡♠✉♥❣❦✐♥❛♥ ❜❡r✐❦✉t✿

a > 0 ❞❛♥ b > 0 ❛t❛✉ a < 0 ❞❛♥ b < 0.

✾
 ❇❛❜ ✶✳ ❙■❚❊▼ ❇■▲❆◆●❆◆ ❘❊❆▲ ❜② ❏✉❧❛♥

❇✉❦t✐✳ ❑❛r❡♥❛ ab > 0 ♠❛❦❛ a = 0 ❞❛♥ b = 0✱ s❡❜❛❜ ❥✐❦❛ s❛❧❛❤ s❛t✉ ❞✐❛♥t❛r❛ a ❛t❛✉ b
❜❡r♥✐❧❛✐ ♥♦❧ ♠❛❦❛ ab = 0✳ ❑❛r❡♥❛ s✐❢❛t tr✐❦♦t♦♠✐ ❦❡♠✉♥❣❦✐♥♥②❛ a > 0 ❛t❛✉ a < 0✳
❯♥t✉❦ a > 0 ♠❛❦❛ 1/a > 0 ❞❛♥

b = 1 · b = ((1/a)a) b = (1/a) (ab) > 0.

| {z } | {z }
> 0 > 0

❯♥t✉❦ ❦❛s✉s a < 0✱ ❞✐♣❡r♦❧❡❤ −a > 0 ❛t❛✉ 1/(−a) > 0 s❡❤✐♥❣❣❛ ❞✐♣❡r♦❧❡❤

0 < (1/(−a))(ab) = −(1/a)(ab) = − ((1/a) · a) · b = −1 · b = −b.

❑❛r❡♥❛ −b > 0 ♠❛❦❛ ❞✐s✐♠♣✉❧❦❛♥ b < 0.

▲❛t✐❤❛♥ ✶✳✽✳ ❇✉❦t✐❦❛♥ ❜❛❤✇❛ ❥✐❦❛ ab < 0 ♠❛❦❛ ❜❡r❧❛❦✉ s❛❧❛❤ s❛t✉ ❞❛r✐ ❞✉❛ ❦❡♠✉♥❣❦✲
✐♥❛♥ ❜❡r✐❦✉t✿
a > 0 ❞❛♥ b < 0 ❛t❛✉ a < 0 ❞❛♥ b > 0.

❑❡❞✉❛ ❤❛s✐❧ ②❛♥❣ ❜❛r✉ s❛❥❛ ❞✐❜❡r✐❦❛♥ ♠❡♥❣❛t❛❦❛♥ ❜❛❤✇❛ ❥✐❦❛ ❤❛s✐❧ ❦❛❧✐ ❞✉❛ ❜✐❧❛♥❣❛♥
♣♦s✐t✐❢ ♠❛❦❛ ❦❡❞✉❛ ❜✐❧❛♥❣❛♥ ✐t✉ ❜❡rt❛♥❞❛ s❛♠❛✳ ❙❡❜❛❧✐❦♥②❛✱ ❥✐❦❛ ❤❛s✐❧ ❦❛❧✐ ❦❡❞✉❛ ❜✐❧❛♥❣❛♥
♥❡❣❛t✐❢ ♠❛❦❛ ❦❡❞✉❛ ❜✐❧❛♥❣❛♥ ✐t✉ ❜❡r❧❛✐♥❛♥ t❛♥❞❛✳

❇❡❜❡r❛♣❛ ❦❡t✐❞❛❦s❛♠❛❛♥ ♣❡♥t✐♥❣ ♣❛❞❛ R

❚❡♦r❡♠❛ ✶✳✶✵✳ ▼✐s❛❧❦❛♥ a ≥ 0 ❞❛♥ b ≥ 0✳ ▼❛❦❛ ♣❡r♥②❛t❛❛♥✲♣❡r♥②❛t❛❛♥ ❜❡r✐❦✉t ❛❞❛❧❛❤
❡q✉✐✈❛❧❡♥✿
✶✳ a < b
✷✳ a2 < b2
√ √
✸✳ a < b.
❇✉❦t✐✳ ❯♥t✉❦ a = 0 ❞✐♣❡r♦❧❡❤ ♣❡r♥②❛t❛❛♥
√
2
b > 0 ←→ b > 0 ←→ b >
0.

❋❛❦t❛ ✐♥✐ ♠✉❞❛❤ ❞✐❜✉❦t✐❦❛♥ s❡♥❞✐r✐✳ ❙❡❦❛r❛♥❣ ❞✐❛s✉♠s✐❦❛♥ a > 0 ❞❛♥ b > 0✱ ②❛✐t✉
a + b > 0✳ ✭✶✮ → ✭✷✮✿ ❉✐❦❡t❛❤✉✐ a < b✱ ❛t❛✉ a − b < 0✳ ❏❛❞✐ ❞✐♣❡r♦❧❡❤
2 2
a − b = (a − b) (a + b) <
0
| {z } | {z }
< 0 > 0

✭✷✮ → ✭✶✮✿ ❉✐❦❡t❛❤✉✐ a2 −b2 = (a − b) (a + b) < 0✳ ❑❛r❡♥❛ ❞✐❦❡t❛❤✉✐ ♣✉❧❛ a+b >
0
| {z } | {z }
< 0 > 0
♠❛❦❛ ❤❛r✉s❧❛❤ a − b < 0✱ ❛t❛✉ a < b✳ ✭✐✮ ↔ ✭✐✐✐✮✿ ❙❡❜❡❧✉♠♥②❛ s✉❞❛❤ ❞✐❜✉❦t✐❦❛♥
❜❛❤✇❛ ❥✐❦❛ x, y > 0 ♠❛❦❛

✶
❇❛❜ ✶✳ ❙■❚❊▼ ❇■▲❆◆●❆◆ ❘❊❆▲2❜② ❏✉❧❛♥
2
x < y ←→ x < y .

✶
 ❇❛❜ ✶✳ ❙■❚❊▼ ❇■▲❆◆●❆◆ ❘❊❆▲ ❜② ❏✉❧❛♥

√ √
P❛❞❛ ❜❛❣✐❛ ♥ ✐♥✐ ❞✐❛♠❜✐❧ x = a ❞❛♥ y = b s❡❤✐♥❣❣❛ x, y > 0✳ ❑❛r❡♥❛ a =
√
( a)2 √
❞❛♥ b = b)2 ♠❛❦❛ ❞✐♣❡r♦❧❡❤
√ √ √ √
a < b ←→ ( a)2 = a < b = ( b)2 .
❏❛❞✐ ❧❡♥❣❦❛♣❧❛❤ ❜✉❦t✐ ✐♥✐ ❦❛r❡♥❛ t❡❧❛❤ ❞✐t✉♥❥✉❦❦❛♥ ❜❡r❧❛❦✉♥②❛ ❡q✉✐✈❛❧❡♥s✐
✭✸✮ ↔ ✭✶✮ ↔ ✭✷✮✳
❚❡♦r❡♠❛ ✶✳✶✶✳ ❬❘❛t❛✲r❛t❛ ❛r✐t♠❛t✐❦❛✲❣❡♦♠❡tr✐❪ ❇✐❧❛ a ❞❛♥ b ❜✐❧❛♥❣❛♥ ♣♦s✐t✐❢ ♠❛❦❛
❜❡r❧❛❦✉ √ 1
ab ≤ (a + b). ✭❘❆●✮
2
❇✉❦t✐✳ ❇✐❧❛ a = b ♠❛❦❛ r❡❧❛s✐ ♣❛❞❛ ✭❘❆●✮ √♠❡♥❥❛❞✐ ❦❡s❛♠❛❛♥✳
√ ❙❡❦❛r❛♥❣ ❞✐❛s✉♠s✐❦❛♥
a = b✳ ❑❛r❡♥❛ a > 0 ❞❛♥ b > 0 ♠❛❦❛ a > 0 ❞❛♥ b > 0✳ ❉✐♣❡r❤❛t✐❦❛♥ ❜❛❤✇❛
√ √ √ √
0 = a − b = ( a − b)|( a +{z b) }.
> 0
√ √
❏❛❞✐ ( a − b) = 0✱ ❞❛♥ s❡❧❛♥❥✉t♥②❛ ❞✐❦✉❛❞r❛t❦❛♥ ❞✐♣❡r♦❧❡❤
√ √ √ √ 1
2
0 < ( a − b) = a − 2 ab + b ⇐⇒ ab > (a + b).
2
❘❛t❛✲r❛t❛ ❛r✐t♠❛t✐❦❛ ✭❘❆✮ ❞❛r✐ ❞✉❛ ❜✐❧❛♥❣❛♥√ r❡❛❧ a ❞❛♥ b ❛❞❛❧❛❤
a+b
✱ s❡❞❛♥❣❦❛♥ r❛t❛✲
2
r❛t❛ ❣❡♦♠❡tr✐ ✭❘●✮ ❞❛r✐ a ❞❛♥ b ❛❞❛❧❛❤ ab✳ ❇✐❛s❛♥②❛ ❞❛❧❛♠ ❦❡❤✐❞✉♣❛♥ s❡❤❛r✐✲❤❛r✐✱
r❛t❛✲r❛t❛ ❛r✐t♠❛t✐❦❛ ❧❡❜✐❤ s❡r✐♥❣ ❞✐❣✉♥❛❦❛♥ ❞❛r✐♣❛❞❛ r❛t❛✲r❛t❛ ❣❡♦♠❡tr✐✳ ❙❡❝❛r❛ ✉♠✉♠
❞✉❛ ♠❛❝❛♠ r❛t❛✲r❛t❛ ✐♥✐ ❞✐❞❡✜♥✐s✐❦❛♥ s❡❜❛❣❛✐ ❜❡r✐❦✉t✿ ▼✐s❛❧❦❛♥ ❞✐❦❡t❛❤✉✐ ❜✐❧❛♥❣❛♥ r❡❛❧
❛t❛✉ ❞❛t❛ a1 , a2 , · · · , an ♠❛❦❛
Y !1/n
Xn n
RA = 1 a , RG k a k
= k=1
n k=1
P Q
❞❡♥❣❛♥ ♥♦t❛s✐ ✉♥t✉❦ ♣❡♥❥✉♠❧❛❤❛♥ ❞❛♥ ✉♥t✉❦ ♣❡r❦❛❧✐❛♥ s✉❦✉✲s✉❦✉✳ ▼❛s✐❤ t❡t❛♣
❜❡r❧❛❦✉ ❜❛❤✇❛
RG ≤ RA.
❚❡♦r❡♠❛ ✶✳✶✷ ✭❑❡t✐❞❛❦s❛♠❛❛♥ ❇❡r♥♦✉❧❧✐✮✳ ❏✐❦❛ x > −1 ♠❛❦❛ ✉♥t✉❦ s❡t✐❛♣ n ∈ N
❜❡r❧❛❦✉
(1 + x)n ≥ 1 + nx. ✭❑❇✮
❇✉❦t✐✳ ❉✐❜✉❦t✐❦❛♥ ❞❡♥❣❛♥ ✐♥❞✉❦s✐ ♠❛t❡♠❛t✐❦❛✳ ❯♥t✉❦ n = 1 ❦❡❞✉❛ r✉❛s ♣❛❞❛ ✭❑❇✮
♠❡♥❥❛❞✐ ❦❡s❛♠❛❛♥✳ ❉✐❛s✉♠s✐❦❛♥ ❜❡r❧❛❦✉ ✉♥t✉❦ n = k✱ ②❛✐t✉ ❜❡r❧❛❦✉ (1 + x)k ≥
1 + kx✳ ❯♥t✉❦ n = k + 1✱ ❞✐♣❡r♦❧❡❤
(1 + x)k ≥ 1 + kx ❬ ❞✐❦❡t❛❤✉✐ ❪
(1 + x) k+1
= (1 + x) (1 + x) ≥ (1 + kx)(1 + x)
k

2
= 1 + (k + 1)x + kx
≥ 1 + (k + 1)x.

✶
 ❇❛❜ ✶✳ ❙■❚❊▼ ❇■▲❆◆●❆◆ ❘❊❆▲ ❜② ❏✉❧❛♥

❏❛❞✐ ❜❡r❧❛❦✉ ✉♥t✉❦ n = k + 1✳ P❡r❤❛t✐❦❛♥ ♣❛❞❛ ❜❛r✐s ❦❡❞✉❛ ❦❡❞✉❛ r✉❛s ❞✐❦❛❧✐❦❛♥
❞❡♥❣❛♥ (1 + x) s✉❛t✉ ❜✐❧❛♥❣❛♥ ♣♦s✐t✐❢ ❦❛r❡♥❛ x > −1✳
❚❡♦r❡♠❛ ✶✳✶✸ ✭❑❡t✐❞❛❦s❛♠❛❛♥ ❈❛✉❝❤②✮✳ ▼✐s❛❧❦❛♥ a1 , a2 , · · · an ❞❛♥ b1 , b2 , · · · , bn
❜✐❧❛♥❣❛♥ r❡❛❧ ♠❛❦❛ ❜❡r❧❛❦✉ !2 ! !
Xn X
n X
n
2
a k bk ≤ ak
2
bk .
k=1 k=1 k=1

❇✉❦t✐✳ ❉✐❞❡✜♥✐s✐❦❛♥ ❢✉♥❣s✐ F : R → R ❞❡♥❣❛♥

X
n
F (t) := (ak − tbk )2 .
k=1

❏❡❧❛s F ❢✉♥❣s✐ t❛❦♥❡❣❛t✐❢✱ ❦❛r❡♥❛ ✐t✉ ❞✐♣❡r♦❧❡❤

Xn
F (t) = ak2 − 2tak bk + t2kb2
k=1
! ! !
Xn Xn X
n
2
=
2 2
bk t − 2 t+ ak ≥ 0.
k=1
a k bk k=1

k=1

❏❛❞✐ F ♠❡r✉♣❛❦❛♥ ❢✉♥❣s✐ ❦✉❛❞r❛t ❞❡✜♥✐t t❛❦ ♥❡❣❛t✐❢✱ s❡❤✐♥❣❣❛ ❞✐s❦r✐♠✐♥❛♥♥②❛ ♣✉♥
t❛❦ ♥❡❣❛t✐❢✱ ②❛✐t✉ !2 ! !
Xn X n Xn
2
4 a k bk − 4 bk
2
ak ≤ 0.
k=1 k=1 k=1

❆❦❤✐r♥②❛ ❞❡♥❣❛♥ ♠❡♠✐♥❞❛❤❦❛♥ r✉❛s

!2 ♣❛❞❛n ❦❡t✐❞❛❦s❛♠❛❛♥
! ! ✐♥✐ t❡r❜✉❦t✐❧❛❤ ❜❛❤✇❛
X n X X
n
2
a k bk ≤ ak
2
bk .
k=1 k=1 k=1

❙♦❛❧✲s♦❛❧ ②❛♥❣ ❞✐♣❡❝❛❤❦❛♥

✶✳ ❉✐❦❡t❛❤✉✐ a, b ∈ R.❇✉❦t✐❦❛♥ a2 + b2 = 0 ←→ a = 0 ❞❛♥ b = 0✳
✷✳ ❇✐❧❛ 0 ≤ a < b✱ ❜✉❦t✐❦❛♥ a2 ≤ ab < b2 ✳ ❚✉♥❥✉❦❦❛♥ ❜❛❤✇❛ a2 < ab < b2 t✐❞❛❦
s❡❧❛❧✉ ❜❡r❧❛❦✉✳
√
1 1
✸✳ ❇✉❦t✐❦❛♥ ❥✐❦❛ 0 < a < b ♠❛❦❛ ❜❡r❧❛❦✉ a < ab < b ❞❛♥ b <a ✳
1 2 1
✹✳ ❇✉❦t✐❦❛♥ ✉♥t✉❦ s❡t✐❛♣ a, b ∈ R ❜❡r❧❛❦✉ 2 (a + b) ≤ 2 (a2 + b2 )✳

✶
 ❇❛❜ ✶✳ ❙■❚❊▼ ❇■▲❆◆●❆◆ ❘❊❆▲ ❜② ❏✉❧❛♥

✺✳ ❇✉❦t✐❦❛♥ ❦❡❜❡♥❛r❛♥ ♣❡r♥②❛t❛❛♥ ❜❡r✐❦✉t

❛✮ 0 < c < 1 → 0 < c2 < c < 1
❜✮ c > 1 → 1 < c < c2 .
✻✳ ❇✐❧❛ ✉♥t✉❦ s❡❜❛r❛♥❣ a, b ∈ R ❜❡r❧❛❦✉ a ≤ b + ε ✉♥t✉❦ s❡t✐❛♣ ε > 0 ♠❛❦❛ a ≤ b✳
✼✳ ❚❡♠✉❦❛♥ ❤✐♠♣✉♥❛♥ ♣❡♥②❡❧❡s❛✐❛♥ ②❛♥❣ ♠❡♠❡♥✉❤✐ ♣❡rt✐❞❛❦s❛♠❛❛♥ ❜❡r✐❦✉t
❛✮ x2 > 3x + 4
❜✮ 1 < x2 < 4
1
❝✮ <x
x
1
❞✮ < x2 .
x

✶✳✸ ◆✐❧❛✐ ♠✉t❧❛❦ ❞❛♥ ❥❛r❛❦ ♣❛❞❛ R

P❛❞❛ s✐❢❛t ✉r✉t❛♥ ❜✐❧❛♥❣❛♥ r❡❛❧ ❜❛r✉ ❞✐❦❡t❛❤✉✐ ✉r✉t❛♥ ❧❡❜✐❤ ❜❡s❛r ❛♥t❛r❛ ❞✉❛ ❜✐❧❛♥❣❛♥
r❡❛❧✱ t❡t❛♣✐ ❜❡❧✉♠ ❞✐❦❡t❛❤✉✐ ♣❡♥❣❡rt✐❛♥ ❥❛r❛❦ ❛♥t❛r❛ ❞✉❛ ❜✐❧❛♥❣❛♥ r❡❛❧✳ ❏❛r❛❦ ❛t❛✉ s❡❝❛r❛
✉♠✉♠ ❞✐s❡❜✉t ♠❡tr✐❦ ♣❛❞❛ ❜✐❧❛♥❣❛♥ r❡❛❧ ✐♥✐ ❞✐t❡♥t✉❦❛♥ ♠❡❧❛❧✉✐ ♥✐❧❛✐ ♠✉t❧❛❦✳

❉❡✜♥✐s✐ ✶✳✸✳ ◆✐❧❛✐ ♠✉t❧❛❦ s✉❛t✉ ❜✐❧❛♥❣❛♥ r❡❛❧ a✱ ❞✐t✉❧✐s ❞❡♥❣❛♥ |a| ❞✐❞❡✜♥✐s✐❦❛♥ s❡❜❛❣❛✐✿

 a ❜✐❧❛ a > 0,
|a| := 0 ❜✐❧❛ a = 0,
−a ❜✐❧❛ a < 0.

❙❡❜❛❣❛✐ ❝♦♥t♦❤✱ |3| = 3✱ |0| = 0✱ ❞❛♥ | − 1| = 1✳ ❉❡♥❣❛♥ ❦❛t❛ ❧❛✐♥✱ ♥✐❧❛✐ ♠✉❧t❛❦ ❜✐❧❛♥❣❛♥
r❡❛❧ ❜❡rs✐❢❛t ❞✐❦♦t♦♠✐✱ ②❛✐t✉ ♥♦❧ ❛t❛✉ ♣♦s✐t✐❢✳ ❉✐♣❡r❤❛t✐❦❛♥ t✐❣❛ ❝❛❜❛♥❣ ♣❛❞❛ ❞❡✜♥✐s✐
♥✐❧❛✐ ♠✉t❧❛❦ ❞❛♣❛t ❞✐s❡❞❡r❤❛♥❛❦❛♥ ♠❡♥❥❛❞✐
(
a ❜✐❧❛ a ≥ 0,
|a| :=
−a ❜✐❧❛ a < 0.

❚❡♦r❡♠❛ ❜❡r✐❦✉t ♠❡♥②❛❥✐❦❛♥ s✐❢❛t✲s✐❢❛t ❞❛s❛r ♥✐❧❛✐ ♠✉t❧❛❦✳

❚❡♦r❡♠❛ ✶✳✶✹✳ ▼✐s❛❧❦❛♥ a, b, c ❜✐❧❛♥❣❛♥✲❜✐❧❛♥❣❛♥ r❡❛❧✳ ▼❛❦❛ ❜❡r❧❛❦✉ ♣❡r♥②❛t❛❛♥ ❜❡r✐❦✉t

✶✳ |a| = 0 ❜✐❧❛ ❤❛♥②❛ ❜✐❧❛ a = 0

✷✳ | − a| = |a|
✸✳ |ab| = |a||b|
✹✳ ✉♥t✉❦ c ≥ 0✱ |a| ≤ c ❜✐❧❛ ❤❛♥②❛ ❜✐❧❛ −c ≤ a ≤ c✳

✶
 ❇❛❜ ✶✳ ❙■❚❊▼ ❇■▲❆◆●❆◆ ❘❊❆▲ ❜② ❏✉❧❛♥

✺✳ −|a| ≤ a ≤ |a|✳
❇✉❦t✐✳ ✶✮(⇐=)✿ ❧❛♥❣s✉♥❣ ❞❛r✐ ❞❡✜♥✐s✐✳ (=⇒)✿ ❞✐❜✉❦t✐❦❛♥ ♠❡❧❛❧✉✐ ❦♦♥tr❛♣♦s✐s✐♥②❛✱ ②❛✐t✉
❥✐❦❛ a = 0 ♠❛❦❛ |a| = 0✱ ❥✉❣❛ ❧❛♥❣s✉♥❣ ❞❛r✐ ❞❡✜♥✐s✐✳
✷✮ ❏✐❦❛ a = 0 ♠❛❦❛ ❞✐♣❡r♦❧❡❤ |a| = |0| = 0 = | − 0| = | − a|✳ ❏✐❦❛ a > 0 ♠❛❦❛
−a < 0 s❡❤✐♥❣❣❛ ❞✐♣❡r♦❧❡❤ |a| = a = −(−a) = | − a|✳ ❏✐❦❛ a < 0 ♠❛❦❛ −a > 0
s❡❤✐♥❣❣❛ ❞✐♣❡r♦❧❡❤ |a| = −a = |a|✳
✸✮ ❇✐❧❛ ♠✐♥✐♠❛❧ s❛❧❛❤ s❛t✉ ❞❛r✐ a ❛t❛✉ b ❜❡r♥✐❧❛✐ ♥♦❧ ♠❛❦❛ ❦❡❞✉❛ r✉❛s ❜❡r♥✐❧❛✐
♥♦❧✳ ❇✐❧❛ ❦❡❞✉❛♥②❛ t✐❞❛❦ ❛❞❛ ②❛♥❣ ♥♦❧✱ ❛❞❛ ✹ ❦❡♠✉♥❣❦✐♥❛♥ ✉♥t✉❦ ♥✐❧❛✐ a, b ②❛♥❣
♣❡r❧✉ ❞✐s❡❧✐❞✐❦✐ ②❛✐t✉ a > 0, b > 0 ❛t❛✉ a > 0, b < 0 ❛t❛✉ a < 0, b > 0 ❛t❛✉
a < 0, b < 0✳ ❯♥t✉❦ a > 0, b < 0 ♠❛❦❛ ab < 0✱ |a| = a✱ |b| = −b s❡❤✐♥❣❣❛ ❜❡r❧❛❦✉
|ab| = −(ab) = (a)(−b) = |a||b|✳ ❯♥t✉❦ ❦❡♠✉♥❣❦✐♥❛♥ ❧❛✐♥♥②❛ s✐❧❛❤❦❛♥ ❞✐❝♦❜❛
s❡♥❞✐r✐ s❡❜❛❣❛✐ ❧❛t✐❤❛♥✳
✹✮ (⇐=)✿ ❦❛r❡♥❛ |a| ≤ c ♠❛❦❛ a ≤ c ❞❛♥ −a ≤ c ❛t❛✉ a ≥ −c✱ ❞✐❣❛❜✉♥❣❦❛♥
❞✐♣❡r♦❧❡❤ −c ≤ a ≤ c✳ (=⇒)✿ ❜✐❧❛ −c ≤ a ≤ c ♠❛❦❛ ❦✐t❛ ♠♠❡♣✉♥②❛✐ a ≤ c ❞❛♥
−c ≤ a✱ ❛t❛✉ −a < c✳ ❑❛r❡♥❛ |a| ❜❡r♥✐❧❛✐ |a| ❛t❛✉ | − a| ♠❛❦❛ ❞✐s✐♠♣✉❧❦❛♥ |a| < c✳

✺✮ ❉❡♥❣❛♥ ♠❡♥❣❛♠❜✐❧ c := |a| ≥ 0 ♣❛❞❛ ❜❛❣✐❛♥ ✭✹✮ ♠❛❦❛ |a| ≤ |a| ❛❞❛❧❛❤ ♣❡r♥②✲
❛t❛❛♥ ②❛♥❣ ❜❡♥❛r✳ ■♠♣❧✐❦❛s✐♥②❛ ❛❞❛❧❛❤ −|a| ≤ c ≤ |a|✳ ❈❛r❛ ❧❛✐♥ ❛❞❛❧❛❤ ❞❡♥❣❛♥
♠❡♥❣❣✉♥❛❦❛♥ ❦❡♥②❛t❛❛♥ ❜❛❤✇❛ |a| ≥ a ❜❡r❧❛❦✉ ✉♥t✉❦ s❡t✐❛♣ a ∈ R✳ ❑❛r❡♥❛
−a ∈ R ♠❛❦❛ |a| = | − a| ≥ −a✱ ❛t❛✉ −|a| ≤ a✳ ❙❡t❡❧❛❤ ❞✐❣❛❜✉♥❣❦❛♥ ❞✐♣❡r♦❧❡❤
−|a| ≤ c ≤ |a|✳
❉❡✜♥✐s✐ ✶✳✹✳ ❏❛r❛❦ ✭♠❡tr✐❦✮ ❛♥t❛r❛ ❞✉❛ ❜✐❧❛♥❣❛♥ r❡❛❧ a ❞❛♥ b ❞✐❞❡✜♥✐s✐❦❛♥ s❡❜❛❣❛✐
d(a, b) := |a − b|.
❇✐❧❛ b = 0 ♠❛❦❛ d(a, 0) = |a| ❞✐♣❛♥❞❛♥❣ s❡❜❛❣❛✐ ❥❛r❛❦ a t❡r❤❛❞❛♣ t✐t✐❦ ❛s❛❧ 0✳

■♥t❡r♣r❡t❛s✐ s❡❞❡r❤❛♥❛ ❜✐❧❛♥❣❛♥ r❡❛❧ ❞❛♣❛t ❞✐s❛❥✐❦❛♥ ❞❛❧❛♠ ❣❛r✐s ❜✐❧❛♥❣❛♥✳ ●❛♠❜❛r
❜❡r✐❦✉t ❛❞❛❧❛❤ ❣❛r✐s ❜✐❧❛♥❣❛♥ ❞❛♥ ✐❧✉str❛s✐ ❥❛r❛❦ ❛♥t❛r❛ −3 ❞❛♥ 2✳
-4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4

| -3 - 2 | = 5

●❛♠❜❛r ✶✳✷✿ ●❛r✐s ❜✐❧❛♥❣❛♥ ❞❛♥ ❥❛r❛❦ ❛♥t❛r❛ ❞✉❛ ❜✐❧❛♥❣❛♥ r❡❛❧

❚❡♦r❡♠❛ ❜❡r✐❦✉t ❜❡r❦❛✐t❛♥ ❞❡♥❣❛♥ s✐❢❛t ❞❛s❛r ♥✐❧❛✐ ♠✉t❧❛❦ ❞❛♥ s❛♥❣❛t s❡r✐♥❣ ❞✐❣✉♥❛❦❛♥
❞❛❧❛♠ ❛♥❛❧✐s✐s✳
❚❡♦r❡♠❛ ✶✳✶✺✳ ✭❑❡t✐❞❛❦s❛♠❛❛♥ s❡❣✐t✐❣❛✮ ❯♥t✉❦ s❡❜❛r❛♥❣ ❜✐❧❛♥❣❛♥ r❡❛❧ a ❞❛♥ b ❜❡r❧❛❦✉
|a + b| ≤ |a| + |b|. ✭❑❙✮

✶
 ❇❛❜ ✶✳ ❙■❚❊▼ ❇■▲❆◆●❆◆ ❘❊❆▲ ❜② ❏✉❧❛♥

❇✉❦t✐✳ ❉❛r✐ ❚❡♦r❡♠❛ ✶✳✶✹✭✺✮ ❦✐t❛ ♠❡♠♣✉♥②❛✐ −|a| < a < |a| ❞❛♥ −|b| < b < |b|✳
❉❡♥❣❛♥ ♠❡♥❥✉♠❧❛❤❦❛♥ ❞✉❛ ❦❡t✐❞❛❦s❛♠❛❛♥ ✐♥✐ ❞✐♣❡r♦❧❡❤

−(|a| + |b|) < a + b < (|a| + |b|).

❑❡♠✉❞✐❛♥✱ ❞❛r✐ ❜❛❣✐❛♥ ✭✹✮ ❞❡♥❣❛♥ ♠❡♥❣❛♥❣❣❛♣ c := (|a| + |b|) ♠❛❦❛ t❡r❜✉❦t✐
❜❛❤✇❛
|a + b| ≤ |a| + |b|.
▲❛t✐❤❛♥ ✶✳✾✳ ❯♥t✉❦ s❡❜❛r❛♥❣ ❜✐❧❛♥❣❛♥ r❡❛❧ a ❞❛♥ b✱ ❜✉❦t✐❦❛♥
✶✳ ||a| − |b|| ≤ |a − b|✳
✷✳ |a − b| ≤ |a| + |b|✳
❈♦♥t♦❤ ✶✳✺✳ ❚❡♥t✉❦❛♥ s❡♠✉❛ ❜✐❧❛♥❣❛♥ r❡❛❧ x ②❛♥❣ ♠❡♠❡♥✉❤✐ |x − 1| > |x + 1|✳
P❡♥②❡❧❡s❛✐❛♥✳ ❉✐♣❡r❤❛t✐❦❛♥ t✐t✐❦ x = −1 ❞❛♥ x = 1 ♠❡r✉♣❛❦❛♥ t✐t✐❦ tr❛♥s✐s✐✱ ②❛✐t✉
♣❡r❜❛t❛s❛♥ ❞✐♠❛♥❛ ♥✐❧❛✐ ♠✉t❧❛❦ ❜❡r✉❜❛❤ ♣♦❧❛✳ ❯♥t✉❦ x < −1✱ ♠❛❦❛ x − 1 < 0
❞❛♥ x + 1 > 0 s❡❤✐♥❣❣❛ |x − 1| = −(x − 1) ❞❛♥ |x + 1| = −(x + 1)✳ ❙✉❜t✐t✉s✐
❦❡❞❛❧❛♠ ❦❡t✐❞❛❦s❛♠❛❛♥ ❞✐♣❡r♦❧❡❤

−(x − 1) > −(x + 1) ⇐⇒ 1 >

−1

s✉❛t✉ ♣❡r♥②❛t❛❛♥ ②❛♥❣ ❜❡♥❛r ✉♥t✉❦ s❡t✐❛♣ x < −1✳

❯♥t✉❦ −1 < x < 1 ❜❡r❧❛❦✉ |x − 1| = −(x − 1) ❞❛♥ |x + 1| = (x + 1)✳ ❙✉❜t✐t✉s✐
❦❡❞❛❧❛♠ ❦❡t✐❞❛❦s❛♠❛❛♥ ❞✐♣❡r♦❧❡❤

−(x − 1) > (x + 1) ⇐⇒ 2x >< 0 ⇐⇒ x <

0.

❯♥t✉❦ x > 1 ❜❡r❧❛❦✉ |x − 1| = x − 1 ❞❛♥ |x + 1| = x + 1✳ ❙✉❜st✐t✉s✐ ❦❡ ❞❛❧❛♠

❦❡t✐❞❛❦s❛♠❛❛♥ ❞✐♣❡r♦❧❡❤
x − 1 > x + 1 ⇐⇒ −1 >
1

s✉❛t✉ ♣❡r♥②❛t❛❛♥ ②❛♥❣ s❛❧❛❤ ✉♥t✉❦ s❡t✐❛♣ x > 1✳

❉❡♥❣❛♥ ♠❡♥❣❣❛❜✉♥❣❦❛♥ ❦❡t✐❣❛ ❤❛s✐❧ ✐♥✐ ❞✐♣❡r♦❧❡❤ ❤✐♠♣✉♥❛♥ ♣❡♥②❡❧❡s❛✐❛♥ ✉♥t✉❦
x s❡❜❛❣❛✐ ❜❡r✐❦✉t

{x : x < −1} ∪ {x : x < 0} = {x : x < 0}.

❈❛r❛ ❧❛✐♥ ❛❞❛❧❛❤ ❞❡♥❣❛♥ ♠❡♥❣❣✉♥❛❦❛♥ ❚❡♦r❡♠❛ ✶✳✶✵ s❡❜❡❧✉♠♥②❛✱ ②❛✐t✉

2 2 2 2
|x−1| > |x+1| ⇔ (x−1) > (x+1) ⇔ x −2x+1 > x +2x+1 ⇔ 4x < 0 ⇔ x <
0.

P❡r❤❛t✐❦❛♥ ❚❡♦r❡♠❛ ✶✳✶✵ ♠❡♠❜❡r✐❦❛♥ ❞❛s❛r ✉♥t✉❦ ♠❡♥❣❦✉❛❞❛rt❦❛♥ ❦❡❞✉❛ r✉❛s ❦❡t✐❞❛❦✲

✶
 ❇❛❜ ✶✳ ❙■❚❊▼ ❇■▲❆◆●❆◆ ❘❊❆▲ ❜② ❏✉❧❛♥
s❛♠❛❛♥✳ P❡r❧✉ ❤❛t✐✲❤❛t✐ s②❛r❛t ②❛♥❣ ❤❛r✉s ❞✐♣❡♥✉❤✐ ❛❞❛❧❛❤ ❦❡❞✉❛ r✉❛s t❡r❥❛♠✐♥ t✐❞❛❦
❜❡r♥✐❧❛✐ ♥❡❣❛t✐❢✳

✶
 ❇❛❜ ✶✳ ❙■❚❊▼ ❇■▲❆◆●❆◆ ❘❊❆▲ ❜② ❏✉❧❛♥

▲❛t✐❤❛♥ ✶✳✶✵✳ ❚❡♥t✉❦❛♥ s❡♠✉❛ ❜✐❧❛♥❣❛♥ r❡❛❧ x ②❛♥❣ ♠❡♠❡♥✉❤✐ |x| + |x + 1| < 2✳

❉❛♣❛t ❞✐♣❡r✐❦s❛ ❜❛❤✇❛ ❥❛r❛❦ ✭♠❡tr✐❦✮ s❡♣❡rt✐ ❞✐❜❡r✐❦❛♥ ♣❛❞❛ ❉❡✜♥✐s✐ ✶✳✹ ♠❡♠❡♥✉❤✐
s✐❢❛t✲s✐❢❛t s❡❜❛❣❛✐ ❜❡r✐❦✉t
✶✳ d(x, y) ≥ 0 ✉♥t✉❦ s❡t✐❛♣ x, y ∈ R✳
✷✳ d(x, y) = 0 ❜✐❧❛ ❤❛♥②❛ ❜✐❧❛ x = y✳
✸✳ d(x, y) = d(y, x) ✉♥t✉❦ s❡t✐❛♣ x, y ∈ R✳
✹✳ d(x, y) ≤ d(x, z) + d(z, y) ✉♥t✉❦ s❡t✐❛♣ x, y ∈ R✳
❙✐❢❛t ✹ ✐♥✐ ♠❡r✉♣❛❦❛♥ ❣❡♥❡r❛❧✐s❛s✐ ❞❛r✐ ❦❡t✐❞❛❦s❛♠❛❛♥ s❡❣✐t✐❣❛ ✭❑❙✮✳ ❍✐♠♣✉♥❛♥ ❜✐❧❛♥❣❛♥
r❡❛❧ ②❛♥❣ ❞✐❧❡♥❣❦❛♣✐ ❞❡♥❣❛♥ ♠❡tr✐❦ d ✐♥✐ ❞✐s❡❜✉t r✉❛♥❣ ♠❡tr✐❦✳ ▲❡❜✐❤ ❧❛♥❥✉t✱ ♣❛❞❛
❛♥❛❧✐s✐s ❞✐❦❡♥❛❧ ♣✉❧❛ r✉❛♥❣ ❜❡r♥♦r♠❛✱ r✉❛♥❣ ❇❛♥❛❝❤✱ r✉❛♥❣ ❍✐❧❜❡rt ❞❛♥ ❧❛✐♥✲❧❛✐♥✳
▲❛t✐❤❛♥ ✶✳✶✶✳ ▼✐s❛❧❦❛♥ S ❤✐♠♣✉♥❛♥ t❛❦❦♦s♦♥❣✱ ❜✉❦t✐❦❛♥ ❢✉♥❣s✐ d ♣❛❞❛ S × S ②❛♥❣
❞✐❞❡✜♥✐s✐❦❛♥ ♦❧❡❤ (
0 ❜✐❧❛ s = t,
d(s, t) :=
1 ❜✐❧❛ s = 0.
♠❡r✉♣❛❦❛♥ ♠❡tr✐❦✳ ▼❡tr✐❦ ✐♥✐ ❞✐s❡❜✉t ♠❡tr✐❦ ❞✐s❦r✐t✳

❇❡♥t✉❦ ❧❛✐♥ ❣❡♥❡r❛❧✐s❛s✐ ❞❛r✐ ❑❙ ❞✐✉♥❣❦❛♣❦❛♥ ♣❛❞❛ t❡♦r❡♠❛ ❜❡r✐❦✉t✳

❚❡♦r❡♠❛ ✶✳✶✻✳ ❯♥t✉❦ s❡❜❛r❛♥❣ ❜✐❧❛♥❣❛♥ r❡❛❧ a1 , a2 , · · · , an ✱ ❜❡r❧❛❦✉

|a1 + a2 + · · · + an | ≤ |a1 | + |a2 | + · · · + |an |.

❇✉❦t✐✳ ❉❛♣❛t ❞✐❜✉❦t✐❦❛♥ ❞❡♥❣❛♥ ✐♥❞✉❦s✐✳ ■♥❣❛t ♣r✐♥s✐♣ ✐♥❞✉❦s✐✱ ❥✐❦❛ ❜❡r❧❛❦✉ ✉♥t✉❦ ❞✉❛
❜✐❧❛♥❣❛♥ ♠❛❦❛ ❛❦❛♥ ❜❡r❧❛❦✉ ✉♥t✉❦ s❡❜❛♥②❛❦ ❜❡r❤✐♥❣❣❛ ❜✐❧❛♥❣❛♥✳

❙♦❛❧✲s♦❛❧ ②❛♥❣ ♣❡r❧✉ ❞✐♣❡❝❛❤❦❛♥

✶✳ ❏✐❦❛ a, b ∈ R, ❜✉❦t✐❦❛♥ ❜❛❤✇❛ |a + b| = |a| + |b| ❜✐❧❛ ❤❛♥②❛ ❜✐❧❛ ab ≥ 0✳
✷✳ ❏✐❦❛ x < z✱ ❜✉❦t✐❦❛♥ ❜❛❤✇❛ x < y < z ❜✐❧❛ ❤❛♥②❛ ❜✐❧❛ |x − y| + |y − z| = |x − z|✳
■♥t❡r♣r❡st❛s✐❦❛♥ ❢❛❦t❛ ✐♥✐ s❡❝❛r❛ ❣❡♦♠❡tr✐s✳
✸✳ ❏✐❦❛ a < x, y < b✱ t✉♥❥✉❦❦❛♥ ❜❛❤✇❛ |x − y| < b − a✳ ❇❡r✐❦❛♥ ✐♥t❡r♣r❡t❛s✐ ❣
❡✲
♦♠❡tr✐♥②❛✳
✹✳ ●❛♠❜❛r❦❛♥ ❣r❛✜❦ ❢✉♥❣s✐ y = |x| + |x − 1|✳
✺✳ ❚❡♥t✉❦❛♥ s❡♠✉❛ x ②❛♥❣ ♠❡♠❡♥✉❤✐ ♣❡rt✐❞❛❦s❛♠❛❛♥ ❜❡r✐❦✉t
❛✮ 4 < |x + 2| + |x + 1| < 5
❜✮ |2x − 3| < 5 ❞❛♥ |x + 1| > 2 s❡❝❛r❛ ❜❡rs❛♠❛❛♥✳

✶
 ❇❛❜ ✶✳ ❙■❚❊▼ ❇■▲❆◆●❆◆ ❘❊❆▲ ❜② ❏✉❧❛♥

✻✳ ❚❡♥t✉❦❛♥ s❡♠✉❛ ♣❛s❛♥❣❛♥ t✐t✐❦ (x, y) ❞❛♥ s❦❡ts❛ ❣r❛✜❦ ♣❛❞❛ R×R ②❛♥❣ ♠❡♠❡♥✉❤✐
♣❡rs❛♠❛❛♥ ❜❡r✐❦✉t
❛✮ |x| = |y|
❜✮ |xy| = 1
❝✮ |x| + |y| = 2
❞✮ |x| − |y| = 1.
✼✳ ❚❡♥t✉❦❛♥ s❡♠✉❛ ♣❛s❛♥❣❛♥ t✐t✐❦ (x, y) ❞❛♥ s❦❡ts❛ ❣r❛✜❦ ♣❛❞❛ R×R ②❛♥❣ ♠❡♠❡♥✉❤✐
♣❡rt✐❞❛❦s❛♠❛❛♥ ❜❡r✐❦✉t
❛✮ |x| ≤ |y|
❜✮ |xy| ≥ 1
❝✮ |x| + |y| ≤ 2
❞✮ |x| − |y| ≥ 1.

✶✳✹ ❙✉♣r❡♠✉♠ ❞❛♥ ✐♥✜♠✉♠

❑❡t✐❦❛ ❦✐t❛ ❞✐❜❡r✐❦❛♥ ❤✐♠♣✉♥❛♥ A := [0, 1) ♠❛❦❛ ♠✐♥✐♠✉♠ ❛t❛✉ ❛♥❣❣♦t❛ t❡r❦❡❝✐❧ ❤✐♠✲
♣✉♥❛♥ ✐♥✐ ❛❞❛❧❛❤ 0✳ P❡rt❛♥②❛❛♥♥②❛✱ ❛♣❛❦❛❤ A ♠❡♠♣✉♥②❛✐ ♠❛❦s✐♠✉♠❄ ❑❛❧❛✉ ❛❞❛✱
❜❡r❛♣❛ ♥✐❧❛✐♥②❛✳ P❡r❤❛t✐❦❛♥ ❜❛❤✇❛ 1 ❜✉❦❛♥ ♥✐❧❛✐ ♠❛❦s✐♠✉♠ ❦❛r❡♥❛ ✐❛ t✐❞❛❦ t❡r♠✉❛t ❞✐
❞❛❧❛♠ A✳ P❡rt❛♥②❛❛♥ ②❛♥❣ s❡❥❡♥✐s✱ ❛♣❛❦❛❤ ❤✐♠♣✉♥❛♥ B := (0, 1] ♠❡♠♣✉♥②❛✐ ♠✐♥✐♠✉♠❄✳
❉❡♥❣❛♥ ❦❛t❛ ❧❛✐♥✱ ❛♣❛❦❛❤ ❛❞❛ ❜✐❧❛♥❣❛♥ ♣♦s✐t✐❢ t❡r❦❡❝✐❧❄✳ ❯♥t✉❦ ♣❡rt❛♥②❛❛♥ t❡r❛❦❤✐r ✐♥✐
❥❛✇❛❜❛♥♥②❛ ❞✐❜❡r✐❦❛♥ ♣❛❞❛ ❝♦♥t♦❤ ❜❡r✐❦✉t✳

❈♦♥t♦❤ ✶✳✻✳ ❇✉❦t✐❦❛♥ ❤✐♠♣✉♥❛♥ B := (0, 1] t✐❞❛❦ ♠❡♠♣✉♥②❛✐ ♠✐♥✐♠✉♠✳

❇✉❦t✐✳ ●✉♥❛❦❛♥ ♠❡t♦❞❛ ❦♦♥tr❛❞✐❦s✐✳ ❆♥❞❛ B ♠❡♠♣✉♥②❛✐ ♠✐♥✐♠✉♠✱ ❦❛t❛❦❛♥❧❛❤ ♥✐✲
1
❧❛✐♥②❛ xmin ✳ ▼❛❦❛ ❤❛r✉s❧❛❤ ♠❡♠❡♥✉❤✐ 0 < xmin < 1✳ ❆♠❜✐❧ a := xmin ✳ ▼❛❦❛
❜❡r❞❛s❛r❦❛♥ t❡♦r❡♠❛ ②❛♥❣ s✉❞❛❤ ❞✐❜❛❤❛s s❡❜❡❧✉♠♥②❛ ❜❡r❧❛❦✉ 0 < a 2< xmin ❞❛♥
a ∈ B✳ ❏❛❞✐ ❛❞❛ ❛♥❣❣❛♦t❛ B ②❛♥❣ ❧❡❜✐❤ ❦❡❝✐❧ ❞❛r✐ xmin ♣❛❞❛❤❛❧ xmin ❛❞❛❧❛❤ ♠✐♥✐✲
♠✉♠✳ ❋❛❦t❛ ✐♥✐ ♠❡♥❣❤❛s✐❧❦❛♥ ❦♦♥tr❛❞✐❦s✐ s❡❤✐♥❣❣❛ ♣❡♥❣❛♥❞❛✐❛♥ ❦✐t❛ ❛❞❛❧❛❤ s❛❧❛❤✳
❑❡s✐♠♣✉❧❛♥♥②❛ B t✐❞❛❦ ♠❡♠♣✉♥②❛✐ ♠✐♥✐♠✉♠✳

▲❛t✐❤❛♥ ✶✳✶✷✳ ❇✉❦t✐❦❛♥ ❤✐♠♣✉♥❛♥ A := [0, 1) t✐❞❛❦ ♠❡♠♣✉♥②❛✐ ♠❛❦s✐♠✉♠✳

❉✐♣❡r❤❛t✐❦❛♥ ❜❛❤✇❛ ♣❛❞❛ 1 ❜✉❦❛♥ ♠❛❦s✐♠✉♠ ❤✐♠♣✉♥❛♥ A := [0, 1) t❡t❛♣✐ t✐❞❛❦ ❛❞❛
❛♥❣❣♦t❛ A ②❛♥❣ ❧❡❜✐❤ ❜❡s❛r ❞❛r✐ 1✳ ◆❛♥t✐♥②❛ ❜✐❧❛♥❣❛♥ 1 s❡♣❡rt✐ ✐♥✐ ❞✐s❡❜✉t ❜❛t❛s ❛t❛s
♣❛❧✐♥❣ ❦❡❝✐❧ ❛t❛✉ s✉♣r❡♠✉♠ ✉♥t✉❦ ❤✐♠♣✉♥❛♥ A✳ ❙❡❜❡❧✉♠♥②❛ ❞✐❜❡r✐❦❛♥ ❞❡✜♥✐s✐ ❜❛t❛s
❛t❛ ❞❛♥ ❜❛t❛s ❜❛✇❛❤ ❤✐♠♣✉♥❛♥ s❡❜❛❣❛✐ ❜❡r✐❦✉t✳

❉❡✜♥✐s✐ ✶✳✺✳ ▼✐s❛❧❦❛♥ S s✉❛t✉ ❤✐♠♣✉♥❛♥ ❜❛❣✐❛♥ ❞❛r✐ R✳

✶
 ❇❛❜ ✶✳ ❙■❚❊▼ ❇■▲❆◆●❆◆ ❘❊❆▲ ❜② ❏✉❧❛♥

●❛♠❜❛r ✶✳✸✿ ■❧✉str❛s✐ ❜❛t❛s ❛t❛s ❞❛♥ ❜❛t❛s ❜❛✇❛❤

✶✳ ❇✐❧❛♥❣❛♥ u ∈ R ❞✐❦❛t❛❦❛♥ ❜❛t❛s ❛t❛s S ❥✐❦❛ s ≤ u ✉♥t✉❦ s❡t✐❛♣ s ∈ S✳

✷✳ ❇✐❧❛♥❣❛♥ w ∈ R ❞✐❦❛t❛❦❛♥ ❜❛t❛s ❜❛✇❛❤ S ❥✐❦❛ w ≤ s ✉♥t✉❦ s❡t✐❛♣ s ∈ S✳
■❧✉str❛s✐ ❜❛t❛s ❛t❛s ❞❛♥ ❜❛t❛s ❜❛✇❛❤ ❤✐♠♣✉♥❛♥ ❞✐❜❡r✐❦❛♥ ●❛♠❜❛r ✶✳✸✳
❏❛❞✐ ❜❛t❛s ❛t❛s ❛t❛s ❞❛♥ ❜❛t❛s ❜❛✇❛❤ t✐❞❛❦ t✉♥❣❣❛❧ s❡♣❡rt✐ ♥✐❧❛✐ ♠❛❦s✐♠✉♠ ❛t❛✉ ♠✐♥✐✲
♠✉♠✳ ❑✐t❛ s❡❜✉t ❤✐♠♣✉♥❛♥ ❜❛t❛s ❛t❛s A✱ ❞✐t✉❧✐s ❤❜❛(A) ✉♥t✉❦ ♠❡♥②❛t❛❦❛♥ ❦✉♠♣✉❧❛♥
s❡♠✉❛ ❜❛t❛s ❛t❛s A✳ ◆♦t❛s✐ ❞❛♥ ♠❛❦s✉❞ ②❛♥❣ s❡s✉❛✐ ✉♥t✉❦ ❤❜❜(B)✳
❈♦♥t♦❤ ✶✳✼✳ ❉✐❜❡r✐❦❛♥ S := [0, 1)✱ ♠❛❦❛ ❤✐♠♣✉♥❛♥ ❜❛t❛s ❛t❛s S ❞❛♥ ❤✐♠♣✉♥❛♥ ❜❛t❛s
❜❛✇❛❤ S ❛❞❛❧❛❤

❤❜❛(S) = {x ∈ R : x ≥ 1} ❞❛♥ ❤❜❜(S) = {x ∈ R : x ≤ 0}.

❉✐♣❡r❤❛t✐❦❛♥ 0 ∈ S ❞❛♥ 0 ❛❞❛❧❛❤ ❜❛t❛s ❜❛✇❛❤✱ s❡❞❛♥❣❦❛♥ 1 ∈/ S ❞❛♥ 1 ❜❛t❛s ❛t❛s S✳

❈♦♥t♦❤ ✶✳✽✳ ❍✐♠♣✉♥❛♥ ❜✐❧❛♥❣❛♥ ❛s❧✐ N t✐❞❛❦ ♠❡♠♣✉♥②❛✐ ❜❛t❛s ❜❛✇❛❤ ♠❛✉♣✉♥ ❜❛t❛s
❛t❛s✳

❈♦♥t♦❤ ✶✳✾✳ ❍✐♠♣✉♥❛♥ S := { 1 : n ∈ N} ♠❡♠♣✉♥②❛✐ ❤✐♠♣✉♥❛♥ ❜❛t❛s ❜❛✇❛❤ {x : x ≤

0} ❞❛♥ ♠❡♠♣✉♥②❛✐ ❤✐♠♣✉♥❛♥ ❜❛t❛s
n
❛t❛s {x : x ≥ 1 }✳

❈♦♥t♦❤ ✶✳✶✵✳ ❇✉❦t✐❦❛♥ s❡t✐❛♣ ❜✐❧❛♥❣❛♥ r❡❛❧ ❛❞❛❧❛❤ ❜❛t❛s ❛t❛s ❤✐♠♣✉♥❛♥ ❦♦s♦♥❣ ∅✳
❇✉❦t✐✳ ❆r❣✉♠❡♥♥②❛ ❞❛♣❛t ❞✐❥❡❧❛s❦❛♥ s❡❜❛❣❛✐ ❜❡r✐❦✉t✳ ❇✐❧❛♥❣❛♥ u ∈ R ❜❛t❛s ❛t❛s S
❞❛♣❛t ❞✐s❛❥✐❦❛♥ ❞❛❧❛♠ ❦❛❧✐♠❛t ❧♦❣✐❦❛ ❜❡r✐❦✉t

s ∈ S → s < u.

❉❛❧❛♠ ❦❛s✉s S ❤✐♠♣✉♥❛♥ ❦♦s♦♥❣ ♠❛❦❛ ♣❡r♥②❛t❛❛♥ s ∈ S ❜❡r♥✐❧❛✐ s❛❧❛❤✱ s❡❤✐♥❣❣❛

❦❛❧✐♠❛t ✐♠♣❧✐❦❛s✐ s ∈ S → s < u s❡❧❛❧✉ ❜❡♥❛r✳
❉❡♥❣❛♥ ❛r❣✉♠❡♥ ②❛♥❣ s❡❥❛❧❛♥ ❞❛♣❛t ❞✐s✐♠♣✉❧❦❛♥ ❜❛❤✇❛ s❡♠✉❛ ❜✐❧❛♥❣❛♥ r❡❛❧ ❥✉❣❛ ♠❡r✉✲
♣❛❦❛♥ ❜❛t❛s ❜❛✇❛❤ ❤✐♠♣✉♥❛♥ ❦♦s♦♥❣✳

❈♦♥t♦❤ ✶✳✶✶✳ ❚✉❧✐s❦❛♥ ❞❡✜♥✐s✐ p ❜✉❦❛♥ ❜❛t❛s ❛t❛s S✳

✶
 ❇❛❜ ✶✳ ❙■❚❊▼ ❇■▲❆◆●❆◆ ❘❊❆▲ ❜② ❏✉❧❛♥

P❡♥②❡❧❡s❛✐❛♥✳ P❡r❤❛t✐❦❛♥ ❞❡✜♥✐s✐ ❜❛t❛s ❛t❛s ❞❛❧❛♠ ❦❛❧✐♠❛t ❧♦❣✐❦❛ ❜❡r✐❦✉t

p ❜❛t❛s ❛t❛s S ←→ p ≥ s ✉♥t✉❦ s❡t✐❛♣ s ∈ S.

❉❡♥❣❛♥ ♠❡♠❜✉❛t ✐♥❣❦❛r❛♥ ❦❛❧✐♠❛t ✐♥✐ ♠❛❦❛ ❞✐♣❡r♦❧❡❤ ❞❡✜♥✐s✐ ❜✉❦❛♥ ❜❛t❛s ❛t❛s
❜❡r✐❦✉t

p ❜✉❦❛♥ ❜❛t❛s ❛t❛s S ←→ ❛❞❛ s0 ∈ S s❡❤✐♥❣❣❛ p < s0 .

▲❛t✐❤❛♥ ✶✳✶✸✳ ❚✉❧✐s❦❛♥ ❞❡✜♥✐s✐ d ❜✉❦❛♥ ❜❛t❛s ❜❛✇❛❤ S✳

❉❡✜♥✐s✐ ✶✳✻✳ ❍✐♠♣✉♥❛♥ ②❛♥❣ ♠❡♠♣✉♥②❛✐ ❜❛t❛s ❛t❛s ❞✐s❡❜✉t t❡r❜❛t❛s ❞✐❛t❛s ✭❜♦✉♥❞❡❞
❛❜♦✈❡✮✱ s❡❞❛♥❣❦❛♥ ❤✐♠♣✉♥❛♥ ❞✐❦❛t❛❦❛♥ t❡r❜❛t❛s ❞✐❜❛✇❛❤ ✭❜♦✉♥❞❡❞ ❜❡❧♦✇ ✮ ❥✐❦❛ ✐❛
♠❡♠✲
♣✉♥②❛✐ ❜❛t❛s ❜❛✇❛❤✳ ❍✐♠♣✉♥❛♥ ❞✐❦❛t❛❦❛♥ t❡r❜❛t❛s ❥✐❦❛ ✐❛ t❡r❜❛t❛s ❞✐❛t❛s ❞❛♥ t❡r❜❛t❛s
❞✐❜❛✇❛❤✳
❈♦♥t♦❤ ✶✳✶✷✳ ❍✐♠♣✉♥❛♥ ❜✐❧❛♥❣❛♥ r❡❛❧ R := (−∞, ∞) t✐❞❛❦ t❡r❜❛t❛s ❞✐❛t❛s ♠❛✉♣✉♥
❞✐❜❛✇❛❤✳ ❍✐♠♣✉♥❛♥ S := [1, ∞) t❡r❜❛t❛s ❞✐❜❛✇❛❤✳ ❍✐♠♣✉♥❛♥ E := { 1 : n ∈ N}
t❡r❜❛t❛s✳ n

❉❡✜♥✐s✐ ✶✳✼✳ ▼✐s❛❧❦❛♥ S ❤✐♠♣✉♥❛♥ ❜❛❣✐❛♥ ❞❛r✐ R✳

✶✳ ▼✐s❛❧❦❛♥ S t❡r❜❛t❛s ❞✐❛t❛s✳ ▼❛❦❛ ❜❛t❛s ❛t❛s u ❞✐❦❛t❛❦❛♥ s✉♣r❡♠✉♠ S ❥✐❦❛ t✐❞❛❦
❛❞❛ ❜✐❧❛♥❣❛♥ ❧❛✐♥ ②❛♥❣ ❧❡❜✐❤ ❦❡❝✐❧ ❞❛r✐ u ②❛♥❣ ♠❡♥❥❛❞✐ ❜❛t❛s ❛t❛s S✳ ❉❡♥❣❛♥ ❦❛t❛
❧❛✐♥ u ❜❛t❛s ❛t❛s ②❛♥❣ ♣❛❧✐♥❣ ❦❡❝✐❧✳
✷✳ ▼✐s❛❧❦❛♥ S t❡r❜❛t❛s ❞✐❜❛✇❛❤✳ ▼❛❦❛ ❜❛t❛s ❜❛✇❛❤ w ❞✐❦❛t❛❦❛♥ ✐♥✜♠✉♠ ❞❛r✐ S
❥✐❦❛ t✐❞❛❦ ❛❞❛ ❜✐❧❛♥❣❛♥ ❧❛✐♥ ②❛♥❣ ❧❡❜✐❤ ❜❡s❛r ❞❛r✐ w ②❛♥❣ ♠❡♥❥❛❞✐ ❜❛t❛s ❜❛✇❛❤ S✳
❉❡♥❣❛♥ ❦❛t❛ ❧❛✐♥ w ❜❛t❛s ❜❛✇❛❤ ②❛♥❣ ♣❛❧✐♥❣ ❜❡s❛r✳
❑❡❞✉❛ ✐st✐❧❛❤ ✐♥✐ ❞✐t✉❧✐s ❞❛❧❛♠

u = sup(S) ❞❛♥ w = inf(S).

❑❛r❛❦t❡r✐s❛s✐ s✉♣r❡♠✉♠

❇❡r❞❛s❛r❦❛♥ ❞❡✜♥✐s✐✱ u = sup(S) ❞❛♣❛t ❞✐❦❛r❛❦t❡r✐s❛s✐ ♦❧❡❤ ❞✉❛ ❦♦♥❞✐s✐ ❜❡r✐❦✉t✱ ②❛✐t✉✿
✶✳ u ≥ s ✉♥t✉❦ s❡t✐❛♣ s ∈ S✱
✷✳ ❜✐❧❛ ❛❞❛ v ∈ R ❞❡♥❣❛♥ v < u ♠❛❦❛ ❛❞❛ s0 ∈ S s❡❤✐♥❣❣❛ v < s0 ✳
❑♦♥❞✐s✐ ♣❡rt❛♠❛ ♠❡♥②❛t❛❦❛♥ ❜❛❤✇❛ v ❤❛r✉s❧❛❤ ❜❛t❛s ❛t❛s S ❞❛♥ ❦♦♥❞✐s✐ ❦❡❞✉❛ ♠❡♥②✲
❛t❛❦❛♥ ❜❛❤✇❛ ❜❛t❛s ❛t❛s ✐♥✐ ❤❛r✉s❧❛❤ ②❛♥❣ t❡r❦❡❝✐❧✳ ❆rt✐♥②❛ ❜✐❧❛ ❛❞❛ v ❜✐❧❛♥❣❛♥ ❧❛✐♥
②❛♥❣ ❧❡❜✐❤ ❦❡❝✐❧ ❞❛r✐ s ♠❛❦❛ v ❜✉❦❛♥ ❜❛t❛s ❛t❛s S ❧❛❣✐✳

❈♦♥t♦❤ ✶✳✶✸✳ ❚✉❧✐s❛❦❛♥ ❦❛r❛❦t❡r✐s❛s✐ w = inf S✳

✶
 ❇❛❜ ✶✳ ❙■❚❊▼ ❇■▲❆◆●❆◆ ❘❊❆▲ ❜② ❏✉❧❛♥

●❛♠❜❛r ✶✳✹✿ ■❧✉str❛s✐ s✉♣r❡♠✉♠ ❞❛♥ ✐♥✜♠✉♠

■❧✉str❛s✐ ❣r❛✜❦ s✉♣r❡♠✉♠ ❞❛♥ ✐♥✜♠✉♠ ❞✐❜❡r✐❦❛♥ ♣❛❞❛ ●❛♠❜❛r ✶✳✹✳ ❇❡r❞❛s❛r❦❛♥ ❞❡✜♥✲
✐s✐ ❞❛♥ ✐❧✉str❛s✐ ✐♥✐ ❦✐t❛ ❞❛♣❛t ♠❡♠❜✉❦t✐❦❛♥ ❜❛❤✇❛ s✉♣r❡♠✉♠ ❛t❛✉ ✐♥✜♠✉♠ s✉❛t✉ ❤✐♠✲
♣✉♥❛♥ ❛❞❛❧❛❤ t✉♥❣❣❛❧✳ ❇❡r✐❦✉t t❡♦r❡♠❛ ♠❡♥❣❡♥❛✐ ❢❛❦t❛ ✐♥✐✳
❚❡♦r❡♠❛ ✶✳✶✼✳ ❙✉♣r❡♠✉♠ s✉❛t✉ ❤✐♠♣✉♥❛♥ s❡❧❛❧✉ t✉♥❣❣❛❧✳
❇✉❦t✐✳ ❆♥❞❛✐❦❛♥ u = sup S ❞❛♥ u1 = sup S ❞❡♥❣❛♥ u = u1 ✳ ❑❛r❡♥❛ ✐t✉ ❛❞❛
❞✉❛
❦❡♠✉♥❣❦✐♥❛♥ ②❛♥❣ ❞❛♣❛t t❡r❥❛❞✐✱ ②❛✐t✉ u < u1 ❛t❛✉ u > u1 ✳ ❯♥t✉❦ u < u1
❜❡r❛rt✐ u ❜✉❦❛♥ ❜❛t❛s ❛t❛s S✱ ✐♥✐ ❜❡r❧❛✇❛♥❛♥ ❞❡♥❣❛♥ u = sup S✳ ❯♥t✉❦ u > u1
❜❡r❛rt✐ u1 ❜✉❦❛♥ ❜❛t❛s ❛t❛s S✱ ✐♥✐ ❜❡rt❡♥t❛♥❣❛♥ ❞❡♥❣❛♥ u1 = sup S✳ ❏❛❞✐
♣❡♥❣❛♥❞❛✐❛♥ u = u1 s❛❧❛❤✱ s❡❤❛r✉s♥②❛ u = u1
▲❛t✐❤❛♥ ✶✳✶✹✳ ❇✉❦t✐❦❛♥ ✐♥✜♠✉♠ s✉❛t✉ ❤✐♠♣✉♥❛♥ s❡❧❛❧✉ t✉♥❣❣❛❧✳

❇❡r✐❦✉t ❛❞❛❧❛❤ ❦r✐t❡r✐❛ ❡♣s✐❧♦♥ ②❛♥❣ s❡r✐♥❣ ❞✐❣✉♥❛❦❛♥ ✉♥t✉❦ ♠❡♥❣❡t❛❤✉✐ s✉❛t✉ ❜❛t❛s
❛t❛s ♠❡r✉♣❛❦❛♥ s✉♣r❡♠✉♠ ❛t❛✉ ❜✉❦❛♥✳
❚❡♦r❡♠❛ ✶✳✶✽✳ ▼✐s❛❧❦❛♥ u s✉❛t✉ ❜❛t❛s ❛t❛s ❤✐♠♣✉♥❛♥ S✳ ▼❛❦❛ ❜❡r❧❛❦✉ ♣❡r♥②❛t❛❛♥
❜❡r✐❦✉t
u = sup S ↔ ∀ε > 0, ∃s ∈ S s❡❤✐♥❣❣❛ u − ε < s. ✭✶✳✶✮
❇✉❦t✐✳ ✭→✮✿ ❆♠❜✐❧ ε > 0 s❡❜❛r❛♥❣✳ ❑❛r❡♥❛ ❞✐❦❡t❛❤✉✐ u = sup S ♠❛❦❛ u − ε ❜✉❦❛♥
❜❛t❛s ❛t❛s S✱ ❥❛❞✐ ❛❞❛ s ∈ S s❡❤✐♥❣❣❛ u − ε < s✳
✭ ←✮✿ ❆❦❛♥ ❞✐t✉♥❥✉❦❦❛♥ ❜❛❤✇❛ u②❛♥❣ ♠❡♠❡♥✉❤✐ s❡❜❡❧❛❤ ❦❛♥❛♥ ✭✶✳✶✮ ♠❡r✉♣❛❦❛♥
s✉♣r❡♠✉♠ S✳ ▼✐s❛❧❦❛♥ v s❡❜❛r❛♥❣ ❜✐❧❛♥❣❛♥ r❡❛❧ ❞❡♥❣❛♥ v < u✳ ❆♠❜✐❧ ε := u−v >
0✱ ♠❛❦❛ ❛❞❛ s ∈ S s❡❤✐♥❣❣❛

u − ε = u − (u − v) = v < s.

■♥✐ ❜❡r❛rt✐ v ❜✉❦❛♥ ❜❛t❛s ❛t❛s S✱ ❞❛♥ ❜❡r❞❛s❛r❦❛♥ ❦❛r❛❦t❡r✐st✐❦ s✉♣r❡♠✉♠ ❞✐s✐♠✲
♣✉❧❦❛♥ ❜❛❤✇❛ u = sup S✳
❋❛❦t❛ ♣❛❞❛ t❡♦r❡♠❛ ✐♥✐ ❞✐✐❧✉str❛s✐❦❛♥ ♣❛❞❛ ●❛♠❜❛r ✶✳✺✳
▲❛t✐❤❛♥ ✶✳✶✺✳ ▼✐s❛❧❦❛♥ w s✉❛t✉ ❜❛t❛s ❛t❛s ❤✐♠♣✉♥❛♥ S✳ ▼❛❦❛ ❜❡r❧❛❦✉ ♣❡r♥②❛t❛❛♥
❜❡r✐❦✉t
w = inf S ↔ ∀ε > 0, ∃s ∈ S s❡❤✐♥❣❣❛ w + ε > s. ✭✶✳✷✮
❈♦♥t♦❤ ✶✳✶✹✳ ❉✐♣❡r❤❛t✐❦❛♥ ❤✐♠♣✉♥❛♥ S := {x : 0 ≤ x < 1}✳ ▼❛❦❛ max S t✐❞❛❦ ❛❞❛✱
t❡t❛♣✐ sup S = 1✱ ♠✐♥ S = inf S = 0✳

✷
 ❇❛❜ ✶✳ ❙■❚❊▼ ❇■▲❆◆●❆◆ ❘❊❆▲ ❜② ❏✉❧❛♥

●❛♠❜❛r ✶✳✺✿ ■❧✉str❛s✐ ❦r✐t❡r✐❛ ❡♣s✐❧♦♥ ✉♥t✉❦ s✉♣r❡♠✉♠

❈♦♥t♦❤ ✶✳✶✺✳ ❉✐♣❡r❤❛t✐❦❛♥ ❤✐♠♣✉♥❛♥ S := { 1 : n ∈ R ✳ ▼❛❦❛ ♠❛❦s S = sup S = 1✱
}
♠✐♥ S t✐❞❛❦ ❛❞❛ t❡t❛♣✐ inf S = 0✳ n

❇✉❦t✐✳ ❍❛s✐❧ ✐♥✐ ❞❛♣❛t ❞✐❜✉❦t✐❦❛♥ s❡❜❛❣❛✐ ❜❡r✐❦✉t✳ ❏✐❦❛ ❞✐❜❡r✐❦❛♥ ε > 0 s❡❜❛r❛♥❣ ♠❛❦❛
s❡❧❛❧✉ ❞❛♣❛t ❞✐♣✐❧✐❤ ❜✐❧❛♥❣❛♥ ❛s❧✐ n0 ❞❡♥❣❛♥ n0 > 1/ε✳ ◆❛❤✱ s = 1 ∈ S ❞❛♥
0 + s > ε✳ ❇❡r❞❛s❛r❦❛♥ ❦r✐t❡r✐❛ ✐♥✜♠✉♠ ✭❧❛t✐❤❛♥ s❡❜❡❧✉♠♥②❛✮ ♠❛❦❛ ❞✐s✐♠♣✉❧❦❛♥
n

0 ❛❞❛❛❤ ✐♥✜♠✉♠ S✳
P❛❞❛ ♣❡♠❜✉❦t✐❛♥ ✐♥✐ t❡❧❛❤ ❞✐❣✉♥❛❦❛♥ s✐❢❛t ❆r❝❤✐♠❡❞❡s s❡❜❛❣❛✐ ❜❡r✐❦✉t
1
❙❡t✐❛♣ ε > 0 s❡❧❛❧✉ t❡r❞❛♣❛t ❜✐❧❛♥❣❛♥ ❛s❧✐ n s❡❤✐♥❣❣❛ < ε.
n

❙❡❜❛❣❛✐ ✐❧✉str❛s✐ s✐❢❛t ❆r❝❤✐♠❡❞❡s ✐♥✐✱ ❞✐♣❡r❤❛t✐❦❛♥ ❢❛❦t❛ ❜❡r✐❦✉t✿

ε = 0.0012 → 1 = 833.333 · · · , ❛♠❜✐❧ n = 834 ♠❛❦❛ ❜❡r❧❛❦ 1 = 1 < 0.0012 = ε.

ε n 834
✉

❙❡t❡❧❛❤ ♠❡♠♣❡❧❛❥❛r✐ s✉♣r❡♠✉♠✱ ♠❛❦s✐♠✉♠✱ ✐♥✜♠✉♠ ❞❛♥ ♠✐♥✐♠✉♠ ♠❛❦❛ ❥❡❧❛s❧❛❤ ❜❛❤✇❛
❦♦♥s❡♣ s✉♣r❡♠✉♠ ❞❛♥ ✐♥✜♠✉♠ ❧❡❜✐❤ ❧✉❛s ❞❛r✐♣❛❞❛ ❦♦♥s❡♣ ♠❛❦s✐♠✉♠ ❞❛♥ ♠✐♥✐♠✉♠✳
❋❛❦t❛♥②❛✱ ❜✐❧❛ s✉❛t✉ ❤✐♠♣✉♥❛♥ S ♠❡♠♣✉♥②❛✐ ♠❛❦s✐♠✉♠ ❞❛♥ ♠✐♥✐♠✉♠ ♠❛❦❛
sup S = ♠❛❦s S, inf S = ♠✐♥ S.

❙❡❜❛❧✐❦♥②❛ t✐❞❛❦ s❡♠✉❛ ❤✐♠♣✉♥❛♥ ♠❡♠♣✉♥②❛✐ s✉♣r❡♠✉♠ ❛t❛✉ ✐♥✜♠✉♠✳ ❍✐♠♣✉♥❛♥

②❛♥❣ t✐❞❛❦ ♠❡♠♣✉♥②❛✐ ❜❛t❛s ❛t❛s t❡♥t✉ t✐❞❛❦ ♠❡♠♣✉♥②❛✐ s✉♣r❡♠✉♠✱ ❜❡❣✐t✉ ❥✉❣❛ ❤✐♠✲
♣✉♥❛♥ ②❛♥❣ t✐❞❛❦ t❡r❜❛t❛s ❦❡ ❜❛✇❛❤ t✐❞❛❦ ♠✉♥❣❦✐♥ ♠❡♠♣✉♥②❛✐ ✐♥✜♠✉♠✳ ❍✐♠♣✉♥❛♥
❜✐❧❛♥❣❛♥ r❡❛❧ R t✐❞❛❦ ♠❡♠♣✉♥②❛✐ s✉♣r❡♠✉♠ ♠❛✉♣✉♥ ✐♥✜♠✉♠✳ ■♥❣❛t s✉♣r❡♠✉♠ ❞❛♥
✐♥✜♠✉♠ ♠❡r✉♣❛❦❛♥ ❜✐❧❛♥❣❛♥ r❡❛❧✱ s❡❞❛♥❣❦❛♥ ∞ ❛t❛✉ −∞ ❜✉❦❛♥ ❜✐❧❛♥❣❛♥ r❡❛❧✳

❙✐❢❛t s✉♣r❡♠✉♠ ❞❛♥ ✐♥✜♠✉♠

❙✐❢❛t ✐♥✐ ❞❛♣❛t ❞✐s❛❥✐❦❛♥ s❡❝❛r❛ s❡❞❡r❤❛♥❛ s❡❜❛❣❛✐ ❜❡r✐❦✉t✳ ❙❡t✐❛♣ ❤✐♠♣✉♥❛♥ t❛❦ ❦♦s♦♥❣
②❛♥❣ t❡r❜❛t❛s ❞✐❛t❛s s❡❧❛❧✉ ♠❡♠♣✉♥②❛✐ s✉♣r❡♠✉♠✱ ❞❛♥ s❡t✐❛♣ ❤✐♠♣✉♥❛♥ t❛❦ ❦♦s♦♥❣
②❛♥❣ t❡r❜❛t❛s ❞✐❜❛✇❛❤ s❡❧❛❧✉ ♠❡♠♣✉♥②❛✐ ✐♥✜♠✉♠✳
❙✐❢❛t s✉♣r❡♠✉♠ ✐♥✐ ❞✐❦❡♥❛❧ ❥✉❣❛ ❞❡♥❣❛♥ s✐❢❛t ❦❡❧❡♥❣❦❛♣❛♥ ❜✐❧❛♥❣❛♥ r❡❛❧✳ ❉❡♥❣❛♥ s✐❢❛t
✐♥✐ t❡r❥❛♠✐♥ ❜❛❤✇❛ ❣❛r✐s ❜✐❧❛♥❣❛♥ ❛❞❛❧❛❤ ✧♣❛❞❛t✧✱ ❛rt✐♥②❛ t✐❞❛❦ ❛❞❛ s❛t✉♣✉♥ t✐t✐❦ ②❛♥❣
❤✐❧❛♥❣✳ ❙❡❜❛❣❛✐ ✐❧✉str❛s✐✱ ❞✐♣❡r❤❛t✐❦❛♥ ❤✐♠♣✉♥❛♥ t❡r❜❛t❛s ❜❡r✐❦✉t
2
A := {x > 0 : x < 2}.

✷
 ❇❛❜ ✶✳ ❙■❚❊▼ ❇■▲❆◆●❆◆ ❘❊❆▲ ❜② ❏✉❧❛♥

❍✐♠♣✉♥❛♥ A ✐♥✐ t✐❞❛❦ ♠❡♠♣✉♥②❛✐ ♠❛❦s✐♠✉♠ t❡t❛♣✐ A ♠❡♠♣✉♥②❛✐ s✉♣r❡♠✉♠✱

②❛✐t✉ √ √
sup A = 2✳ ❋❛❦t❛ ✐♥✐ ♠❡♥❥❛♠✐♥ ❜❛❤✇❛ 2 ②❛♥❣ ♠❡r✉♣❛❦❛♥ ❜✐❧❛♥❣❛♥ ✐rr❛s✐♦♥❛❧
❜❡♥❛r✲❜❡♥❛r ❛❞❛✳ P❡rt❛♥②❛❛♥♥②❛✱ s❡❜❡r❛♣❛ ❜❛♥②❛❦ ❜✐❧❛♥❣❛♥ ✐rr❛s✐♦♥❛❧ ②❛♥❣ ❛❞❛✳ ▲❡❜✐❤
✧❜❛♥②❛❦✧ ♠❛♥❛✱ ❜✐❧❛♥❣❛♥ r❛s✐♦♥❛❧ ❛t❛✉ ❜✐❧❛♥❣❛♥ ✐rr❛s✐♦♥❛❧✳ ◆❛❤✱ ❜❡r✐❦✉t ✐♥✐ ❞✐❜❡r✐❦❛♥
s✐❢❛t ❦❡♣❛❞❛t❛♥ ❜✐❧❛♥❣❛♥ r❛s✐♦♥❛❧ ❞❛❧❛♠ R✳

❚❡♦r❡♠❛ ✶✳✶✾✳ ❇✐❧❛ a ❞❛♥ b ❜✐❧❛♥❣❛♥ r❡❛❧ ❞❡♥❣❛♥ a < b ♠❛❦❛ t❡r❞❛♣❛t ❜✐❧❛♥❣❛♥ r❛s✐♦♥❛❧
r ❞❡♥❣❛♥ a < r < b✳
❇✉❦t✐✳
❉✐♣❡r❤❛t✐❦❛♥ ❜❛❤✇❛ 1 s✉❛t✉ ❜✐❧❛♥❣❛♥ r❡❛❧ ♣♦s✐t✐❢✳ ▼❡♥✉r✉t s✐❢❛t ❆r❝❤✐♠❡❞❡s t❡r❞❛♣❛t
b a
❜✐❧❛♥❣❛♥ ❛s❧✐ n s❡❤✐♥❣❣❛− n > 1
b−a ✳ ❯♥t✉ n ✐♥✐ ❜❡r❧❛❦✉

nb − na > 1. ✭✯✮

❙❡❦❛r❛♥❣ ❛♠❜✐❧ m s❡❜❛❣❛✐ ❜✐❧❛♥❣❛♥ ❜✉❧❛t ♣❡rt❛♠❛ ②❛♥❣ ❧❡❜✐❤ ❜❡s❛r ❞❛r✐ na✱ ❞❛♥ ❜❡r❧❛❦✉

m − 1 ≤ na < m. ✭✯✯✮
❉❛r✐ ✭✯✮ ❞❛♥ ✭✯✯✮ ❞✐♣❡r♦❧❡❤
na < m ≤ na + 1 < nb.
❇❡♥t✉❦ t❡r❛❦❤✐r ✐♥✐ ❞❛♣❛t ❞✐t✉❧✐s na < m < nb✱ ❞❛♥ ❞❡♥❣❛♥ ♠❡♠❜❛❣✐ s❡♠✉❛ r✉❛s ❞❡♥❣❛♥
n✱ ❞✐❞❛♣❛t
m
a< <b
n
❞❛♥ ❞❡♥❣❛♥ ♠❡♥❣❛♠❜✐❧ r := m ♠❛❦❛ ❜✉❦t✐ ❚❡♦r❡♠❛ s❡❧❡s❛✐✳
n
√ 3
❈♦♥t♦❤ ✶✳✶✻✳ ❚❡♥t✉❦❛♥ ✸ ❜✉❛❤ ❜✐❧❛♥❣❛♥ r❛s✐♦♥❛❧ ❞✐❛♥t❛r❛ 2❞❛♥ 2 ✳
P❡♥②❡❧❡s❛✐❛♥✳
√
✶✳ ❉✐❦❡t❛❤✉✐ a = 2 ≈ 1, 4142✱ b = 3/2 = 1, 5
1
✷✳ d = ≈11.6569
1,5−1,4142
✸✳ ❏❛❞✐ ❜✐❧❛♥❣❛♥ ❛s❧✐ ②❛♥❣ ②❛♥❣ ❞❛♣❛t ❞✐❛♠❜✐❧ ❛❞❛❧❛❤ n = 12, 13, 14, 15, 16✳
√
✹✳ ❯♥t✉❦ n = 12 ❞✐♣❡r♦❧❡❤√na ≈ (12)( 2) ≈ 16, 9706 ♠❛❦❛ ❞✐❛♠❜✐❧ m = 17✳ ❯♥t✉❦
n = 13✱ na ≈ √ (13)( 2) ≈ 18, 3848 ❞❛♥ ❞✐❛♠❜✐❧ m = 19✳ ❯♥t✉❦ n = 14
♠❛❦❛ na ≈ (14)( 2) ≈ 19, 7990 ❞❛♥ ❞✐♠❛❜✐❧ m = 20✳
17 19
√
✺✳
20
❏❛❞✐ ❜✐❧❛♥❣❛♥ r❛s✐♦♥❛❧ r = , ✱ ❞❛♥ t❡r❧❡t❛❦ ❞✐❛♥t❛r❛ 2 ❞❛♥ 3/2✳
12 13 14

▲❛t✐❤❛♥ ✶✳✶✻✳ ❇✐❧❛ a ❞❛♥ b ❜✐❧❛♥❣❛♥ r❡❛❧ ❞❡♥❣❛♥ a < b ♠❛❦❛ t❡r❞❛♣❛t ❜✐❧❛♥❣❛♥ ✐rr❛s✐♦♥❛❧
z ❞❡♥❣❛♥ a < z < b✳

▲❛t✐❤❛♥ ✶✳✶✼✳ ❚❡♠✉❦❛♥ ✺ ❜✐❧❛♥❣❛♥ ✐rr❛s✐♦♥❛❧ ②❛♥❣ t❡r❧❡t❛❦ ❞✐❛♥t❛r❛ 1 ❞❛♥ 1.01✳

✷
 ❇❛❜ ✶✳ ❙■❚❊▼ ❇■▲❆◆●❆◆ ❘❊❆▲ ❜② ❏✉❧❛♥

❙♦❛❧✲s♦❛❧ ②❛♥❣ ♣❡r❧✉ ❞✐♣❡❝❛❤❦❛♥

✶✳ ❉✐❜❡r✐❦❛♥ ❤✐♠♣✉♥❛♥ S := {1 − 1 : n ∈ N ✳ ❍✐t✉♥❣❧❛❤ s✉♣r❡♠✉♠ ❞❛♥ ✐♥✜♠✉♠
}
S✳ ❇✉❦t✐❦❛♥ ❦❡❜❡♥❛r❛♥ ❥❛✇❛❜❛♥ ②❛♥❣ n
❆♥❞❛ ❜❡r✐❦❛♥✳ ✭P❡t✉♥❥✉❦✿ ❣✉♥❛❦❛♥ ❦r✐t❡r✐❛✱
❦❛r❛❦t❡r✐st✐❦✱ ❛t❛✉ s✐❢❛t ❆r❝❤✐♠❡❞❡s✮✳
✷✳ P❡rt❛♥②❛❛♥ ②❛♥❣ s❛♠❛ s❡♣❡rt✐ s♦❛❧ ♥♦♠♦r ✶ t❡t❛♣✐ ✉♥t✉❦ S := { n1 − m1 : n ∈ N }✳
✸✳ ▼✐s❛❧❦❛♥ S ❤✐♠♣✉♥❛♥ t❛❦❦♦s♦♥❣ ②❛♥❣ t❡r❜❛t❛s ❞✐❜❛✇❛❤✳ ❇✉❦t✐❦❛♥

inf S = − sup{−s : s ∈ S}.

✹✳ ▼✐s❛❧❦❛♥ S ❤✐♠♣✉♥❛♥ t❡r❜❛t❛s ❞❛♥ S0 ❤✐♠♣✉♥❛♥ ❜❛❣✐❛♥ ❞❛r✐ S✳ ❇✉❦t✐❦❛♥

inf S ≤ inf S0 ≤ sup S0 ≤ sup S.

✺✳ ▼✐s❛❧❦❛♥ S ❤✐♠♣✉♥❛♥ t❛❦❦♦s♦♥❣ ②❛♥❣ t❡r❜❛t❛s ❞✐❛t❛s✳ ❯♥t✉❦ a ∈ R ❞✐❞❡✜♥✐s✐❦❛♥

a + S := {a + x : x ∈ S}.
❇✉❦t✐❦❛♥
sup(a + S) = a + sup S.

✻✳ ▼✐s❛❧❦❛♥ S ❤✐♠♣✉♥❛♥ t❛❦❦♦s♦♥❣✳ ❯♥t✉❦ a ❜✐❧❛♥❣❛♥ r❡❛❧ t✐❞❛❦ ♥♦❧ ❞✐❞❡✜♥✐s✐❦❛♥

aS := {as : s ∈ S }✳ ❇✉❦t✐❦❛♥
✭✐✮ ❇✐❧❛ a > 0 ♠❛❦❛

inf(aS) = a inf S, ❞❛♥ sup(aS) = a sup S.

✭✐✐✮ ❇✐❧❛ a < 0 ♠❛❦❛

inf(aS) = a sup S, ❞❛♥ sup(aS) = a inf S.

✼✳ ▼✐s❛❧❦❛♥ A ❞❛♥ B ❤✐♠♣✉♥❛♥ t❛❦❦♦s♦♥❣ ❞❛♥ A + B := {a + b : a ∈ A, b ∈ B }✳

❇✉❦t✐❦❛♥ ❜❛❤✇❛

sup(A + B) = sup A + sup B ❞❛♥ inf(A + B) = inf A + inf B.

✽✳ ▼✐s❛❧❦❛♥ f ❞❛♥ g ❞✉❛ ❢✉♥❣s✐ ②❛♥❣ ❞✐❞❡✜♥✐s✐❦❛♥ ♣❛❞❛ ❞♦♠❛✐♥ X✳ ❏✐❦❛ r❛♥❣❡♥②❛
t❡r❜❛t❛s✱ ❜✉❦t✐❦❛♥
✭✐✮ sup{f (x) + g(x) : x ∈ X } ≤ sup{f (x) : x ∈ X} + sup{g(x) : x ∈ X}✳
✭✐✐✮ inf{f (x) + g(x) : x ∈ X } ≥ inf{f (x) : x ∈ X} + inf{g(x) : x ∈ X}✳