Digital Communication Systems

Chapter Three:
Transmission of digital signal through band
limited channel

1
 Chapter: Road Map
 Introduction
 Line coding for digital communication
 Line coding requirements
 Review of data encoding techniques
 Types of line coding/waveforms
 Timing signal
 Power spectra(PSD) and impulse train
 Baseband data transmission
 Inter symbol interference
 Signal design for zero ISI
 Nyquist criterion for zero ISI
 Ideal solution for zero ISI
 Raised cosine spectrum
 Baseband transmission for M-ary data
 Correlative coding
 Duobinary signaling, decoding, precoding
 Equivalent transfer function
 Eye diagram
 Equalizers
 Assignment(15%)
2
 Introduction
 The transmission of digital data over a physical communication channel
is limited by two unavoidable factors:
 Inter symbol interference: arises due to imperfections in the frequency
response of the channel. The main causes are:
 Cable lines: BW is limited
 Cellular communication: multipath propagation
 Channel noise: due to unwanted electric signals that arise at the channel
output due to random and unpredictable physical phenomena.

3
 Introduction
 For AWGN channel, no bandwidth constraint is imposed on signal
design and communication system design.
 When the channel is bandlimited to bandwidth(BW) of W Hz, we can
model it as a linear filter LPF with spectrum of C(f)=0 for |f|>W.
 Thus, we limit the BW of the transmitted signal to W Hz.
 When the channel is not ideal, signal transmission at a symbol rate equal
to or exceeding W results in ISI among a number of adjacent symbols.
 If we transmit digital data which demands more bandwidth which exceeds
channel bandwidth, spreading will occur and cause signal pulses to overlap.
 To reduce or remove the effect of ISI, overall pulse shaping is required
 Ideal Nyquist rate…not realizable
 Raised(full )cosine filter
 Correlative coding
 Equalizer(at receiver side) can be used

4
 Line Coding for Digital communication
 How do we transmit bits over a wire, RF, fiber?
 Line codes, many options
 Power spectrum of line codes, how much bandwidth do they take?
 Clock signal and synchronization
 Line Coding Requirements
 Transmission Bandwidth: as small as possible
 Power Efficiency: As small as possible for given BW and BER
 Error Detection and Correction capability: Ex: Bipolar
 Favorable power spectral density: dc=0
 Adequate timing content(self-synchro): Extract timing from pulses
 Transparency: Prevent long strings of 0s or 1s

Digital data Line Coder Physical

waveform
5
 Review of Data Encoding Techniques
 Analog data to Analog signals
 Include modulation techniques such as Amplitude Modulation,
Frequency Modulation and Phase Modulation of analog signals.
 Analog data to Digital signals
 This process can be termed as digitization( digital modulation), which is
done by Pulse Code Modulation PCM, DM
 Digital data to Analog signals
 Include modulation techniques such as Amplitude Shift Keying ASK,
Frequency Shift Keying FSK, Phase Shift Keying PSK, etc.
 Digital data to Digital signals
 There are several ways to map digital data to digital signals. Some of
them are NRZ, RZ, Manchester coding.
 Will be discussed in this chapter

6
 Line Coding/waveforms
 In telecommunication, a line code is a code chosen for use within a communications
system for transmitting a digital signal/waveforms down a transmission line
 It is chosen so as to avoid overlap and distortion of signal such as inter-symbol interference.

 Unipolar signaling(OOK): ‘1’=+A,

‘0’=0
 Polar signaling: ‘1’=+A, ‘0’=-A
 Bipolar signaling: ‘1’=alternatively
positive or negative values, ‘0’=0
 Manchester signaling: ‘1’=positive half-
bit followed by a negative half-bit period
pulse. ‘0’= negative half-bit followed by
a positive half-bit period pulse.
 RZ: the waveform returns to a zero-volt
level for a portion (usually on-half) of
the bit interval.
 NRZ: no return to zero for half of bit
7
interval
 Line Coding
 Digital data stream is encoded into a sequence of pulses for transmission
through a base-band analog channel.
 This process of coding is chosen so as to avoid overlap and distortion of
signal such as inter-symbol interference.
 Many different waveforms are used to transmit bits
 Unipolar NRZ Signaling/on-off signaling
 Symbol 1: transmission of pulse with A amplitude, Symbol 0: no pulse
 Drawback: waste of power due to DC component
 Polar NRZ Signaling
 Symbol 1: transmitting pulses of amplitudes +A , symbol 0: by –A
 Easy to generate but power spectrum is large near zero frequency
 Unipolar RZ Signaling
 Symbol 1 is represented by a rectangular pulse of amplitude A and half symbol width
and symbol 0 is represented by transmitting no pulse
1
 Has delta functions at 𝑓 = 0, 𝑎𝑛𝑑 ± 𝑇 used for bit-timing recovery in receiver
𝑏
 For the same BER, requires additional 3dB than polar RZ
8
 Line Coding
 Bipolar RZ Signaling
 +A and –A amplitudes used alternately to represent for symbol 1,
with each pulse having a half-symbol width; no pulse is always used
for symbol 0.
 The power spectrum of the transmitted signal has no DC component
and relatively insignificant low-frequency components for the case
when symbols 1 and 0 occur with equal probability
 Split-Phase(Manchester Code)-Bi-phase
 Symbol 1 is represented by a positive pulse of amplitude A followed
by a negative pulse of amplitude –A, with both pulses being half-
symbol wide.
 For symbol 0,the polarities of these two pulses are reversed.
 It suppresses the dc component and has relatively insignificant low-
frequency components, regardless of the signal statistics.
9
 Line Coding: Example

 Assume that the PCM binary sequence is given by 1001110101.

Sketch the line coding of the following:
 Unipolar NRZ
 Polar NRZ
 Bi-polar NRZ
 Unipolar RZ
 Polar RZ
 Bipolar RZ
 Manchester encoding

 Some of the features we would like are

 Easy to extract timing
 Zero average value
10
 Line Coding: Timing Signal
 We want to be able to easily extract the timing information from the
signal
 Consider the polar RZ r(t) shown below. If we take the absolute value we
get a timing signal.

 A line code where it is easy to extract the timing signal is called a

transparent code
 In practice the timing signal will be cleaned up by a narrowband
bandpass filter before it is used to extract the bits in the input signal
11
 Review: Energy and Power Signals
 An energy signal x(t) has 0<E<∞ for average energy

 A power signal x(t) has 0<P<∞ for average power

 An energy signal has zero average power.

 A power signal has infinite average energy.
 Power signals are generally not integrable so don’t necessarily have a
Fourier transform(FT).
 We use power spectral density(PSD) to characterize power signals
that don’t have a Fourier transform

12
 Power Spectra Density of Line Codes
 The output distortion of a communication channel depends on power
spectral density of input signal
 Pulse Rate (spectrum widens with pulse rate)
 Pulse Shape (smoother or longer pulses have narrower PSD)
 Pulse Distribution (line code)
 To study the performance(spectrum) of a line code PSD is used instead
of FT.
 It is because the informationsignals that generate a line code is a
stochastic (non–deterministic) signal, and the Fourier transform
cannot be applied for non–deterministic signals.
 To study the spectrum of stochastic signals, we use the PSD, which
shows the distribution of the signal power versus the frequency.

13
 PSD Estimation
 Power signals (P=Energy/t)
 PSD: distribution of signal power over frequency

 To have a Fourier transform for power signals, truncated version of x(t)

is considered, i.e. xT(t) has a finite energy

14
 PSD Estimation
 Considering {ak} as an impulse train
𝑦 𝑡 = ෍ 𝑎𝑘𝑝(𝑡 − 𝑘𝑇)
p 𝑘

Line coding
 The PSD of a line code depends on the shapes of pulses that correspond
to digital values
 Symbol mapping(ak):
Unipolar, polar & bipolar
 Pulse shape(p(t)):
NRZ, RZ & Manchester

 The transmitted y(t) signal is the sum of weighted, shifted pulses.

15
 PSD Estimation
 Thus PSD is estimated by considering x(t) that uses a unit impulse response
for the basic pulse of p(t), where T =Tb bit duration.

 We can simplify analysis by representing y(t) as impulse train convolved with p(t)

 Thus,

 The PSD of y(t) is 𝑆𝑦 𝑓 = 𝑃(𝑓) 2𝑆𝑥 𝑓

 P(f) depends only on the pulse, independent of digital values or rate
 Sx(f) increases linearly with rate1/Tb and depends on distribution of values of
16 {ak}. E.g.,ak=1 for all k has narrower PSD.
 PSD of Impulse Train
 PSD is the Fourier Transform of autocorrelation and is a two step system
 Finding the Fourier transform of the rectangular pulse, P(f)
 Finding autocorrelation of digital sequence {ak}
 We like to find the autocorrelation of an impulse train

 In discrete time the signal is

 This is illustrated below

17
 PSD of Impulse Train
 The autocorrelation in discrete time of digital values {ak}with N

 It can also be written using expectation, E[x]

𝑅𝑛 = 𝐸 𝑎𝑘 𝑎𝑘−𝑛 =σ 𝑎𝑘 𝑎𝑘−𝑛 𝑝 𝑥
 p(x) is the probability of binary sequences
 The continuous time autocorrelation and its PSD

18
 PSD of Impulse Train
 The PSD is then

 Hence, if we know the discrete time autocorrelation of the transmitted

bits, we know the continuous time power spectral density.
 Then, given a PAM pulse sequence

 The PSD of the encoded signal is as per Wiener Khintchine r/ship is

 We will look at the effect of each of the terms on the right.

19
 PSD of Impulse Train
 Consider the Polar NRZ line code y(t). It is decomposed in to two signals, the
information signal x(t) represented by a sequence of delta functions and that is
convolved by a pulse signal p(t).

20
 PSD Example: NRZ Unipolar
 PSD of NRZ Unipolar Line coding scheme
Step 1: Finding the Fourier transform of NRZ pulse, P(f)
Step 2: Find autocorrelation of unipolar sequence, Rn
Step 3: Calculate PSD based on P(f) and Rn
 Fourier transform of NRZ pulse, P(f)

 Symbols independent and equally likely to be 0 or A, p(x)=1/2

A2 A2
 Autocorrelation of ak sequence, 𝑅𝑛 = for n = 0 else
2 4
 Thus the PSD is given by

 It has dc component leading to distortion of the signal

21
 Line coding: Power Spectra
 Drive the PSD and write a matlab code to draw the line coding

22
 Line Coding: Power Spectra

23
 Baseband digital data transmission
 Base band system: the input data stream is baseband signal, whose
spectrum extends from zero to some finite value positive frequencies.
 Doesn’t require carrier modulation and demodulation techniques
 In baseband data transmission, an incoming serial data stream is
represented in the form of a discrete pulse-amplitude modulated wave that
can be transmitted over a low-pass channel (e.g., a coaxial cable)
 In discrete PAM, the amplitude of PAM are quantized in to discrete levels.
 Such modulation technique involves varying the amplitude of transmitted
pulses(with short duration) in accordance with an input stream of digital data.

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 Baseband digital data transmission
 The binary data stream 𝑏𝑘 is applied to a PAM(line encoder) to
produce a level encoded signal (sequence of short pulse) 𝑎𝑘
 For polar NRZ signaling

 The transmitted signal which is sequence of pulses produced by the

transmit filter, with impulse response g 𝑡 is given by

 s(t) is form of linear modulation

 A binary data stream represented by the sequence 𝑎𝑘 ,modulates the basis
pulse g(t) and superposes linearly to form the transmitted signal s(t).

25
 Baseband digital data transmission
 The noisy received signal 𝑥 𝑡 = 𝑠(𝑡) ⋆ ℎ 𝑡 is passed through a receive
filter of impulse response c(t), to produce filter output y(t)
𝑦 𝑡 = 𝑠(𝑡) ⋆ ℎ(𝑡) ⋆ 𝑐(𝑡)
 The filter output y(t) is next sampled synchronously with the generator
of clock pulses in the transmitter.
 Synchronization is established by extracting a clock or timing signal from the
receive-filter output.
 The sequence of samples obtained is used to reconstruct the original
binary data stream using decision-making device.
 The amplitude of each sample is compared to a threshold to determine
either symbol 1 or 0.
 If the threshold is exceeded, a decision is made in favor of symbol 1, otherwise a
decision is made in favor of symbol 0
 If the sample amplitude equals the threshold, the receiver makes a random guess.

26
 Inter symbol Interference(ISI)
 The receive filter output, y(t) ignoring the effect of channel noise
(assuming the SNR is large enough), is given by

 The scaled overall pulse p(t) is obtained by a double convolution

𝑝 𝑡 = 𝑔(𝑡) ⋆ ℎ(𝑡) ⋆ c(t) or
𝑃 𝑓 = 𝐺(𝑓)𝐻(𝑓)C(𝑓)
 Normalized pulse p(t) is given by 𝑝 0 = 1
 The receive filter output y(t) is sampled at time 𝑡𝑖 = 𝑖𝑇𝑏 , where i takes
on integer values;

 The first term ai represents the contribution of the ith transmitted bit,
transmitted binary symbol
27
 Inter symbol Interference(ISI)
 The second term represents the residual effect of all other transmitted bits
on the decoding of the ith bit.
 This residual effect due to the occurrence of pulses before and after the
sampling instant ti is called inter symbol interference (ISI).
 Leads to spreading(dispersion) of the pulse shape
 Occurs when channel BW is close to signal BW, thus spreading of the pulses
exceed a symbol duration, and cause signal pulses to overlap
 In the absence of ISI(and the assumed absence of channel noise, the ith
transmitted bit is decoded correctly
𝑦 𝑡𝑖 = 𝑎𝑖
 ISI is the pulse shape problem, thus the overall pulse shape p(t) can be
controlled to satisfy the following requirements:
 To reduce the ISI to zero and
 Conserve the transmission bandwidth

28
 Inter symbol Interference(ISI)
 Rectangular pulses are suitable for infinite-bandwidth channels
(practically – wideband).
 Practical channels are band-limited -> pulses spread in time and are
smeared into adjacent slots. This is inter symbol interference (ISI).

29
 Signal Design for Zero ISI
 The overall pulse shape p(t) should mitigate the ISI problem.
 The overlapping pulses at the receiver output, should not interfere
to each other at sampling times 𝑡𝑖 = 𝑖𝑇𝑏
 The overall pulse-shape p(t) to free ISI is designed

 Thus, pulse p(t) is called a Nyquist pulse, and the condition itself is
referred to as Nyquist’s criterion for distortionless binary baseband data
transmission.
 It is also called Nyquist criterion for zero ISI

30
 Nyquist criterion for zero ISI
 The pulse shape p(t), at sampling instants having only one nonzero sample

 Thus, the frequency function P(f) eliminates ISI for samples taken at intervals Tb.

31
 Ideal Solution for Zero ISI
 Frequency spectrum of p(t) to free ISI is
given by rectangular function

 The impulse response p(t) to free ISI is

given by sinc function

 Overall baseband system bandwidth W

1 𝑅𝑏
𝑊= =
2𝑇𝑏 2
32  Nyquist rate, 𝑅𝑏 = 2𝑊
 Ideal Solution for Zero ISI

 The function p(t) has its peak value at the origin and goes through
zero at integer multiples of the bit duration Tb, will not interfere
with each other.
 sinc pulse allows to eliminate ISI at sampling instants.
 Ideal Nyquist pulse solves the ISI problem with minimum BW
requirement but it is not practical due to
 Physically unrealizable spectrum P(f) with rectangular form because of
abrupt transitions at the band edges,±W
o Has infinite width
 p(t) decreases as 1/|t|for large|t|, resulting in a slow rate of decay.

33
 Raised Cosine Spectrum(RCS)
 To overcome practical difficulties in the ideal Nyquist pulse, the
bandwidth can be extended to adjustable value from W to 2W, where
𝑊 = 𝑅𝑏/2
 Robust signal design with tolerant timing error at the expense of increased
channel BW.
 The modified P(f) provided by RCS, decreases toward zero gradually
rather than abruptly.
 Raised cosine spectrum, consists of a flat portion and a roll-off portion
that has a sinusoidal form, 𝛼 is roll of factor

34
 Raised Cosine Spectrum(RCS)
 Roll-off factor indicates excess bandwidth over the ideal solution, W,
thus the new transmission bandwidth is
𝐵𝑇 = 𝑊(1 + 𝛼)
 The RCS function for 𝛼 = 0.5 and 1 cuts off gradually as compared
with the ideal Nyquist pulse, 𝛼 = 0. This roll-off is cosine-like in shape.

35
 Raised Cosine Spectrum(RCS)
 The impulse response, p(t) for the RCS for 𝛼 = 0, 0.5 and 1

First term
Second term
 The first term: ideal Nyquist
pulse, indicates zero crossings
at sampling intervals, 𝑡 = 𝑖𝑇𝑏
1
 The second term decreases as
𝑡2
for large |t|, reduces tails of pulses
to tolerate sampling timing errors
 For 𝛼=1, amplitude of tails of p(t)
are smallest.
 As 𝛼 increases to 1, the ISI resulting
from timing error decreases
36
 Example: Bandwidth Requirements of the T1
System
 T1 carrier system that is used to multiplex 24 independent voice inputs,
which is based on an 8-bit PCM word
 The bit duration of TDM including a frame bit is
1 1
𝑇𝑏 = = = 0.647𝜇𝑠
𝑅𝑏 1.544𝑀𝑏𝑝𝑠
 For 𝛼 = 0, the Nyquist bandwidth of T1 system is
1
𝑊= = 772 𝑘𝐻𝑧
2𝑇𝑏
 It is the minimum transmission BW for zero ISI
 Realistic value for the transmission bandwidth is obtained by using a
raised-cosine pulse spectrum with roll-off factor 𝛼=1
𝐵𝑇 = 𝑊 1 + 𝛼 = 1.544 𝑀𝐻𝑧
which is double of Nyquist bandwidth
37
 Multilevel Signaling
 Digital communications uses only a finite number of symbols for
communication, the minimum being two (binary)
 In some applications, the bandwidth is limited but higher data rates are desired,
number of symbols (i.e., voltage levels) can be increased while maintaining the
same signaling rate (baud rate).
 It is used for data transmission in which instead of one bit, two or more bits are
transmitted at a time.
 As a single signal is used for multiple bit transmission, the channel
bandwidth is reduced.
 The data rate R achieved by a multilevel system is given by
𝑅 = log 2 ( 𝑀)(2𝑊)
M is the number of levels, k=log2M bits

38
 Baseband Transmission for M-ary Data
 For a baseband M-ary system, output of the line encoder takes on one of
M possible amplitude levels.
 Example: 4-PAM-four level signaling

 The M-ary system improves bandwidth utilization at the expense of

increased power and increased system complexity
39
 Correlative Coding
 Definition of Correlative Coding
 Duobinary Signaling
 Duobinary Decoding
 Precoding
 Duobinary Equivalent Transfer Function
 Comparison of Binary and Duobinary Signaling

40
 Correlative Coding
 In signal design for zero ISI, it reduce the symbol rate below the Nyquist
rate of 2W symbols/s to realize Tx and Rx filters.
 However using correlative coding, it is possible to transmit 2W symbols/s
with zero ISI, using theoretical minimum BW of W Hz, without
infinitely sharp filters.
 Correlative coding: introduce some controlled amount of ISI into the
data stream rather than trying to eliminate it completely.
1 𝑛=0
 For zero ISI: 𝑝 𝑛𝑡 = ቊ
0 𝑜𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑤𝑖𝑠𝑒
1 𝑛 = 0,1
 For correlative coding: 𝑝 𝑛𝑡 = ቊ
0 𝑜𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑤𝑖𝑠𝑒
 Allowing one additional nonzero value in the samples, introduces controlled
amount of ISI at the transmitter.
 Since the amount of ISI is known, it is easy to design the receiver
according to the requirement so as to avoid the effect of ISI on the signal.
 Correlative coding improves the bandwidth efficiency.
41
 Duobinary Signaling
 Assume a binary symbols {xk} to be transmitted at rate R over a system with
ideal rectangular spectrum bandwidth W=R/2=1/2T Hz.
 A digital filter that incorporate a one-digit delay, adds a present and previous
values of the pulses to get a {yk} sequence
𝑦𝑘 = 𝑥𝑘 + 𝑥𝑘−1
 {yk}amplitudes are not independent. It carries with it the memory of prior digit
 ISI introduced to each yk digit comes from 𝑥𝑘−1 digit
 Thus correlation between the pulse amplitudes {yk} is controlled ISI
introduced by duobinary coding
 The {yk} sequence is followed by ideal Nyquist filter( with zero ISI).

Line encoder

42
 Duobinary Decoding
 The controlled interference added at the transmitter can be easily
removed at detector using duobinary decoder to get 𝑥𝑘 .
 The receiver sampler takes samples at instants of t=kT from the noise
affected channel to get estimated yk, {𝑦ො k}
 If the binary digit amplitude xk is ±1, yk has +2, 0, or -2 possibility.
 Duobinary code results in a three level output.
 Duo-binary refers to doubling the binary system’s transmission capability
 Decoding procedure involves the inverse of the coding procedure
𝑥𝑘 = 𝑦𝑘 + 𝑥𝑘−1

43
 Example: Duobinary Coding and decoding
 Consider a binary digit sequence of {xk}=0010110. Assume that the
first bit as a startup digit, not part of data.
Binary digit sequence{xk}: 0 0 1 0 1 1 0
Bipolar amplitudes{xk}: -1 -1 +1 -1 +1 +1 -1
Coding rule: 𝑦𝑘 = 𝑥𝑘 + 𝑥𝑘−1 : -2 0 0 0 2 0

Decoding decision rule: If 𝑦ො k =2, decide that 𝑥ො k=+1 (or binary one).
If 𝑦ො k =-2, decide that 𝑥ො k=-1 (or binary zero).
If 𝑦ො k =0, decide opposite of the previous decision

Decoded bipolar sequence {𝑥ො k}: -1 +1 -1 +1 +1 -1

Decoded binary sequence {𝑥ො k}: 0 1 0 1 1 0

 Drawback: since the present decisions depend on the prior decisions,

once an error is made, it tends to propagate.
44  Precoding is required to avoid the propagation of errors
 Precoding
 Precoding is accomplished by two steps
1. Differentially encoding the {xk} into a new {wk}using
𝑤𝑘 = 𝑥𝑘 ⨁𝑤𝑘−1
where ⨁ is modulo-2 addition or exclusive-or operation.
 The rules of modulo-2 addition is 0 ⨁ 0=1 ⨁1=0 and 0⨁1=1 ⨁0=1.
2. The {𝑤𝑘 } binary sequence is then converted to a bipolar pulse sequence
 The coding operation is the same as ordinary duobinary coding scheme
however for the detection it differs, (see on the example below)

45
 Example: Duobinary Precoding
 In precoding, the {wk} is performed on binary digits while the {yk}
sequence is performed on bipolar pulses
 Assuming the {xk}=0010110 sequence and first bit as startup bit

Binary digit sequence{xk}: 0 0 1 0 1 1 0

Precoded sequence 𝑤𝑘 = 𝑥𝑘 ⊕ 𝑤𝑘−1 : 0 0 1 1 0 1 1
Bipolar amplitudes{𝑤𝑘 }: -1 -1 +1 +1 -1 +1 +1
Coding rule: 𝑦𝑘 = 𝑤𝑘 + 𝑤𝑘−1 : -2 0 +2 0 0 +2

Decoding decision rule: If 𝑦ො k =±2, decide that 𝑥ො k=binary zero.

If 𝑦ො k =0, decide that 𝑥ො k=binary one.

Decoded binary sequence {xk} 0 1 0 1 1 0

 The use of differentially encoding enables to decode {𝑦

ො k}without prior
decisions, thus error doesn't propagate
 Show that if the startup bit in {wk} is bit 1, it results same decoded digits
46
 Duobinary Equivalent Transfer Function
 Duobinary transfer function includes digital filter(one-digit delay)
followed by ideal rectangular transfer function.
 Digital filter frequency transfer function

1
 The transfer function of the ideal rectangular filter, 𝑇 = 𝑊
2

 The cascaded equivalent transfer function is

47
 Duobinary Equivalent Transfer Function
 The magnitude of the equivalent transfer function, 𝐻(𝑓) is

 𝐻𝑒(𝑓) is cosine filter, has gradual roll-off

 Cosine filter is not realizable but, it can be
approximated using realizable analog filters

 Impulse response of cosine filter

At every T sec intervals, there are

two non-zero samples, giving rise
to controlled ISI from adjacent bit
he(t) is called duobinary signal pulse
48
 Comparison of Binary with Duobinary Signaling
 The duobinary technique introduces correlation between pulse
amplitudes, i.e. it assumes the transmitted pulse amplitudes are
independent to each other.
 This correlation achieve zero ISI signal transmission using smaller system
bandwidth
 However it requires three levels compared to usual two levels for binary
coding, thus more signal power is needed than binary signaling. For a
given pe, duobinary requires ~2.5dB more SNR than binary signal.
 The binary signaling requires less signal power but more channel BW
than of duobinary due to roll-off factor, 𝛼

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 Eye Diagram
 Convenient way to observe the effect of ISI and channel noise on an
oscilloscope

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 Eye Diagram
 Oscilloscope presentations of a signal with multiple sweeps (triggered by
a clock signal!), each is slightly larger than symbol interval.
 Quality of a received signal may be estimated.
 Normal operating conditions (no ISI, no noise) -> eye is open.
 Large ISI or noise -> eye is closed.
 Timing error allowed – width of the eye,
called eye opening (preferred sampling
time – at the largest vertical eye opening).
 Sensitivity to timing error -> slope of the
open eye evaluated at the zero crossing point.
 Noise margin -> the height of the eye
opening-the larger, better nosie tolerance

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 Equalizer
 Many communication channels(e.g., telephone, wireless) can be
characterized as band-limited linear filters with h(t) impulse response,
and a frequency response
𝐻 𝑓 = 𝐻(𝑓) 𝑒 𝑗 𝜃(𝑓)
 For ideal(non-distorting) transmission over a channel within a signal’s W,
 Channel’s amplitude response, 𝐻(𝑓) must be constant
 Channel’s phase response, 𝜃(𝑓) must be a linear function of frequency ,
delay must be constant for all spectrum
 Otherwise it may lead to amplitude and phase distortion.
 When the channel is not ideal, or when signaling is not Nyquist, there is
ISI at the receiver side.

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 Equalizer
 Equalization refers, to any signal processing or filtering technique that is
designed to eliminate or reduce ISI.
 In time domain, equalizer removes ISI
 In frequency domain, equalizer flat the overall response
 It is located at the receiver end of the channel.
 The transfer function of the equalizer is just inverse of the transfer
function of the channel.
1 1
𝐸 𝑓 = = 𝑒 −𝑗𝜃(𝑓)
𝐻 𝑓 𝐻 𝑓
 The overall system transfer function be a raised-cosine filter, P(f) is
𝑃 𝑓 = 𝐺 𝑓 ∗ 𝐻 𝑓 ∗ 𝐶 𝑓 ∗ 𝐸(𝑓)
 Thus, 𝐺(𝑓) = 𝐶(𝑓) = 𝑃(𝑓)

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 Types of Equalizers
 Equalizers are of two types

Linear
Equalizers
Non-linear

 Linear equalizers aim at reducing ISI in linear channels using various

algorithms such as Least mean square(LMS), recursive least
square(RLS), and Normalized LMS.
 Equalization is an iterative process of reducing the mean square error the
difference between the desired response and output of filter used in
equalizer.
 Non-linear equalizers equalize non-linear channels. They mainly use
Neural networks(NN), and Multi-layer Perception(MLP) algorithms for
equalization.
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 Assignment
Groups Assigned Questions
Group A 1. Polar NRZ: drive its PSD, give application, and draw its PSD
2. Blind equalization: structure, working principle, applications,
drawbacks
Group B 1. Unipolar RZ: drive its PSD, give application, and draw its PSD
2. Fractionally Spaced equalizer: structure, working principle,
applications, drawbacks
Group C 1. Polar RZ: drive its PSD, give application, and draw its PSD
2. Decision-feedback equalization: structure, working principle,
applications, drawbacks

Group D 1. Manchester coding: drive its PSD, give application, and draw its
PSD
2. Adaptive equalizers: structure, working principle, applications,
drawbacks
Group E 1. Bipolar RZ: drive its PSD, give application, and draw its PSD
2. Turbo equalization: structure, working principle, applications,
drawbacks
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