1.a.

The implementation of the distributed

system is very complex, as a number of
issues have to be considered to achieve its
final objective. The complexities should not
worry the user of the distributed system
from using it i.e., the complexities should be
hidden from the user who uses the
distributed system. This property of the
distributed system is called its transparency.
There are different kinds of transparencies
that the distributed system has to
incorporate. The following are the different
transparencies encountered in the distributed
systems:
1. Access Transparency: Access
transparency allows the same operations to
be used to access local and remote
resources. The file distribution must be
hidden from the clients. The storing of data
on separate servers that are physically
separated and a common set of actions
should be available to access both remote
and local files. Applications for local files
are to be designed such that they should be
able to run on remote files as well.
Examples- The File system in Network File
System (NFS), SQL queries, and web
navigation exhibits the feature of access
transparency.
2. Location Transparency: Location
Transparency permits access to resources
regardless of their physical or network
location. There should be a view of a
consistent file namespace for the clients. It
must possess the feature of moving files
such that their pathnames are not be
affected. There is no information regarding
the physical location of the object in case of
a location transparent name. it is a quite vital
and critical feature for facilitating resource
movement and service availability. Location
and Access Transparency together makes
Network transparency.
Examples- NFS file system and the pages of
the web.
3. Concurrency Transparency:
Concurrency Transparency permits many
processes to run in parallel using shared
resources without interfering with one
another. As we know distributed systems
exhibit concurrent environments so the
shareable items are all accessed at the same
time. It is hard to control Concurrency and
implementation.
Example- Automatic Teller Machine (ATM)
network.
 4. Replication Transparency: Replication
Transparency ensures the existence of
numerous instances of resources to improve
reliability and performance without having
to know about replication to the user. In
other words, this type of transparency
should primarily be applied to distributed
file systems, where replication of data over
two or more sites exists for increased
reliability. The existence of a mirrored copy
of data must be unknown to the client.
Example- Distributed DBMS (Database
Management System).
5. Failure Transparency: Failure
Transparency permits fault abstraction in the
background, allowing users and application
programs to execute tasks even when
hardware and software components fail. The
fault tolerance properly is exhibited by the
procedures that deal with access
transparency. The main concern in the
distributed system is that they are more
prone to failure since any of the components
could fail, resulting in a degraded or non-
existent/unavailable service/ it is quite
difficult to tell the difference between a
failed and a show-running operation since
the complexities are hidden.
Examples- Database Management Systems
(DBMS)
6. Migration Transparency: Migration
Transparency lets a system or resources
move around without disrupting user or
software processes. It also bolsters the load
balancing of any client that may be
overburdened.
Examples- Network File System (NFS) and
web pages.
 7. Performance Transparency:
Performance Transparency enables system
reconfiguration to increase or enhance
performance.

1.b. Transparency is an important

characteristic of distributed systems, as it
makes their operation in the eyes of the user
to be more friendly, easy or simply
transparent. Users should be unaware of the
location of the services, and the transfer
from a local to a remote machine should
remain transparent to them.
- the files simply have to be available and
accessible whenever they are required.
- A location transparent name should contain
no information about the object’s physical
location.
- The system can be reconfigured to improve
performance as the load fluctuates but this
process should be transparent to the user
who is using the system.
- load balancing to improve performance.

2.a.
Class APIIT extends Thread
{
Public void run()
{
For (int i=0; i<10; i++)
{
System.out.println(“Thread”
+
Thread.currentThread().getId() + “ is
running”);
}
}
}
Class APU extends Thread
{
Public void run()
{
For (int j=0; j<10; j++)
{
System.out.println(“Thread”
+

Thread.currentThread().getId() + “ is
running”);
}
 }
}
public static void main(String args[ ])
{
APIIT a1=new APIIT( );
APU a2=new APU( );
a1.start( );
a2.start( );
}

2.b.
Synchronous
Asynchronous DS
DS
1. Data is sent 1. Data is sent
in form of blocks in form of bytes
or frames. or characters.
2. fast 2. slow
3. There is no 3. There is a gap
gap between present between
data. data.
4. Synchronous 4. Asynchronous
DS needs DS does not need
precisely synchronized clocks
synchronized as parity bit is used
clocks for the in this DS for
information of information of new
new bytes. bytes.
5. Costly 5. Economical
3.a. The four-security mechanism in
distributed system.
 Access Control :
This mechanism is used to stop
unattended access to data which you
are sending. It can be achieved by
various techniques such as applying
 passwords, using firewall, or just by
adding PIN to data.
 Authentication exchange :
This security mechanism deals with
identity to be known in
communication. This is achieved at the
TCP/IP layer where two-way
handshaking mechanism is used to
ensure data is sent or not
 Data Integrity :
This security mechanism is used by
appending value to data to which is
created by data itself. It is similar to
sending packet of information known
to both sending and receiving parties
and checked before and after data is
received. When this packet or data
which is appended is checked and is
the same while sending and receiving
data integrity is maintained.
  Encipherment :
This security mechanism deals with
hiding and covering of data which
helps data to become confidential. It is
achieved by applying mathematical
calculations or algorithms which
reconstruct information into not
readable form. It is achieved by two
famous techniques named
Cryptography and Encipherment.
Level of data encryption is dependent
on the algorithm used for
encipherment.

3.b. Virtualization is the ability to run

multiple operating systems on a single
physical system and share the underlying
hardware resources* or
• It is the process by which one computer
hosts the appearance of many computers.
It will be very useful to APU systems due
to the reasons
- is a program that allows multiple operating
systems to share a single hardware host.
- Each guest operating system appears to
have the host's processor, memory, and
other resources all to itself.
- However, the hypervisor is actually
controlling the host processor and resources,
allocating in APU systems
- it also determines what is needed to each
operating system in turn and making sure
that the guest operating systems (called
virtual machines) cannot disrupt each other.
4.a. Grid computing is a distributed
architecture of multiple computers
connected by networks to accomplish a joint
task. These tasks are compute-intensive and
difficult for a single machine to handle.
Several machines on a network collaborate
under a common protocol and work as a
single virtual supercomputer to get complex
tasks done. This offers powerful
virtualization by creating a single system
image that grants users and applications
seamless access to IT capabilities.
Elements of Grid computing:
• Resource sharing
– Computers, data, storage, sensors,
networks, …
– Sharing always conditional: issues of
trust, policy, negotiation, payment, …
• Coordinated problem solving
 – Beyond client-server: distributed data
analysis, computation, collaboration,
…
• Dynamic, multi-institutional virtual
organizations
– Community overlays on classic org
structures
– Large or small, static or dynamic

4.b. Cloud Computing is defined as storing

and accessing of data and computing
services over the internet. It doesn’t store
any data on your personal computer. It is the
on-demand availability of computer services
like servers, data storage, networking,
databases, etc. The main purpose of cloud
computing is to give access to data centers
to many users. Users can also access data
from a remote server.
Examples of Cloud Computing
Services: AWS, Azure, Google Cloud

Cloud Computing Services:

 SaaS (Software as a Service)
SaaS or software as a service is a software
distribution model in which applications are
hosted by a vendor or service provider and
made available to customers over a network
(internet). SaaS is becoming an increasingly
prevalent delivery model as underlying
technologies that supports Service Oriented
Architecture (SOA) or Web Services.
Through internet this service is available to
users anywhere in the world.
 PaaS (Platform as a Service)
Platform as a service, is referred as PaaS, it
provides a platform and environment to
allow developers to build applications and
services. This service is hosted in the cloud
and accessed by the users via internet.
 IaaS (Infrastructure as a Service)
IaaS (Infrastructure As A Service) is one of
the fundamental service model of cloud
computing alongside PaaS( Platform as a
Service). It provides access to computing
resources in a virtualized environment “the
cloud” on internet. It provides computing
infrastructure like virtual server space,
network connections, bandwidth, load
balancers and IP addresses. The pool of
hardware resource is extracted from multiple
servers and networks usually distributed
across numerous data centers. This provides
redundancy and reliability to IaaS.