Using Artificial Intelligence To Promote Branded Color Cosmetics Evidence From Indonesia

Journal of Promotion Management
ISSN: (Print) (Online) Journal homepage: www.tandfonline.com/journals/wjpm20
Using Artificial Intelligence to Promote Branded

Color Cosmetics: Evidence from Indonesia
Yuling Wei, Attila Endre Simay, Irma Agárdi, Jhanghiz Syahrivar & Ágnes
Hofmeister-Tóth
To cite this article: Yuling Wei, Attila Endre Simay, Irma Agárdi, Jhanghiz Syahrivar &
Ágnes Hofmeister-Tóth (2023) Using Artificial Intelligence to Promote Branded Color
Cosmetics: Evidence from Indonesia, Journal of Promotion Management, 29:5, 644-675, DOI:
10.1080/10496491.2022.2163036
To link to this article: https://doi.org/10.1080/10496491.2022.2163036
Published online: 01 Jan 2023.
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https://www.tandfonline.com/action/journalInformation?journalCode=wjpm20
JOURNAL OF PROMOTION MANAGEMENT
2023, VOL. 29, NO. 5, 644–675
https://doi.org/10.1080/10496491.2022.2163036
Using Artificial Intelligence to Promote Branded Color

Cosmetics: Evidence from Indonesia
Yuling Weia , Attila Endre Simaya , Irma Agardia , Jhanghiz Syahrivara,b ,

and Agnes tha
Hofmeister-To
a
Institute of Marketing and Communication Sciences, Corvinus University of Budapest, Budapest,
Hungary; bFaculty of Business, President University, Bekasi, Indonesia
ABSTRACT KEYWORDS
Artificial Intelligence (AI) color cosmetics applications emerged artificial intelligence; color
as an innovative solution to promote branded color cosmetics cosmetics; body esteem;
and enhance consumer decision making, primarily as a trial price conscious-
ness; Indonesia
function. This research aims to investigate factors influencing
AI color cosmetics applications adoption in the lens of social
comparison theory. The data was analyzed using Structural
Equation Modeling (SEM) via SPSS and AMOS software. The
results suggest that 1) the positive-view (versus negative-view)
of body esteem increases price consciousness to a larger extent
2) the negative-view (versus positive-view) of body esteem
increases AI color cosmetics applications adoption to a larger
extent 3) price consciousness mediates the effect of body
esteem on AI color cosmetics applications adoption 4) price
consciousness moderates the effect of body esteem on AI color
cosmetics applications adoption. Managerial implications of this
research are provided for promotion managers of cosmetic
retailers and AI color cosmetics applications developers seeking
to promote and reach a larger segment.
Introduction
The cosmetics industry has been particularly hard hit by the COVID-19
pandemic. According to McKinsey and Company data, color cosmetics sales
in the global beauty industry fell by 33 percent in 2020, while overall retail
sales in the beauty category fell by 15 percent (Marchessou & Spagnuolo,
2021). The cosmetic industry in Indonesia, Asia’s largest cosmetics market,
was not spared (Fadhilah & Jatmika, 2022). Prior to the pandemic, the cos-
metics and toiletries industry in the country grew by 11.99 percent (GBG
Indonesia, 2017). However, when the pandemic struck, the overall usage
rate of makeup products (e.g., eyeliner, foundation, blush) fell by an aver-
age of 18 percent (Statista, 2020). The industry’s silver lining is its online
sales. With the occasional closure of branded color cosmetics outlets and
CONTACT Attila Endre Simay attila.simay@uni-corvinus.hu Institute of Marketing and Communication

Sciences, Corvinus University of Budapest, Budapest, Hungary.
ß 2023 Taylor & Francis Group, LLC
JOURNAL OF PROMOTION MANAGEMENT 645
increased hygiene concerns, the cosmetics industry must find innovative

ways to reach their customers (Fadhilah & Jatmika, 2022; Ma & Kwon,
2021). In addition to their official online stores, some cosmetics companies
discovered ways to promote and sell their products by utilizing Artificial
Intelligence (AI)-based applications (Park et al., 2022; Simay et al., 2022).
However, studies on AI color cosmetics are still lacking, despite the fact
that the Indonesian government has encouraged their use as an example of
Industry 4.0. (Kristi & Kusumawati, 2021).
Artificial intelligence (AI) color cosmetics applications are becoming a
powerful social enhancement and promotion tool, especially among young
people. Artificial intelligence (AI) is a branch of computer science that ena-
bles computers to think, do, interact, and act in various fields, including
the beauty industry, the catering industry, and the advertising industry (Del
Campo et al., 2019; Dirican, 2015). The recent advancements in smart-
phone technology and social media platforms have increased the popularity
of Artificial Intelligence (AI) color cosmetics. For instance, cosmetics try
on commonly taken place in the physical cosmetic stores can be replaced
by AI color cosmetics in the virtual environment (Zhang et al., 2019).
Moreover, facial enhancement technology, such as AI color cosmetics appli-
cations, may appeal to those who simply wish to look attractive online.
The purpose of this research was to investigate factors influencing the
adoption of AI color cosmetics applications as promotional tools for
branded color cosmetics. This research discusses AI color cosmetics appli-
cations in the lens of social comparison theory. Previous studies found that
selfie-editing behavior was connected to users’ self-esteem (Fastoso et al.,
2021; Vorderer & Schneider, 2016) although the exact mechanism or direc-
tion between the two variables are not always clear (Wang et al., 2021).
Body esteem is one of the specific domains of self-esteem that is related to
one’s concerns about one’s physical appearance (Mendelson et al., 1996).
Body esteem is a relevant concept in this research because the color cos-
metics industry and its extension (i.e., AI color cosmetics) are built on the
promise of increasing women’s confidence and physical appearance.
Furthermore, beauty advertisements frequently exploit women’s insecurity
about their physical appearance to market their products (Musetti et al.,
2021), and hence the relevance of this research.
According to Zhang et al. (2019), AI color cosmetics applications may
also serve as an e-commerce platform. After users have finished editing
their selfies by applying virtual color cosmetics, the applications may direct
them to the official online shops of branded color cosmetics. Nonetheless,
cosmetics are high-involvement products that necessitate not only quality
but also careful price comparisons (Chiou & Droge, 2006; Whelan &
Davies, 2006). To get the best deals or discounts, smart shoppers are
646 Y. WEI ET AL.
usually willing to spend their time and energy looking for the best prices
on different online shopping platforms. Moreover, a previous study by
Feng and Mueller (2019) on Augmented Reality (AR) content and promo-
tion suggests that AR users are price conscious. Therefore, apart from body
esteem, price consciousness is a highly relevant concept to discuss and
investigate in the context of AI color cosmetics.
To the best of our knowledge, this is the first research to provide empir-
ical evidence on the triangular relationships between body esteem, price
consciousness, and the adoption of AI color cosmetics applications.
Previous studies investigating the relationship between body esteem and
AI-related platforms has yielded inconclusive results (Smink et al., 2020;
Tawira & Ivanov, 2022; Yim & Park, 2019). Meanwhile, previous studies
have highlighted the role of price consciousness in beauty products, such as
cosmetics (e.g., Kim et al., 2019; Maggioni et al., 2020). We argue that the
inclusion of price consciousness will help to clarify the relationship between
the two variables.
This research expands on the limited research in this area by discussing
the role of price consciousness as both a mediator and a moderator. Price
consciousness is crucial in explaining individual differences in customer
response to prices, particularly for discounters (Zielke, 2014). Additionally,
price promotion is regarded as one of the most effective marketing tools for
increasing sales (Cui et al., 2016). In the context of branded color cosmetics,
AI color cosmetics applications serve as a freemium trial platform and e-
commerce platform, allowing users to virtually try on various branded color
cosmetics before purchasing and assisting them in finding the best deal.
This research extends the limited literature in the field of facial enhance-
ment technology, such as AI color cosmetics. Furthermore, the recent
advancements in smartphone technology have increased the popularity of
AI color cosmetics developed by various app developers who may or may
not be connected to cosmetic retailers. Creating a business synergy between
cosmetics retailers and AI color cosmetics application developers is critical,
especially during and after the COVID-19 pandemic. According to Global
Cosmetics News (2020), the global health climate requires the closure of
non-essential stores. In the future, retailers and brands will have to rely
heavily on the digital channel to sell their products. AI and AR-related
technologies tend to assist brands in increasing user engagements and sales,
and thus, presumably, revenue.
The remaining of this research is organized as follows: The second sec-
tion is the literature review, in which we discuss the main theories that we
used to develop our hypotheses. The third section is the research method-
ology, in which we elaborate on the sampling technique, the measurement
scales and the data analysis procedures. The fourth section is the findings,
in which we provide the statistical results; the fifth section is the discussion,
in which we explain and elaborate on our statistical findings, theoretical
contributions and managerial implications. The final section is the conclu-
sion, in which we summarize our research and main findings.
Literature review
Social comparison theory
According to social comparison theory, individuals are tending to evaluate
their beliefs, opinions, capacities and appearances by comparing themselves
with others (Fardouly et al., 2017; Festinger, 1954; Lee et al., 2020; Wood,
1996). Public perception of ideal body image may inspire a desire to artifi-
cially enhance one’s beauty, such as through cosmetic surgery in extreme
cases (Sood et al., 2017). The other mechanism to improve their social
standing and minimize social exclusion is by obtaining material objects
that improve their attractiveness and make them more desirable, such as
fashion products, jewelry, and cosmetics. With the rise of various social
media platforms and mobile phones, AI color cosmetics applications have
gained popularity as an alternative mode to project attractive self-images
and compare one’s attractiveness with others in virtual settings. According
to Yao et al. (2021), self-images posted on social media platforms serve as
the foundation for upward social comparison (for example, comparing
one’s appearance to public figures). As a result, social media users may be
more selective in what they share with the public. To keep up with beauty
ideals, they may, for example, post self-edited photos via AI color cosmetics
applications.
AI color cosmetics adoption

Artificial intelligence (AI) is defined as a machine that mimics cognitive
functions associated with the human mind, such as learning, problem-solv-
ing, decision making, face and speech recognition (Del Campo et al., 2019;
Lee et al., 2021). According to Puntoni et al. (2021), AI is conceptualized
as an ecosystem that includes data collection and storage, statistical and
computational techniques, and output systems; it enables products and
services to perform tasks that require intelligence and autonomous decision
making in the same way that humans do. In the beauty industry, AI is
mainly about machine algorithms adopted in various platforms, such as
Face App, Faceu, YouCam Makeup, and B621. AI color cosmetics are pri-
marily used in the form of Augmented Reality (AR) applications and
Magic Mirrors (Faust et al., 2012; Simay et al., 2022). AR is a technology
that superimposes virtual data onto the user’s field of view, enhancing the
648 Y. WEI ET AL.
physical environment with virtual data (Ghazali et al., 2019). Virtualization

quality is mostly determined by visual rendering, tracking, and image rec-
ognition (Lungu et al., 2021). Users can use AR applications to try on differ-
ent color cosmetics, read color cosmetics reviews, learn about their loyalty
points, make payments, and contact customer service (Smink et al., 2019).
The other applications of AR technology are a magic mirror that reflects the
image of the user’s body in a three-dimensional (3 D) environment (Kurul
et al., 2020). Magic mirrors are mostly found in physical cosmetics stores,
where they allow customers to try on different types of cosmetics without
having to touch them (Scholz & Duffy, 2018). Consumers only need to touch
the screen to select the color cosmetics they want to try, and it will appear
virtually and vividly on their faces. The enhanced selfies can be shared
online, where users can compare their attractiveness to one another. Lee
et al. (2020) discussed online social comparison (upward vs. downward) and
how it relates to their self-esteem. In this research, we argue that AI color
cosmetics is a marketing strategy for simulating sensorial experiences in an
online retail environment, thereby contributing to a better service experience
and generating consumer purchase intention in the beauty industry.
Body esteem
Body esteem is defined as an individual’s evaluation of his or her own
body and appearance (Mendelson et al., 2001). The concept of body esteem
is closely related with body image and self-esteem (Ferrer-Garcıa &
Gutierrez-Maldonado, 2012). Body image is a multidimensional set of emo-
tions, thoughts, and appraisals about one’s physical appearance and body
satisfaction (Muehlenkamp & Brausch, 2012). Whereas appearance self-
esteem is a general feeling toward one’s physical appearance (Javornik
et al., 2021). According to Mendelson et al. (1996), body esteem is one of
the specific domains of self-esteem that is related to one’s concerns about
one’s physical appearance. Body esteem is divided into three categories:
overall feelings about one’s appearance, one’s perception of other people’s
opinions about one’s body and appearance, and satisfaction with one’s
weight (Wang, 2019). To a large extent, one’s body evaluation is usually
based on feedback from one’s social environment (Lipowska et al., 2016).
Kaminski and Hayslip (2006) found that there is a gender difference in
body esteem: women have a lower level of body esteem than men. Previous
studies suggest that people have a need to improve their body-esteem, such
as by wearing cosmetics and doing physical exercises (Franzoi, 2001; Lereya
et al., 2014; Lipowska et al., 2016). Moreover, improving body esteem as
one of the goals in upward social comparison (Lin & Kulik, 2002) is a rele-
vant concept to investigate in this research.
Price consciousness
Price consciousness is generally defined as the degree to which consumers
focus on looking for the lowest price for products or services (Lichtenstein
et al., 1988, 1993; Tellis & Gaeth, 1990). In this research, price consciousness
is defined as the extent to which users of AI color cosmetics prefer actual
branded color cosmetics with discounts. During an economic downturn,
consumers are more price-conscious and more likely to shop around for the
best deal (Grewal et al., 2012). Erickson and Johansson (1985) proposed that
price could play a dual role in influencing consumers’ purchase behavior.
Consumers who spend their money carefully and are hesitant to spend, indi-
cating that price is an outlay of economic resources and plays a negative
role (Tatzel, 2002). However, if consumers are unsure about the value or
quality of a product or service before purchasing it, the price can be used to
estimate what they will receive if they purchase a priced product; in this
scenario, price plays a positive role (Kukar-Kinney et al., 2012). In the con-
text of social comparison theory, price consciousness of luxury commodities
(e.g., branded color cosmetics), as well as its virtual manifestations (i.e., AI
color cosmetics), is an important issue to examine (Pillai & Nair, 2021).
Individuals who are negatively evaluated for their physical appearance
may have low body esteem (Ramadhanty & Hamid, 2021). Those with
body-related concerns may be less price-conscious due to their desire to
improve themselves by purchasing luxury items and wearing branded color
cosmetics (Giovannini et al., 2015; Park & John, 2011; Ye et al., 2015).
Purchasing physical enhancement products may temporarily boost their
confidence (Kukar-Kinney et al., 2012). Perceived negative body esteem
may also lead to social exclusion, in which wearing physical and status
enhancing products may assist them in gaining social approval (Gattario &
Frisen, 2019; McCreary & Saucier, 2009). Meanwhile, individuals with high
body esteem are happier and more confident in their appearance regardless
of what they wear (Chang et al., 2019). In this research, we argue that indi-
viduals with high body esteem are less dependent on branded products, and
hence they have the luxury and the propensity to choose products based on
their prices. Therefore, we formulated the first hypothesis as follows:
H1: Body Esteem has a positive relationship with price consciousness
Individuals with low body esteem are tempted by direct self-improve-

ment cues, such as wearing branded color cosmetics than those with high
esteem (Robertson et al., 2008). According to sociometer theory, self-esteem
is significantly influenced by others’ evaluations, and self-esteem systems
are designed to monitor and adapt to others’ reactions, especially in terms
of social inclusion and exclusion (Leary & Baumeister, 2000). AI color cos-
metics (AR applications or magic mirrors) could improve individuals’
650 Y. WEI ET AL.
physical appearance, self-image and increase their social interaction by vir-

tual makeup (Yim & Park, 2019). Moreover, a study proposed by Fastoso
et al. (2021) individuals with low self-esteem are more likely to engage in
selfie-editing behavior. We argue that body esteem may be a stronger
inducement for utilizing AI color cosmetics, particularly for those with low
body esteem. Therefore, we formulated the second hypothesis as follows:
H2: Body esteem has a negative relationship with AI color cosmetics adoption
A previous study suggests by Tatzel (2002), price-conscious consumers

are those who lack a solid financial foundation but have a high level of
materialism. In this case, consumers are more willing to spend time and
energy searching the best price in various stores. Consumers who are more
knowledgeable with prices (price mavens) and smart shoppers, they even
more price-conscious than non-mavens, and they are more likely to use
coupons, visit discount websites and participate in product promotion cam-
paigns (Sudbury-Riley, 2016). Previous studies have highlighted the role of
price consciousness in beauty products, such as cosmetics (e.g., Kim et al.,
2019; Maggioni et al., 2020). Meanwhile, AI color cosmetics applications
enable consumers to virtually try various branded color cosmetics and then
compare prices, thus providing a "try before you buy" experience (Smink
et al., 2019). In other words, the applications are powerful tools to promote
branded color cosmetics in the virtual settings. By using them, consumers
can visualize how they look when branded color cosmetics are applied to
their faces and then decide whether they want to buy them or not (Scholz
& Duffy, 2018). Furthermore, AI color cosmetics applications, such as
YouCam Makeup, have partnered with a number of brands (e.g., Estee
Lauder, Lanc^ ome, SOFINA, and L’Oreal Paris) and retailers (e.g., Watsons,
Target, Fruit Gathering GINZA INZ, and Macy’s) (Hsu et al., 2021), pro-
viding a wealth of price information for price-conscious consumers and
assisting them to find the best deal. We argue that the more price aware
customers are, the more likely they are to use AI color cosmetics to com-
pare prices among merchants. We contend that the association between
body esteem and AI color cosmetics adoption is mediated through price
consciousness. Therefore, we formulated the third hypothesis as follows:
H3a: Price consciousness has a positive relationship with AI color cosmetics adoption
H3b: Price consciousness mediates the relationship between body esteem and AI
color cosmetics adoption
In a general sense, wearing cosmetics may improve one’s self-esteem and

self-confidence (Etcoff et al., 2011). A previous study conducted by
Heidarzadeh et al. (2019) suggests that individuals with low self-esteem may
use cosmetic surgery to improve their physical appearance and self-confi-
dence. In the context of facial enhancement technology, AI color cosmetics
(AR mirrors) can help individuals by virtually changing their facial appear-
ance through a variety of interactions, such as smoothing and whitening
their skin, enlarging their eyes, and changing the color of their lips (Hsu
et al., 2021; Simay et al., 2022). Nevertheless, the relationship between body
esteem and selfie-editing is not always clear and straightforward. For
instance, Wang (2019) found that the appearance aspect of body esteem had
a negative correlation with selfie-editing frequency, while the attribution
aspect of body esteem had a positive correlation with selfie-editing fre-
quency. We, thus, argue that some moderating factors might be at play.
According to previous research, branded color cosmetics such as lipsticks,
mascara, foundation, and eyeshadow are deemed high-priced items (Kim
et al., 2010). Fortunately, AI color cosmetics applications allow customers to
try various branded color cosmetics and minimize the risks of choosing the
wrong products. We argue that the appeal of AI color cosmetics applications
toward those with low body esteem is improved when users are price con-
scious. In a way, the (freemium) applications were cheaper alternatives to
branded cosmetics, especially to those who simply wish to appear attractive
online. Moreover, the applications also facilitate price search and product
comparisons which are attractive to price-conscious users. Therefore, we for-
mulated the fourth hypothesis as follows:
H4: Price consciousness moderates the relationship between body esteem and AI
color cosmetics adoption, such that high price consciousness (vs low) strengthens the
relationship between the two variables
Control variables
Sociodemographic characteristics, such as age, occupation and education,
may play important roles in technology adoption (Chen & Huang, 2016).
Rogers (1995) innovation and diffusion theory (IDT) lays the groundwork
for the relationship between user characteristics and innovation, with age,
occupation (or income), education (or knowledge and intelligence), and
technology familiarity (e.g., usage frequency and mass adoption) all playing
important roles. As a result, these sociodemographic and user characteris-
tics are likely to influence the acceptability of new technology, such as
Artificial Intelligence (AI). For instance, sociodemographic characteristics,
such as age and education, determine how people may respond to AI chat-
bots (Zhang et al., 2020). A study by Lim and Zhang (2022) suggests that
younger groups are more inclined to accept AI-driven personalization in
digital news platforms. Similarly, past research indicates that younger peo-
ple are more willing to adopt AI self-driving cars and that years of driving
have a negative link with this technology (Othman, 2021; Syahrivar et al.,
2021). Most likely because elderly people tend to hold a less positive view
652 Y. WEI ET AL.
about robotics and technology (Belanche et al., 2020). In the context of

facial enhancement technology or FET (see Simay et al., 2022), such as AI
color cosmetics applications, age as a significant user sociodemographic
characteristic has been extensively studied (Butt et al., 2022; Oyman et al.,
2022; Whang et al., 2021). Previous studies also consider education and
occupation as important factors in FET adoption (Javornik et al., 2022;
Wang et al., 2022). Meanwhile, Hsu et al. (2021) suggested that user usage
frequency be investigated, particularly when examining the level of accept-
ance and usage intention for interactive and immersive technology.
According to virtual liminoid theory (Huang & Liao, 2017; Lavoye et al.,
2021; Noble & Walker, 1997), users would feel the urge to personalize their
avatar or virtual self as an extension of themselves as they move from the
physical to the virtual world, possibly investing more time (or higher usage
frequency) and resources as they get involved. Although not the main
interest of this research, we controlled the effects of education, occupation,
age, and usage frequency on AI color cosmetics application adoption to
account for potential confounding variables (confounders).
Based on the abovementioned hypotheses, we propose the following the-
oretical framework (see Figure 1):
Research methodology
In this quantitative research, we employed purposive sampling. We selected
female users who used AI color cosmetics with varying degrees of usage
frequency. They were approached via various social media platforms, such
as Facebook and Instagram, where they posted their self-edited photos. A
selfie with AI color cosmetics applications watermarks (e.g., B612,
FaceApp) was a good indication that they were the right respondents for
this research. After establishing prior communication with our potential
respondents, we sent them a link to the online questionnaire. To provide
Figure 1. Theoretical framework.

some context for our research, the data collection activity was carried out
from March to June 2021, when the COVID-19 and social restrictions were
still prevalent in Indonesia. The rise in computer-mediated social inter-
action during the COVID-19 pandemic has changed the way people inter-
acted in their personal and professional lives (Lal et al., 2021; Tibbetts
et al., 2021). Furthermore, we contend that the decline in branded cosmet-
ics due to hygiene concerns and financial constraints during the pandemic
(Moscicka et al., 2020) has all contributed to the growing popularity of
Artificial intelligence (AI) color cosmetics applications, particularly for
those who want to appear attractive during online social interactions.
We used a combination of the rule of thumb (Hair et al., 2014) and the

G Power statistical test (Kang, 2021) to determine the appropriate number of
samples for an unknown population. The first method suggested a minimum
of 185 respondents (5 37 questionnaire items), while the second suggested
a minimum of 68 respondents. Our online questionnaire had two preliminary
questions to determine respondents’ gender and knowledge of AI color cos-
metics: 1) “What is your gender?” (Male/Female) and 2) “How frequently do
you use the AI color cosmetics applications?” (Never/Rarely/Occasionally/
Often/Always). We initially obtained 315 respondents in total out of 400 invi-
tations sent (about 70 percent survey response rate). Owing to the focus of
this research, we had to perform data cleaning before analyzing the dataset.
First, we excluded male respondents because they were not the target of our
research but managed to access our online questionnaire (23 respondents
were dropped from the dataset). Second, we excluded those who stated in the
online questionnaire that they "never" used AI color cosmetics applications
but still attempted to complete the questionnaire (additional 12 respondents
were dropped from the dataset). Finally, we excluded respondents who pro-
vided incomplete information (i.e., missing responses or less than 100 percent
completion; additional 18 respondents were dropped from the dataset). As a
consequence, 53 respondents were deemed invalid for the aforementioned
reasons and thus excluded. In the end, this research used and analyzed data
from 262 respondents. The respondent profile is shown in Table 1.
We employed three 5-Point Likert scales (1 ¼ strongly disagree,
5 ¼ strongly agree): First, the 23-item Body Esteem scale (BES) was adopted
from Mendelson et al. (2001). Second, the 8-item Price Consciousness scale
(PRC) was adapted from various works: Wells and Tigert (1971), Darden
and Perreault, (1976), Lichtenstein et al. (1988), Ailawadi et al. (2001) and
Goldsmith et al. (2003). Finally, the 6-item AI color cosmetics adoption
scale (AIC) was adapted from Venkatesh and Bala (2008), Abbad (2021)
and Sprenger and Schwaninger (2021).
In this research, we employed a two-step process: Exploratory Factor
Analysis (EFA) and Confirmatory Factor Analysis Structural Equation
654 Y. WEI ET AL.
Table 1. Respondent profile.

N %
Education With university degrees 138 52.67
Without university degrees 124 47.32
Occupation Full-time students 125 47.71
Employees 68 25.95
Entrepreneurs 20 7.63
Professionals (e.g., doctors, lawyers, 17 6.50
university professors, etc.)
Housewives 32 12.21
Age 18 – 30 166 63.36
31 – 40 73 27.86
41 – 50 17 6.49
> 50 6 2.29
Usage frequency Always 55 21
Often 120 45.80
Occasionally 43 16.41
Rarely 44 16.79
Note(s): N ¼ Number of Respondents, % ¼ Percentage.
Modeling (CFA-SEM) using SPSS and AMOS software. In the EFA stage, we
looked at various key indicators of sampling adequacy and measurement val-
idity, such as KMO and Bartlett’s Test, Total Variance Explained, Rotated
Component Matrix, Average Variance Extracted (AVE), and Composite
Reliability (C.R). To assess the fitness of our proposed model, several import-
ant indices were observed, such as Standardized Root Mean Square Residual
(SRMR), Root Mean Square Error of Approximation (RMSEA), Comparative
Fit Index (CFI), Tucker–Lewis Index (TLI), Incremental Fit Index (IFI),
Normal Fit Index (NFI), and Goodness-of-Fit Index (GFI). We used several
methodological works in SEM as our guidelines, such as Schreiber (2008),
Gefen et al. (2011), Yang and Xia (2015), and Farooq (2016).
To account for potential confounders, we include education, age, occupa-
tion and usage frequency as control variables. As seen in Table 1, the con-
trol variables are ordinal data (nominal and categorical). Education
(dichotomous; 1 ¼ without university degrees, 2 ¼ with university degrees),
age (4 age range categories) and usage frequency (4 categories) have some
implied order (categorical); whereas occupation does not (5 categories;
nominal). However, as shown in Figure 1, these control variables are not
the main interest of this research. Later sections discuss our thoughts on
control variables.
Findings
We started off our findings section with descriptive statistics shown in
Table 2. The mean values are mostly higher than 3 indicating that the
responses given were leaning toward agreement. The standard deviation
(S.D.) values higher than 1 indicate that the data are more spread out from
the mean values.
Table 2. Descriptive statistics.

Cronbach’s
No. Variables Items N Mean S.D. Alpha
1. Body Esteem 1. I really like what I weigh. 262 3.477 1.0271 .897
(BES) 2. I am satisfied with my weight. 262 3.374 1.1165
3. I am preoccupied with trying to change my 262 3.374 1.2431
body weight. (R)
4. Weighing myself depresses me. (R) 262 2.748 1.3151
5. My weight makes me unhappy. (R) 262 2.676 1.3005
6. I feel I weight the right amount for my height. 262 3.191 1.1654
7. I think I have a good body. 262 3.260 1.2354
8. I’m proud of my body. 262 3.740 1.1284
9. People my own age like my looks. 262 3.466 1.0490
10. Other people consider me good looking. 262 3.439 1.0514
11. My looks help me to get dates. 262 3.294 1.1319
12. I’m as nice looking like most people. 262 3.477 1.0602
13. I think my appearance would help me get 262 3.401 1.1158
a job.
14. I like what I see when I look in the mirror. 262 3.824 1.0503
15. I wish I looked like someone else. (R) 262 3.305 1.3066
16. There are lots of things I’d change about my 262 3.408 1.2369
looks if I could. (R)
17. I wish I looked better. (R) 262 3.989 1.0449
18. I worry about the way I look. (R) 262 3.282 1.2702
19. I feel ashamed of how I look. (R) 262 2.706 1.2901
20. I’m pretty happy about the way I look. 262 3.927 .9298
21. My looks upset me. (R) 262 2.527 1.2795
22. I look as nice as I’d like to. 262 3.683 .9956
23. I like what I look like in pictures. 262 3.756 1.0401
2. Price 1. I usually buy branded color cosmetics when 262 3.656 1.1398 .823
Consciousness they are on sale.
(PRC) 2. I buy the lowest priced branded color 262 3.588 1.1270
cosmetics that will suit my need.
3. When it comes to choosing branded color 262 3.637 .9640
cosmetics for me, I rely heavily on price.
4. I am less willing to buy branded color 262 3.683 1.0147
cosmetics if I think they will be high in price.
5. In general, the price or cost of buying branded 262 3.695 1.0201
color cosmetics is important to me.
6. I compare prices of at least a few color 262 4.069 .9723
cosmetics brands before I choose one.
7. I find myself checking the prices even for 262 4.015 .9096
small items.
8. It is important to me to get the best price for 262 4.256 .8795
the branded color cosmetics I buy.
3. AI Color Cosmetics 1. If possible, I would use an AI color cosmetics 262 3.546 1.0880 .919
Adoption (AIC) app to enhance my selfies.
2. I would recommend the use of AI color 262 3.515 1.0675
cosmetics app to enhance selfies to
my friends.
3. If I had an AI color cosmetics app, I would use 262 3.519 1.0272
it often to enhance my selfies.
4. If an AI color cosmetics app was made my 262 3.653 1.0710
available in the online store, I would download
it to try.
5. I would recommend to my peers that they 262 3.637 1.0068
incorporate AI color cosmetics applications to
enhance their photographs online.
6. If possible, I would enroll in makeup training 262 3.489 1.1235
courses that incorporate AI color
cosmetics usage.
Note(s): N ¼ Number of Respondents, S.D. ¼ Standard Deviation, R ¼ Reversed Item.
656 Y. WEI ET AL.
In the Exploratory Factory Analysis (EFA) stage, we employed KMO and

Bartlett’s Test (see Table 3) to see if our samples are adequate. KMO value
higher than .08 and significant (<.05) indicates that the samples are
adequate and hence we could proceed to the next step.
One factor should be represented by at least 1 Eigenvalue. All proposed
factors involved should represent a cumulative variance of higher than 60
percent. Table 4 indicates that four (4) factors performed better than three
(3) factors as previously proposed. We are aware that common method
bias (CMB) may be present, just as it is in any social science research that
uses surveys (Podsakoff et al., 2003). We have done our best to mitigate
this issue by implementing some of Jordan and Troth (2020) recommenda-
tions, such as adopting a measurement scale with positive and negative
phrased items for sensitive concepts like body esteem. Outlier responses
that resemble patterns of “nonattending observations’’ (see Liu et al., 2010)
were immediately removed before EFA. Through the integration of EFA
and CFA or a two-stage procedure in SEM analysis (Yang & Xia, 2015;
Farooq, 2016), we attempted to identify problematic items and improve
our scales. Moreover, we also implemented Harman’s one-factor test; the
hypothesized variables do not converge into a single factor, and the highest
variance explained by one factor is only 26.808 percent, indicating that
CMB is unlikely to contaminate our data, or at the very least, is not a crit-
ical issue in this research.
The rotated component matrix is shown in Table 5. The factor loadings
are mostly greater than .70. EFA can be used for measurement scale purifica-
tion by identifying problematic items earlier and eliminating those with low
factor loadings (recommended threshold > .70) that result in poor AVE
(recommended threshold > .50) and C.R. (recommended threshold > .70)
(Yang & Xia, 2015; Farooq, 2016). Consequently, items with low factor
Table 3. KMO and Bartlett’s test.

Kaiser-Meyer-Olkin Measure of Sampling Adequacy. .875
Bartlett’s Test of Sphericity Approx. Chi-Square 3795.139
df. 276
Sig. .000
Note(s): df. ¼ Degree of Freedom, Sig. ¼ Significance.
Table 4. Total variance explained.

Extraction Sums Rotation Sums
Initial Eigenvalues of Squared Loadings of Squared Loadings
Component Total % Of Var Cum% Total % Of Var Cum % Total % Of Var Cum %
1 6.434 26.808 26.808 6.434 26.808 26.808 5.601 23.338 23.338
2 5.424 22.601 49.409 5.424 22.601 49.409 4.404 18.349 41.687
3 2.017 8.403 57.813 2.017 8.403 57.813 3.472 14.465 56.152
4 1.752 7.302 65.115 1.752 7.302 65.115 2.151 8.963 65.115
Note(s): % of Var ¼ Percentage of Variance, Cum% ¼ Cumulative Percentage.
Table 5. Rotated component matrix.

Component
1 2 3 4 AVE C.R.
BES4 .806 .588 .870
BES5 .797
BES18 .700
BES19 .790
BES21 .736
BES7 .693 .541 .921
BES8 .665
BES9 .741
BES10 .770
BES11 .791
BES12 .811
BES13 .793
BES14 .703
BES20 .673
BES22 .698
PRC6 .822 .652 .849
PRC7 .817
PRC8 .782
AIC1 .827 .677 .926
AIC2 .840
AIC3 .807
AIC4 .863
AIC5 .865
AIC6 .726
Note(s): BES ¼ Body Esteem, PRC ¼ Price Consciousness, AIC ¼ AI Color Cosmetics Adoption, AVE ¼ Average
Variance Extracted, C.R. ¼ Composite Reliability.
loadings, such as BES 1, 2, 3, 6, 15, 16, 17, and 23, are removed from their
respective construct(s). The results also suggest that all items of Body
Esteem Scale (BES) cannot load into the same factor; they, instead, diverge
into two factors which we labeled “Positive-view Body Esteem” (PBES) and
“Negative-view Body Esteem” (NBES). The labeling of the two factors is not
arbitrary. Previous research indicates the duality of Mendelson’s body esteem
scale to include “positive” and “negative” body esteem (see Coyne et al.,
2021; Erling & Hwang, 2004; Lawrence et al., 2007). Furthermore, Coyne
et al. (2021) used the terms "body positive" and "body objectifying" messages
to demonstrate how messages focusing on the appearance of the body could
be tailored positively (to promote self-acceptance) and negatively (thus
reducing one’s perceived body esteem). Therefore, we had to make a few
adjustments in our proposed model in the subsequent analysis. Moreover,
the Average Variance Extracted (AVE) of higher than .50 and Composite
Reliability (C.R.) of higher than .80 suggest the constructs are valid.
The parsimonious SEM model is presented in Figure 2. In general, we
can conclude that body esteem has a significant relationship with price
consciousness and AI color cosmetics adoption. The squared multiple cor-
relation coefficients (R2) of price consciousness indicate that PBES and
NBES explain 11.9 percent of its variance. Meanwhile, the squared multiple
correlation coefficients (R2) of AI color cosmetics adoption indicate that its
predictors account for 29.9 percent of its variance.
658 Y. WEI ET AL.
Figure 2. Parsimonious SEM model (notes: <.01, <.001).
The results of model fitness analysis of the proposed SEM model are
shown in Table 6. Based on the results, we are inclined to conclude that
the SEM model has a satisfactory fit.
The relationships among variables incorporated in the SEM model are
shown in Table 7.
We conducted Sobel Test (Preacher & Hayes, 2004) to analyze the medi-
ating role of price consciousness. The statistical results are presented in
Table 8, suggesting that the mediating role of price consciousness in the
Table 6. Model fit.
Indices Recommended Thresholds Results Notes
SRMR < .07 .059 Satisfactory Fit
RMSEA < .08 .050 Satisfactory Fit
CFI > .95 .959 Satisfactory Fit
TLI > .95 .950 Satisfactory Fit
IFI > .95 .960 Satisfactory Fit
NFI > .95 .906 Good Fit
GFI > .95 .895 Acceptable Fit
Note(s): SRMR ¼ Standardized Root Mean Square Residual, RMSEA ¼ Root Mean Square Error of Approximation,
CFI ¼ Comparative Fit Index, TLI ¼ Tucker–Lewis Index, IFI ¼ Incremental Fit Index, NFI ¼ Normal Fit Index,
GFI ¼ Goodness-of-Fit Index.
Table 7. Regression weight.

Estimate S.E. C.R. P
PRC <— PBES .296 .076 3.907
PRC <— NBES .241 .073 3.299
AIC <— PRC .277 .081 3.446
AIC <— PBES .284 .076 3.732
AIC <— NBES .453 .082 5.520
Note(s): PBES ¼ Positive-view of Body Esteem, NBES ¼ Negative-view of Body Esteem, PRC ¼ Price Consciousness,
AIC ¼ AI Color Cosmetics Adoption, S.E. ¼ Standard Error, C.R. ¼ Critical Ratio, P ¼ Significance Level, ¼ P
< .001.
Table 8. The mediating role of price consciousness.

Test statistics S.E. P
AIC <— PRC <— PBES 2.600 .032
AIC <— PRC <— NBES 2.382 .028
Note(s): PBES ¼ Positive-view of Body Esteem, NBES ¼ Negative-view of Body Esteem, PRC ¼ Price Consciousness,
S.E. ¼ Standard Error, P ¼ Significance Level, < .001.
relationship between body esteem (PBES and NBES) and AI color cosmetic
adoption (AIC) is significant (P < .001).
We also analyzed the moderating role of price consciousness. The statis-
tical results are presented in Table 9, suggesting that price consciousness
(PRC) serves as both a mediator and a moderator in the relationships
between PBES, NBES, and AIC.
The moderating role of price consciousness is illustrated in Figure 3. In
general, we could observe that high PRC strengthens the effect of PBES on
AIC. High PRC also strengthens the effect of NBES on AIC.
Besides the main effects of model components, we wish to report the
effects of control variables (age, education, occupation, and usage fre-
quency) on AIC and their consequences on the effects of variables of inter-
ests (PBES and NBES). Based on Table 10, all control variables have
significant effects (p > .05) on AIC.
Age is shown to have a significant negative effect on AIC (p < .05,
.228), indicating that older respondents are less willing to adopt AI
color cosmetics applications. Education is shown to have a significant
positive effect on AIC (p < .05, .261), indicating that more educated
respondents are more willing to adopt AI color cosmetics applications.
Occupation has no meaningful order and hence is less interpretable, other
from having a significant effect on AIC (p < .05, .112). Finally, usage
frequency is shown to have a significant positive effect on AIC (p < .05,
.524), indicating that respondents are more willing to embrace and pro-
mote AI color cosmetics applications with higher usage (or more trials).
Moreover, with the inclusion of control variables, the main effects
of model components are shown to be significant except for PBES (p >
.05, .019).
Table 9. The moderating role of price consciousness.

Estimate S.E. C.R. P
AIC <— IntPBESXPRC .217 .054 3.994
AIC <— IntNBESXPRC .161 .055 2.929 .003
Note(s): IntPBESXPRC ¼ Interaction between positive-view of body esteem and price consciousness,
IntNBESXPRC ¼ Interaction between negative-view of body esteem and price consciousness, AIC ¼ AI Color
Cosmetics Adoption, S.E. ¼ Standard Error, C.R. ¼ Critical Ratio, P ¼ Significance Level, ¼ P < .001.
Figure 3. Illustrations of price consciousness’ moderating role.

660 Y. WEI ET AL.
Table 10. Step-wise regression analysis (dependent variable: AIC).

Unstandardized Standardized
Coefficients Coefficients
Model B Std. Error Beta t Sig. Adjusted R2 F Sig.
1 (Constant) 2.573 .167 15.450 .000 .767 215.918 .000
Age -.228 .042 -.183 5.394 .000
Education .261 .063 .145 4.127 .000
Occupation -.112 .027 -.172 4.214 .000
Usage Frequency .524 .037 .573 14.012 .000
2 (Constant) 1.859 .238 7.822 .000 .785 136.779 .000
Age -.214 .041 -.171 5.210 .000
Education .229 .062 .127 3.666 .000
Occupation -.114 .026 -.176 4.460 .000
Usage Frequency .484 .037 .529 12.916 .000
PRC .134 .035 .115 3.813 .000
PBES .019 .036 .017 .512 .609
NBES .074 .028 .086 2.627 .009
3 (Constant) 1.914 .212 9.030 .000 .785 159.994 .000
Age -.212 .041 -.170 5.195 .000
Education .235 .061 .131 3.849 .000
Occupation -.115 .026 -.176 4.473 .000
Usage Frequency .486 .037 .532 13.153 .000
PRC .137 .035 .118 3.974 .000
NBES .069 .026 .080 2.626 .009
Note(s): AIC ¼ AI color cosmetics adoption, PRC ¼ Price Consciousness, PBES ¼ Positive-View Body Esteem,
NBES ¼ Negative-View Body Esteem, No meaningful hierarchy or order thus the negative value should not be
interpreted, Insignificant effect after the inclusion of control variables (p > .05).
Discussion
The purpose of the research is to investigate the relationships between body
esteem, price consciousness, and AI color cosmetics applications adoption.
Body esteem is the predictor, price consciousness is the mediator and mod-
erator, and AI color cosmetics applications adoption is the outcome.
Through Exploratory Factor Analysis (EFA), we found that body esteem
diverged into two distinct factors that we named the “positive-view of body
esteem” and the “negative-view of body esteem”. Positive-view of body
esteem refers to items with positive wording that may indicate respondents’
self-acceptance regardless of their physical appearance, whereas negative-
view of body esteem refers to items with negative wording that may indi-
cate body dissatisfaction. It is the latter that is closely related to the notion
of low body esteem.
This research provides evidence on the positive relationship between
body esteem and price consciousness (H1). To be precise, both the positive-
view and negative-view of body esteem are proven to increase price con-
sciousness levels. However, when the magnitudes of the effects of the two
factors of body esteem are compared, it is revealed that respondents with a
good perspective of body esteem are more price-conscious, as we predicted.
We argue that women with a positive view of body esteem (PBES) engage
in shopping activities to maintain their perceived body esteem (e.g., to stay
beautiful and fit). Engaging in shopping activities of, let’s say, branded color
cosmetics improve their awareness and knowledge of various cosmetic

brands in the market and the differences in prices. Previous hedonic shop-
ping experiences and more exposure toward various brands in the market
may increase price consciousness (Jin & Sternquist, 2004). Being knowledge-
able about the prices (price mavens) and knowing how to get a good deal
may also improve self-esteem (Muratore, 2016; Tatzel, 2002). Our findings
also show that respondents with a negative view of body esteem (NBES) are
price conscious. A study by Hampson et al. (2021) suggests that financial
vulnerability could be one of the causes of low self-esteem. We argue that
the inability to keep up with beauty-enhancement products and services due
to financial constraints may lower one’s perceived body esteem. People with
a negative view of body esteem might also be financially vulnerable, which
explains their price search behavior.
This research provides partial evidence on the negative relationship
between body esteem and AI color cosmetics adoption (H2). The results sug-
gest that both the positive-view and negative-view of body esteem improve
the intention to adopt AI color cosmetics applications. When the magnitudes
of the effects of the two factors of body esteem are compared, respondents
with a poor opinion of body esteem are revealed to be more prone to
embrace AI color cosmetics applications, as predicted. Facial enhancement
technology, such as AI color cosmetics applications, allow women to
improve their selfies and subsequently improve their likeability among their
online followers (Abidin, 2016). Our results partially support the work of
Wang (2019) and Fastoso et al. (2021) on selfie-editing behavior.
This research provides evidence on the positive relationship between
price consciousness and AI color cosmetics adoption (H3a). Initially, AI
color cosmetics are used in the cosmetics industry as a virtual trial (Smink
et al., 2019). The applications allow them to try a variety of branded color
cosmetics hence minimizing the risks associated with the wrong purchase.
We argue that AI color cosmetics may serve as a cheaper alternative to
branded cosmetics, and hence are desirable to price-conscious customers,
especially those who just wish to appear attractive in their social media
(e.g., Instagram, Facebook). In a different context, a study by Kasilingam
(2020) hypothesized a negative relationship between price consciousness
and chatbots (an AI-related technology); however, the author could not
support this relationship. Another study by Cui et al. (2021) found a nega-
tive relationship between price consciousness and electric vehicle (EV) pur-
chase intention. We argue that the negative effect occurs when consumers
are confronted with the commitment to pay, but since AI color cosmetics
are relatively free (or freemium), they appeal to price-conscious users.
Future studies may examine how different AI-related technologies affect
the price consciousness levels of consumers.
662 Y. WEI ET AL.
Previous research has demonstrated that a variable can act as both a

mediator and a moderator, indicating that their role changes over time (see
Karazsia & Berlin, 2018). AI color cosmetics applications as a beautifying
mechanism may be perceived as more practical, safer, and less expensive,
especially during the COVID-19 pandemic, when most social interactions
occur online. The relationship between body esteem and AI color cosmetics
applications adoption can be explained by the desire to find a cheaper
alternative to actual branded color cosmetics. We believe this is especially
true for those who are only interested in looking more attractive in virtual
settings. However, because AI color cosmetics applications also function as
e-commerce platforms, recommending various virtual branded color cos-
metics along with their prices on a regular basis, the strength of the rela-
tionship between body esteem and AI color cosmetics is governed by the
users’ price consciousness level over time.
This research provides evidence on the mediating role of price con-
sciousness in the relationship between body esteem and AI color cosmetics
adoption (H3b). The nature of the mediating role is partial. According to
Chang et al. (2019), people with high body esteem (PBES) are generally sat-
isfied and confident with their overall appearance, whether or not they
wear color cosmetics. As they become less dependent on wearing branded
color cosmetics in real life or virtually on social media, they become more
price-conscious when purchasing. AI color cosmetics applications were
developed as a trial function to assist consumers with high PBES in lower-
ing the risk of purchasing the incorrect one (Smink et al., 2019). As for
consumers with NBES, their motivations to adopt AI color cosmetics appli-
cations can be explained by the desire to find a less expensive alternative
(or virtual version) to branded color cosmetics.
This research provides evidence on the moderating role of price con-
sciousness in the relationship between body esteem and AI color cosmetics
adoption (H4). The results suggest that price consciousness strengthens the
positive relationships of both PBES and NBES and the AI color cosmetics
adoption. The results add a weight of evidence on the previous studies in
different contexts, such as Cham et al. (2018), that have demonstrated the
moderating effect of price consciousness on the purchase intention.
The control variables (education, age, occupation and usage frequency)
show significant effects on AI color cosmetics applications adoption.
Interestingly, the inclusion of control variables weakens the effects of the
variables of interest to the point where PBES becomes irrelevant or insignifi-
cant (p > .05). In this sense, the control variables provide an alternative
explanation for why our respondents embrace and promote AI color cosmet-
ics applications. In the context of Indonesian users, the adoption of AI color
cosmetics applications may be age and education dependent, with the
younger and more educated groups being the most eager. Furthermore, as
usage frequency increases, so does the propensity to accept and promote the
applications. However, we must proceed with caution. Bernerth and Aguinis
(2016) argued that the inclusion of control variables might lead to incorrect
conclusions by reducing (or inflating) available degree of freedom, statistical
power, and the amount of explainable variance. Control variables are typic-
ally included to account for potential confounders (confounding variables);
however, some researchers have questioned their relevance in cases where
there were more confounders than what a researcher could possibly include
and control in their model and where these control variables were correlated
with one another, potentially resulting in some false results or misleading
conclusions (see Lenz & Sahn, 2021; Nielsen & Raswant, 2018; Spector &
Brannick, 2011). In addition, York (2018) recommended that a parsimonious
model be favored because more complex models do not always provide
more valid results. For the reasons stated above, we adopted a parsimonious
model while still reporting the effects of control variables.
Theoretical contributions
This research has several theoretical contributions: First, our research adds
to the body of knowledge in social comparison theory by elucidating the
roles of body esteem and price consciousness in the context of AI color
cosmetics, a relatively new innovation in facial enhancement technology.
Second, our research provides empirical evidence on the relationship
between body esteem and price consciousness that were hinted by the pre-
vious studies (e.g., Kukar-Kinney et al., 2012; Muratore, 2016; Tatzel, 2002)
but was never actually tested. Consumers’ dissatisfaction with their appear-
ance prompted them to purchase color cosmetics to boost their body
esteem and self-esteem. Using AI color cosmetics applications as a trial
platform before purchasing greatly reduced the risk of purchasing the
wrong products. According to Owens et al. (2001), a positive trial experi-
ence can lead to brand switching and increase brand loyalty among new
customers. AI color cosmetics applications allow users to fully immerse
themselves in a virtual environment and try on various virtual color cos-
metics, creating a novel shopping experience (Javornik, 2016; Javornik
et al., 2021). We, thus, argue that it is essential to test the relationship
between body esteem and price consciousness under the context of AI
color cosmetics adoption. Third, our research provides empirical evidence
on the relationships between body esteem and AI color cosmetics adoption.
Previous studies have discussed the applications of facial enhancement
technology (e.g., AI color cosmetics applications) in the beauty industry
(Hsu et al., 2021; Javornik et al., 2021; Scholz & .Duffy, 2018; Smink et al.,
664 Y. WEI ET AL.
2019). Previous studies have also discussed the role of facial enhancement
technology in consumers’ selfie-editing behavior, such as to garner likes
from followers in social media platforms and, possibly, to attract the oppos-
ite gender (Barker, 2020; Fastoso et al., 2021; Wang, 2019). To the best of
our knowledge, this is the first research to elaborate the precise relationship
between body esteem and AI color cosmetics adoption. Fourth, this
research provides the first empirical evidence on the association between
price consciousness and AI-related technology adoption, which is less
explored. Previous studies suggest that augmented reality (AI-related tech-
nologies) retail experiences can positively affect consumers’ purchase inten-
tion (Erdmann et al., 2021; Watson et al., 2018; Whang et al., 2021). We
argue that value association and price-related concerns about the adoption
of certain AI-related technology may have an impact on the retail experi-
ence. Fifth, this research provides novel findings about the mediating and
the moderating roles of price consciousness in the relationship between
body esteem and AI color cosmetics. Lastly, this research closes the popula-
tion gap by investigating Indonesian users who are still underrepresented
in facial enhancement technology literature.
Managerial implications
This research has several managerial implications: First, our findings reveal
that our respondents were also concerned with their bodyweights (an indi-
cator of body esteem). Developers of AI color cosmetics applications may
incorporate virtual branded color cosmetics that enable users to appear
slim online. Second, our findings suggest that price-conscious respondents
had more intention to adopt AI color cosmetics applications. Users may
consider AI color cosmetics as a less expensive option to branded color
cosmetics. Developers of AI color cosmetics applications may include price
search and comparison features among different brands of color cosmetics.
Special promotions and best deals may also be featured in the applications
to attract price-conscious users. Promotion managers can embed some pro-
motion campaigns in AI color cosmetics applications such as limiting pur-
chase time and creating a "panic buying" environment for price-conscious
consumers, particularly during special festivals and days like Single’s Day
and Black Friday. Promotion managers should begin to recognize and
embrace AI color cosmetics applications as a trial function for branded
color cosmetics and thus as a component of promotion activities.
Furthermore, we recommend that promotion strategies should apply not
only to actual branded color cosmetics available through AI color cosmetics
applications, but also to their virtual forms (i.e., AI color cosmetics) for
online use. Third, promotion managers may use interactive technologies
(e.g., AI color cosmetics applications) to organize dynamic promotion cam-

paigns with price tools to assist firms in increasing sales and brand image.
According to our findings, both the positive view and negative view of
body esteem are proven to increase price consciousness levels. Users may
be offered a promotion campaign with more entertainment and personal-
ized activities (more appropriate for positive-view body esteem consumers
while shopping) or, conversely, some promotion activities with a greater
emphasis on price, such as discounts, coupons, and sales promotion (more
appropriate for negative-view body esteem consumers). Lastly, our findings
suggest that our respondents may associate physical attractiveness and dat-
ing opportunities. The AI color cosmetics applications can be effective in
attracting opposite genders in the early stages of seeking compatible com-
panions by projecting enhanced self-images. Therefore, we suggest that AI
color cosmetics applications be integrated with dating applications to
improve user engagement.
Limitation and future research

We wish to note several limitations in our research: First, our body esteem
scale splits into two distinct factors, namely positive-view and negative-
view of body esteem. Based on this finding, we adjusted our initial model
to give a holistic picture of how the two factors interacted with price con-
sciousness and AI color cosmetics adoption. At this point, we contend to
prove the associations among the variables of interest. Future research may
retest the relationships we have proposed in this research through different
methods (i.e., experimental design) to unravel their exact mechanisms.
Second, because this research was conducted during the COVID-19 pan-
demic, it will be interesting to see how users react to AI color cosmetics
applications during and after the pandemic. Third, our research focused on
female users. During the data collection process, we discovered a small
sample of male AI color cosmetics users. Future research may investigate
AI color cosmetics applications adoption among male users. Fourth, our
body esteem scale includes several body weight-related items that are
related to AI color cosmetics applications to some extent; some AI color
cosmetics are intended to make users’ faces appear slimmer. In other
words, body weight may be a proxy for perceived slimness of the face. A
measurement scale focusing on users’ facial features may be developed or
used in future research. Finally, the control variables had significant effects
on the readiness to use and promote AI color cosmetics applications; how-
ever, we chose the parsimonious model. Future studies may go more deeply
into the connections between adoption of AI color cosmetics applications
and factors like education, age, occupation, and usage frequency.
666 Y. WEI ET AL.
Conclusion
AI color cosmetics applications, commonly featured in smartphones, are a
recent addition to facial enhancement technology. With increased price
consciousness among consumers during the economic downturn, the use of
this technology in the cosmetics industry as a form of promotion and trial
is becoming increasingly important. This research examines the subject
through the lens of social comparison theory. AI color cosmetics applica-
tions have grown in popularity as a new way to project appealing self-
images and compare one’s attractiveness to others in virtual environments,
thanks to the advent of various social media platforms and mobile phones.
This research concludes that high body esteem increases price conscious-
ness, low body esteem increases AI color cosmetics adoption, and price
consciousness plays mediating and moderating roles. To the best of our
knowledge, our research is fresh and novel in that it provides empirical evi-
dence of the triangular relationships between body esteem, price conscious-
ness and AI color cosmetics adoption. Moreover, our research also calls for
business synergy between cosmetics retailers and AI color cosmetics appli-
cation developers to address the users’ needs and improve their virtual
experiences.
Acknowledgments
The authors like to thank Professor Tommi Laukkanen and two reviewers for their insight-
ful comments on previous versions of this manuscript.
Disclosure statement
No potential conflict of interest was reported by the authors.
ORCID
Yuling Wei http://orcid.org/0000-0003-0955-0909
Attila Endre Simay http://orcid.org/0000-0001-5114-8791
Irma Agardi http://orcid.org/0000-0001-9102-5403
Jhanghiz Syahrivar http://orcid.org/0000-0002-4563-3413

Agnes Hofmeister-Toth http://orcid.org/0000-0001-5883-054X
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Using Artificial Intelligence To Promote Branded Color Cosmetics Evidence From Indonesia

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Using Artificial Intelligence to Promote Branded

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Using Artificial Intelligence to Promote Branded Color

CONTACT Attila Endre Simay attila.simay@uni-corvinus.hu Institute of Marketing and Communication

increased hygiene concerns, the cosmetics industry must find innovative

AI color cosmetics adoption

physical environment with virtual data (Ghazali et al., 2019). Virtualization

Individuals with low body esteem are tempted by direct self-improve-

physical appearance, self-image and increase their social interaction by vir-

A previous study suggests by Tatzel (2002), price-conscious consumers

In a general sense, wearing cosmetics may improve one’s self-esteem and

about robotics and technology (Belanche et al., 2020). In the context of

Figure 1. Theoretical framework.

Table 1. Respondent profile.

Table 2. Descriptive statistics.

In the Exploratory Factory Analysis (EFA) stage, we employed KMO and

Table 3. KMO and Bartlett’s test.

Table 4. Total variance explained.

Table 5. Rotated component matrix.

Figure 2. Parsimonious SEM model (notes: <.01, <.001).

Table 7. Regression weight.

Table 8. The mediating role of price consciousness.

Table 9. The moderating role of price consciousness.

Figure 3. Illustrations of price consciousness’ moderating role.

Table 10. Step-wise regression analysis (dependent variable: AIC).

cosmetics improve their awareness and knowledge of various cosmetic

Previous research has demonstrated that a variable can act as both a

(e.g., AI color cosmetics applications) to organize dynamic promotion cam-

Limitation and future research

Global Business Guide (GBG) Indonesia. (2017). Manufacturing j Indonesia’s cosmetics

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