4 CONTROL SYSTEMS AND COMPONENTS GE ——————————— A closed-loop control system can be represented by the general block diagram shown in Fig. 4.1, Such a system is composed of three basic elements: the feedback element, controller and controlled system. Error detector Output Controtted |_ (controlled) > Variable, ¢ Feedback signal, b We. 4.1. General block diagram of a closed-loop control system. The feedback element is a device which converts the output (controlled) variable c into, another suitable variable, the feedback signal b, which then is compared with the input, (command) signal. The controller consists of an error detector and control elements, The error detector compares the feedback signal obtained from the plant output with the input (command) signal ‘and determines therefrom the deviation known as the actuating signal. The actuating signal is usually at low power level. It is suitably manipulated by the control elements to produce @ control signal. The manipulation may involve amplification, generation of a suitable function —_—_a——_— nme! 132CONTROL SYSTEMS AND COMPONENTS 133 of the actuating signal and a power stage. The power stage in control elements is essential so that the control signal can drive the controlled system (a plant or process) to produce the desired output variable. Large power amplification may be involved in the plant or process rgd ification m involved in the plant or process. being controlled, This chapter is devoted to a general study of control system components, the emphasis being on those commonly used in servo-systems, Practically none of the physical systems in nature are perfectly linear. Since most powerful mathematical tools are available for linear analysis, it is desirable to make linearizing assumptions whenever a compromise can be obtained between the simplicity of analysis and accuracy of results. As the components to be discussed in this chapter have somewhat nonlinear behaviour, it is worthwhile discussing a general linearizing technique before entering into a detailed discussion of components. In fact the technique has already been employed in the previous chapters where some of the components introduced were essentially nonlinear. The intuitive basis of linearization is that a smooth curve differs very little from its tangent line so long as the variable does not wander far from the point of tangency. Thus if the region of operation is restricted to a narrow range, a nonlinear system can be treated approximately as a linear system. This kind of approximation appears to be valid in most control systems since their purpose is to keep the controlled variable very close to the desired value. However, if the system is required to follow a varying desired value, one can analyze the system by linearizing it at several points along the curve. . Consider a general element with input x(t) and output y(t) whose input-output relationship y = f(x) is shown graphically in Fig. 4.2. The relationship may be nonlinear but is assumed to be continuous. id ° % Fig. 4.2. Linearization of a nonlinear element. Expansion of the equation y = fix) into a Taylor’s series about the normal operating Point (x,, y,) gives df} x-x df] (x-x,)* yafo=fe)* eo a tae et AAD)If the variation (x — x,) of the input about the normal operating Se jamal, higher than first-order terms in (x — x,) can be neglected yielding a linear app: mn, yay, mx -X,) 4.2) where m = £ is the slope at the operating point. Equation (4.2) may be rewritten as yy, =m -%,) or dy = mdx input variables 1, Xp «+X, be, 9 = fl If the output variable y depends on several input varial 4 Xpp mn be Y= fix, xy, »,); then the linear approximation for y can be obtained similarly by expanding this equation into Taylor's series about the operating point (1,5 X29» --» *nor Yo) and neglecting all terms of second and higher derivatives. This approximation gives of (x1 — X10) ees (Xp - XQ) +... I= Ray Hay Fo) * Be nek This technique is employed in several examples in the following sections. ~ EEEORIROCLER COMPONENTS es Controller components are of three kinds: ©_ Sensors. These are low-power transdueers‘which produce output signal as a measure of the controlled variable; a linear (proportional) relationship is generally preferred though it could be a suitable functional relationship. Sensors are employed for a variety of measurements position, velocity, acceleration, pressure, temperature or a quantity representing the chemical state of a reactor, neutron flux level in an atomic reactor etc. The output signal of the sensor is. invariably in electrical form; analog or digital. v2. Differencing and amplification. Differencing to get the error signal and its amplification to suitable level in magnitude and power are most conveniently carried out electronically. Availability of OPAMs for differencing and stable amplification over a wide frequency range and large range of voltage (or current) and power levels by use of power transistors or SCR's at the final (power) stage are the chief advantages offered by the electronic systems. These Will not be discussed here as they form part of standard courses in electronics. 3 Actuators. These are devices whose output is mechanical motion (translatory/rotary: though rotary motion is convenient and is preferred), The actuators are characterised by power output and speed-torque relationship to match the load. These could be electrical, hydraulic 0° pneumatic. An actuator in a control system performs a variety of tasks to manipulate the controlled process or plant. For example, it may open/close a valve ina hydraulic/steam/chemical(plant), turn a robot link w.r.t. to its neighbouring link, move a transformer tap (up or down), move up/down the control rods of a nuclear reactor ete Because of the flexibility inherent in. transmitting electrical power (through cables) and desirable speed-torque characteristics which are linear, jopted _in control systems except in low speed in_use. Pneumatic actuators are not a5 messy as hydraulic ones ee ee hom Weaken end pe etmatic actuators are not as messy as hydraulic ones but suffer from leakages and inhe rent inaccuracies. A Electric system. DC and ac motors are the two kinds of electric actuators; in low power ratings these are known as servomotors. DC motors are costlier than ac motors because of the additional cost of commutation gear. These have, however, the important advantages of linearity of characteristics and higher stalled torque/inertia ratio; this being an important figure of merit for a servomotor. Stalled torque is the torque developed by motor when stati wit {all applied voltage (and full field in case of a DC motor). It may be pointed out here that high torquefinertia ratio means lower motor time constant and so faster dynamic response. With advanced manufacturing techniques, low brush commutator friction and still higher torquefinertia ratios have been achieved in de servomotors, such that these have practically taken over from ac servomotors in most control applications. Electric actuators for stepped motion are known as stepper motors which will be dealt in details in section 4. \DE Servomotors Modelling of de motors, armature controlled and field controlled, has been considered at length in Chapter 2. Here we shall consider some of the constractional features of de servomotors. With recent development in rare earth permanent magnets (PM) which have high residual flux density and a very high coercivity, de servomotors are now constructed with PMs i in much higher torque/inertia ratio and also higher operating efficiency as these motor have Rofield losses. The speed of a permanent magnet de (PMDC) motor is nearly directly proportional te armature voltage at a given load torque. Also the speed-torque characteristic at a given voltage is more flat than in a wound field motor as the effect of armature reaction is less Pronounced in a PM motor. Three types of constructions employed in PMDC servomotors are illustrated in Fig. 4.3 ‘a), (b) and (c). In Fig. 4.3 (a) the armature is slotted with de winding placed inside these slots (@s in a normal de motor). Though quite reliable and rugged this type of construction has high inertia to reduce which the construction of Fig. 4.3 (b) is adopted where the winding is placed °n the armature surface. Because of the larger air gap, stronger PMs are needed in this “onstruction. A much lower inertia is achieved by placing the winding on a nonmagnetic cylinder Which rotates in annular space between the PM stator and stationary rotor as illustrated in Fig. 4.3 (c). The air gap has to be still larger with consequent need of much stronger PMs. The constructional details of this low inertia motor are further brought out in Fig. 4.3 (d).(@) Siotted armature type ‘conductor array) ‘Surface rotating (d) Assembly details; surface one saonary core type wound rotating armature 4 poles Fig. 4.3. Permanent magnet de motor (PMDC) Cross-sectional views of various.types. DC Tachogenerator PMDC when coupled to a rotating shaft would generate a voltage proportional would thus serve as a tachometer. The current feedback in speed control system or in the int ternal velocity feedback loop of a position control system. \Bfushless DC motor With advances in inverter technology commutation process of a de motor can be accompli by solid-state devices (transistor/SCR) thereby eliminatii brush wear and friction ofnormal de motor. Such an arrangement dictates reverse construction with armature winding ——‘An ac. servomator is basically a two-phase induction motor except for certain special design features. A two- vnduction motor consists of two stator windings* oriented 90°. Figure 4.6 shows the schematic diagram for operation of the motor, i.c., voltages of equal rms magnitude and 90° phase difference are applied to the two stator pha: , thus maki their respective fields 90° apart in both time and space, resulting in a magnetic Held of constant magnitude rotating at synchronous speed. The direction of rotation depends y Telationshi ip of voltages V, and V,, As the field sweeps over the rotor, woltages are induced init producing current in the short-circuited rotor. The rotating magnetic eld interacts with these currents, ing a torque on the rotor in the direction of field rotation. The general shape of the torque-speed characteristics of a two-phase induction motor is shown in Fig, 4.7. J 6 44g ae sichiemato texrarnctaro-phaneewkicton|motce. It is seen from this figure that the shape of the characteristic depends upon the ratio of the rotor reactance X to the rotor resistance R. In normal induction motors, X/R ratio is generally kept high so as to obtain the maximum torque close to the operating region which is usually around 5% slip. ‘ Torque Large XR a ° ‘Synchronous Rotor ‘speed speed AIG. 4.7. Torque-speed characteristics of induction motor. A ¢oro-phase servomotor differa in two ways from a normal induetion motor. ‘A two pole construction is commonly used.A The rotor of the servomotor is built with high resistance so that its X/R ratio is small and the torque-speed characteristic, as shown by the curve 6 of Fig. 4.7, is nearly linear in contrast to the highly nonlinear characteristic when large X/R ratio is used for servo applications, then because of the positive slope for part of the characteristic, the system using such a motor becomes unstable. e rotor construction is usually squirrel cage or drag-cup type. The diameter of the rotor is kept small in order to reduce inertia and thus to obtain good accelerating characteristics. -cup construction is used for very low inertia applications. v2. In servo applications, the voltages applied to the two stator windings are seldom balanced. As shown in Fig. 4.8, one of the phases known as the reference phase is excited by a constant voltage and the other phase, known as the control phase is energized by a voltage ‘which is 90° out of phase with respect fo the voltage of the reference phase. The control phase voltage is supplied from a servo amplifier and it has a variable Magnitude and polarity (= 90° phase angle with respect to the reference phase). The direction of rotation of the motor reverses as the polarity of the control phase signal changes sign. Reference phase Y, Servo amplifier ‘Actuating i w 2 2 signal p S 8 Rotor Control J phase Schematic diagram of a two-phase servomotor. i metrical components that starting torque of servomotor under ion aoe is proportional oF, the rms value ofthe sinusoidal control voltage ett). A family of torque-speed curves with variable rms control voltage is shown in Fig. 4.9 (a). a these curves have negative slope. Note that the curve for zero control voltage goes through the srigin and the motor develops a decelerating torque. ‘As seen from Fig. 4.9 (a), the torque-speed curves are still somewhat nonlinear. However, in the low-speed region, the curves are nearly linear and equidistant, ie the ee nearly with speed as well as with control voltage. Since a servomotor seldom opera Speeds, these curves can be linearized about the operating point. Whe torque generated by the motor is a function of both the speed @ and rms control, Voltage E, ie., T,, = flO, E). Expanding this equation into Taylor’s series about the normal BJ, and dropping off the terms of second- and higher-order derivatives, Speratiy i we oe Point (Tyo,fy Ta t —al00"k— je— One —>} t increment Processed output Fig. 4.16 aibsolute Encoders Absolute encoders have binary code etched on to the rotating disc which has as many track as the number bits in the code. Each particular least significant increment of resolution has a unique code; transparency rej ed as 1 and opaqueness as 0. As many photodiode -LED pairs as the number of tracks are needed. These may be suitably spread round the tracks to avoid signal interference. ‘As absolute encoder is a digital transducer in the true sense as its output does not require army conditioning but can be directly read to get the position information. For reasons mentioned already incremental transducer are most common in use. These are available with 1024 sectors and two channels giving a resolution is 5.27 minutes. Their chief disadvantage is that the output count is volatile when power is off. There are ways to overcome this. A synchro is an electromagnetic transducer commonly used to convert angular position of 3 shaft into an electric signal. It is commercially known as a selsyn or an autosyn. The basic synchro unit is usually called a synchro transmitter. Its construction is similar to that of a three-phase alternator. The stator (stationary member) is of laminated silicon stes} and is slotted to accommodate a balanced three-phase winding which is usually of concentric coil type (three identical coils are placed in the stator with their axis 120° apart) and is Y-connected. The rotor is of dumbbell construction and is wound with a concentric coil. An ac voltage is applied to the rotor winding through slip rings. The constructional features and schematic diagram of a synchro transmitter are shown in Figs. 4.17 and 4.18, respectively. Let an ac voltage fa v 0,0 = V, sin wt be applied to the rotor of the synchro transmitter as shown in Fig. 4.18. This voltage causes ® flow of magnetizing current in the rotor coil which produces a sinusoidally time varying flux directed along its axis and distributed nearly sinusoidally in the air gap along the stator periphery. Because of transformer action, voltages are induced in each of the stator coils. ASFig. 4.18. Schematic diagram of synchro transmitter. the air gap flux is sinusoidally distributed, the flux linking any stator coil is proportional to the {sine of the angle between the rotor and stator coil axes and so is the voltage induced in stator coil. The stator coil voltages are of course in time phase with each other. Thus we see that the synchro transmitter acts like a single-phase transformer in which the rotor coil is the Primary and the stator coils form the three secondaries. Let Usn, Ysjn and U,,, respectively be the voltages induced in the stator coils S,, Sy Ss With respect to the neutral. Then, for the rotor position of the synchro transmitter shown in Fig. 4.17, where the rotor axis makes an angle 6 with the axis of the stator coils S, Yan = KV, sin at cos (8 + 120°) wA4.12) 7 Ynn = KV, sin wt 008 6 w(4.13) L-Pan = KY, sin a cos (6 + 240°) (4.14) The three terminal voltages of the stator are = Ugn = VBKY, sin (6 + 240°) sin ot (4.15) Yee, = PoinUns, = Vayn Yan = VBKYV, sin (0 + 120°) sin @.t (4.16) Une, = Uyn —Yyn = V3 KV, sin Osin wt (4.17) when 6 = 0, from eqns. (4.12)—(4.14) it is seen that maximum voltage is induced in the stator coil S,, while it follows from eqn. (4.17) that the terminal voltage U.,., 18 zero. This position of the rotor is defined as the electrical zero of the transmitter and is used as reference for specifying ‘ a, the angular position of the rotor (see Fig. 4.20). Thus it is seen that the input to the synchro transmitter is the angular position of its rotor shaft and the output is a set of three single-phase voltages given by eqns. (4.15)—(4.17); the magnitudes of these voltages are functions of the shaft position. The output of the synchro transmitter is applied to the stator windings of a synchro control transformer. The control transformer is similar in construction toa synchro transmitter except for the fact that the rotor of the control transformer is made cylindrical in shape so that the air gap is practically uniform. The system (transmitter-control transformer pair) acts as an error detector. Circulating currents of the same phase but of different magnitudes flow through the two sets of stator coils. The result is the establishment of an identical flux pattern in the air gap of the control transformer as the voltage drops in resistances and leakage reactances of the two sets of stator coils are usually small. The control transformer flux axis thus being in the same position as that of the synchro transmitter rotor, the voltage induced in the control transformer rotor is proportional to the cosine of the angle between the two rotors and is given by Veelt) = KV, cos gsin wt (4.18) where @ is the angular displacement between the two rotors. When 9 = 90°, i.e., the two rotors are at right angles, then the voltage induced in the control transformer rotor is zero. This Position is known as the electrical zero position of the control transformer. In Fig. 4.19, the transmitter and control transformer rotors are shown in their respective electrical zero Positions. Control transformer VAG. 4.19. Synchro error detector. Let the rotor of the transmitter rotate through an angle @ in the di tion indicated and let the control transformer rotor rotate in the same direction through an angle a resulting in a netangular separation of 6 = (90° — 6+ a) between the two rotors. From eqn. (4.18), the voltage at the rotor terminals of the control transformer is then © et) = KV, sin (0— a) sin at --(4.19) For small angular displacement between the two rotor positions, wv et) =KV,(6- a) sin ot (4.20) ‘The synchro transmitter-control transformer pair thus acts as an error detector giving a ignal at the rotor terminals of the control transformer proportional to the angular difference between the transmitter and control transformer shaft t positions. Equation (4.20), though derived for constant (6 a), is valid for varying conditions as well, so long as the rate of angle change is small enough for the speed voltages induced in the device to be negligible. Ea (4.20) is represented graphically in Fig. (4.20) for an arbitrary time variation of (0- a). ae this di that the output of synchro error detector is a modulated jignal, the m« lating wave has the information regarding the lack of correspondence between the two rotor positions and the carrier wave is the ac input to the rotor of the synchro transmitter. This type of modulation is known as suppressed-carrier ition. From eqn. (4.20) the modulating signal representing the discrepancy between the two shaft positions is e,(t) = K(0- a) (4.21) where K, is known as sensitivity of error detector and has the units of volts (rms)/rad angular difference of the shafts of the synchro pair. \-As pointed out earlier the rotor of the control transformer is made cylindrical in shape so that the air gap is practically uniform. This is essential for a control transformer, since its Totor terminals are usually connected to an amplifier, therefore the change in the rotor output impedance with rotation of the shaft must be minimized. Another distinguishing feature is that the stator winding of the control transformer has a higher impedance per phase. This feature permits several control transformers to be fed from a single transmitter. w€. Position Control System Consider the system shown in Fig. 4.21 in which the position of the mechanical load is controlled in accordance with the position of the reference shaft. This system employs ac components and all the signals other than the input and output shaft positions are suppressed-carrier modulated Se eee Tham the carrier Requency- tis then suficently accurate to analyze these systems on the modulating signals only. The components used in this system are: synchro transmitter-control transformer pair 8 error detector; ac amplifier for signals amplification; ac servomotor to drive the load shaft a gearing; ac tachometer for providing rate feedback. The servomotor for proper °peration has to be provided with carrier voltages on the two phases 90° out of phase with Tespect to each other. This is achieved easily by exciting the reference motor phase and the Synchro transmitter rotor coil directly from the carrier supply, while the carrier voltage driving