Measurement and Instrumentation

CP15
SEMESTER 4
MEASUREMENT
AND
INSTRUMENTATION
Rev No :05
Released Date :01/02/2021
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Table of Content
Contents
1.INTRODUCTION ............................................................................................................................................... 3
1.1 Definition Of Measuring System .......................................................................................................... 3
1.2 Measurement System And Its Constituent Elements .......................................................................... 3
1.3 Sensor And Transducers ....................................................................................................................... 5
1.4 Performance Terminology .................................................................................................................... 5
1.5 Static And Dynamic Characteristics ...................................................................................................... 7
2.ELECTRONIC INSTRUMENTATION ................................................................................................................... 10
2.1 Voltage To Frequency Converter........................................................................................................ 10
2.2 Frequency To Voltage Converter........................................................................................................ 14
3.TEMPERATURE MEASUREMENT ..................................................................................................................... 18
3.1 Introduction To Temperature Measurement ..................................................................................... 18
3.2 Non Electrical Type Tempertaure Sensor Bi-Metallic Strip ................................................................ 18
3.3 Electrical Type Temperature Sensors :Thermistor, Rtd, Principle, Types, Selection Of Rtd’s And Signal
Conditioning Circuits. ............................................................................................................................... 20
3.4 Thermocouple, Principle, Types, Selection, Standard Table Of Thermocouple And Signal Conditioning Circuits
.................................................................................................................................................................. 25
3.5 Measurement Of Temperature Using Diodes. ................................................................................... 28
3.6 Ic Temperature Transducer Using Lm35 And Ad590. ........................................................................ 29
4.PRESSURE MEASUREMENT ............................................................................................................................ 33
4.1 Introduction To Pressure Measurement ............................................................................................ 33
4.2 Pressure Standards ............................................................................................................................. 34
4.3 Conventional Pressure Sensor ........................................................................................................... 34
4.4 Electrical And Electronic Pressure Transducers................................................................................ 38
4.5 Introduction To Calibration And Calibration Of Pressure Gauge ....................................................... 47
5. DISPLACEMENT MEASUREMENT ................................................................................................................... 48
5.1 Introduction To Displasement Measurement .................................................................................... 48
5.2 Potentiometer Sensor, Types, Construction, Operation And Errors. ................................................ 48
5.3 LVDT, Principle, Operation And Application....................................................................................... 49
5.4 Inductive Proximity Switch ................................................................................................................. 51
5.5 Digital Encoder: Contact, Magnetic And Optical Encoder. ................................................................. 51
5.5.2contact Encoder ............................................................................................................................... 52
5.5.3 Magnetic Encoder ........................................................................................................................... 52
5.5.4 Optical Encoder ............................................................................................................................... 52
5.5.5 Rotational Displacement/Angular Position: Using Optical Encoder And Signal Conditioning Circuits. 53
NTTF_DIPLOMA IN MECHATRONICS ENGINEERING & SMART FACTORY [CP15]_SEMESTER 4_MEASUREMENT & INSTRUMENTATION_MASTER FILE
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6.FORCE, WEIGHT AND FLOW MEASUREMENT .................................................................................................. 55

6.1 Introduction To Force, Weight And Flow Measurement ................................................................... 55
6.2 Strain Gauge And Its Function ............................................................................................................ 57
6.3 Load Cell, Principle And Operation Of Load Cell ................................................................................ 61
6.4 Flow Measurement Using Orifice Plate. ............................................................................................. 62
7.SPEED MEASUREMENT .................................................................................................................................. 65
7.1 Introduction, Mechanical Tachometers, Electrical ............................................................................ 65
8. ULTRASONIC MEASUREMENT ....................................................................................................................... 72
8.1 Basic Ultra Sonic Transmission Link, Pizeoelectric ,Ultrasonic Transmitter And Reciever, Principle And Example
.................................................................................................................................................................. 72
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1.INTRODUCTION
1.1 Definition Of Measuring System
The process of measuring is the comparison of some unknown value with a value which is
assumed to be known .The known value is called standard. Measurement is the act or result
of the quantitative comparison between the predetermined standard and unknown
magnitude. The system which is used for this comparison is known as measuring system. A
measuring system is also called an instrument or scale or meter or analyzer.
Aim Of Measurement
The primary purpose of measurement in process industries and industrial manufacturing is

to aid in the economics of industrial operations by improving the quality of the product and
efficiency of production. For this purpose and for the maintenance of proper operation
measurement is very important.
1.2 Measurement System And Its Constituent Elements
The primary sensing element of an instrument is that which first receives energy from the
measured medium and produces an output depending is some way in the value of the
measured quantity. Variable conversion element merely converts the output signal of the
primary sensing element (which is some physical variable such as a voltage or a
displacement) into a more suitable variable or condition useful to function of the
instrument.
The variable manipulation element manipulates the signal represented by some
physical variable to perform the intended task of an instrument. In the manipulation
process, the physical nature of the variable is preserved. A data transmission element
transmit the data from one element to other e.g.; shaft and bearings, gears etc. A data
presentation element performs the transition function such as the simple indication of
pointer moving over a scale or recording of pen moving over a chart.
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Example Of The Measurement System And Its Constituent Elements

The liquid or gas filled temperature bulb act as a primary sensing element and variable
conversion element. Temperature change result in a pressure bulb up which the bulb
because of the constrained thermal expression of the filling liquid.
Fig 1.1.2 Block Diagram of Measurement System
The pressure is transmitted through the capillary tube to a spiral bourdon tube –Pressure
gauge. (Data transmission element) Bourdon tube conversion the pressure into the
displacement (variable conversion method). Displacement is manipulated by the linkage &
gearing to give a large pointer motion (variable manipulation element).The pointer & scale
indicate the temperature. (Data presentation element)
Method Of Measurement
1. Direct comparison
2. Indirect comparison
Direct Comparison: In direct comparison the parameter to be measured is directly

compared with either a primary standard or a secondary standard. Direct comparison is
used for length measurement.
Indirect Comparison: The indirect comparison method comparison is done through, or is

used of a calibrated system. The indirect comparison method employ a system which sense
convert finally presents and analogous but out of a displacement on a sensor or a chart.
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1.3 Sensor And Transducers
Sensor:Sensor is a device that measures a physical quantity and converts it into a signal
which can be read by an observer or it by an instrument. All sensors are transducers but all
transducers are not sensors.
Transducers:A transducer is a device which converts one type of energy or physical attribute
to another. For various purposes including measurement or information transfer.
1.4 Performance Terminology
RANGE: The range of a transducer defines the limits between the inputs can vary.
SPAN: The span is the maximum value of the input minus the minimum value.
ERROR: Error is the difference between the result of measurement & true value of the
quantity being measured.
Error = measured value - True value
HYSTERISIS ERROR:Transducers can give different output from the same value of quantity
being measured according to weather that value has been reloaded by a continuously
decreasing change this effect is called hysteresis.
Fig.1.4.1 Hysteresis error
NON LINEARITY ERROR:It is the maximum difference from the straight line.
STABILITY:The stability of a transducer is its ability to give the same output when measuring
a constant input over a period of time
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NON LINEARITY ERROR:
END RANGE VALUE BEST STRAIGHT LINE FOR ALL VALUES
Fig .1.4.2 End Range Value Fig.1.4.3 Best Straight Line for All Values
BEST STRAIGHT LINE THROUGH ZERO POINT
Fig.1.4.4 Best Straight Line through Zero Point
Resolution:It is the smallest change in the input value that will produce an observable
change.
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1.5 Static And Dynamic Characteristics

Static Characteristics
It deals with the measurement of those quantities which remains constant. All the static
performance characteristics are obtained by one another of all process is called calibration.
Calibration is the process of comparison with a standard ,of the correct value of each reading
on a meter or other measuring element (instrument)
Characteristics
1. Accuracy
2. Precision
3. Repeatability
4. Sensitivity
5. Reproducibility
6. Drift
7. Static error
8. Dead zone
9. Resolution
10.Backlash
11.True value
12.Mistake
13.Systematic error
14.Random error
15.Source error
Accuracy:It is ability of a device or a system to respond to a true value of a measured variable

under reference condition.
Precision:It is the degree of exactness for which an instrument is designed or intended to

perform.
True Value:It is the error free value of a measured variable.

True value = Instrument reading – static errors.
Repeatability:It is the closeness of output , when same input is applied repeatedly over a
short period of time with the same measurement conditions ,same instrument and observer
,same location and conditions of use maintained through out.
Reproducibility:It is the closeness of an output reading for the same input where there are
changes in the method of measurement, observer, measuring instrument, location,
condition and the use and time of the continues measurement.
Drift:Drift is an undesired change or gradual variation in output over a period of time that is
unrelated to changes in output, operating conditions or load.
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Sensitivity:It is the ratio of a change in output to a change in input which causes it at steady
state conditions
Resolution:It is the least incremental value of input or output that can be detected, caused
or discriminated by the measuring device.
Dead Zone:It is the largest range of a measure variable to which instrument does not
respond.
Backlash:It is the lost motion or free plays which inherent in mechanical elements, such as
gears, linkages, or other mechanical transmission devices that are not rigidly connected.
Static Error:It is the numerical difference between the true value of a quantity and its value
as obtained by measurement. Repeated measurement of the same quantity gives different
indications.
Mistakes:These errors are due to human mistakes.
Systematic Errors:A constant uniform deviation of operating point of an instrument is

known as systematic errors
Types Of Systematic Errors:

• Instrumental errors
• Environmental errors
Instrumental Errors:It is due to friction in bearing of various moving components, irregular

spring tension, stretching of a springs, or reduction in tension due to improper handling
or over loading of the instrument.
Resolution:It is the smallest change in the input values that will produce an observable
change in output.
Environmental Error:It is due to the environmental changes like temperature, humidity,

barometric pressure or magnetic and electrical fields. Environmental errors are avoided by:
▪ Providing air conditioning.
▪ Hermetically sealing certain components in the instrument.
▪ Use of magnetic fields.
Random Errors:Random errors are unknown or not determinable in the ordinary process of
making measurements. Random errors are small and following the laws of chance. It occurs
in the ordinary process of making measurements.
Source Of Errors:It is due to the insufficient knowledge of process parameters conditions,

poor design, poor maintains, change in process parameters of irregularities.
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Dynamic Characteristics:
The dynamic behavior of an instrument is determined by subjecting its primary element to

some unknown and predetermined variations occurred in measured quantities. The three
important variations
Step change: In which the primary element is subjected to instrumentations and finite
change occurs in the measured variable.
Sinusoidal change: In which the primary element follows a measured variable, the change
in accordance with a sinusoidal function of an element.
Linear change: In which the primary element is following a measured variable, changing
linearly with time.
Main Dynamic Characteristics Are:

• Speed of response
• Fidelity
• Lag
• Dynamic error
Speed Of Response:It is rapidly with which an instrument responds to change in the

measured quantity
Fidelity:It is the degree to which an instrument indicates the change in measured variable
without dynamic error.
Lag:It is the retardation or delay in the response of an instrument to use or changes in

measured quantity.
Dynamic Error:It is the difference between the true value of a quantity changing with time
and value indicated by the instrument if not static error is assumed.
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2.ELECTRONIC INSTRUMENTATION
2.1 Voltage To Frequency Converter
The ICL8038 waveform generator is a monolithic integrated circuit capable of producing

high accuracy sine, square, triangular, saw tooth and pulse waveforms with a minimum of
external components. The frequency (or repetition rate) can be selected externally from
0.001Hz to more than 300kHzusing either resistors or capacitors, and frequency modulation
and sweeping can be accomplished with an external voltage.
The ICL8038 is fabricated with advanced monolithic technology, using Schottky barrier
diodes and thin film resistors, and the output is stable over a wide range of temperature
and supply variations. These devices may be interfaced with phase locked loop circuitry to
reduce temperature drift to less than 250ppm/oC.
Features:
Low Frequency Drift with Temperature . . . . . 250ppm/Oc
Low Distortion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1% (Sine Wave Output)
High Linearity . . . . . . . . . . ……….0.1% (Triangle Wave Output)
Wide Frequency Range . . . . . . . . . . . .0.001Hz to 300kHz
Variable Duty Cycle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2% to 98%
High Level Outputs. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . TTL to 28V
Simultaneous Sine, Square, and Triangle Wave
Outputs
Easy to Use - Just a Handful of External Components required.
Pin Diagram
Fig 2.1.1
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Functional Diagram
Fig 2.1.2
Test Circuit
Fig 2.1.3
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An external capacitor C is charged and discharged by two current sources. Current source
#2 is switched on and off by a flip-flop, while current source #1 is on continuously. Assuming
that the flip-flop is in a state such that current source #2 is off, and the capacitor is charged
with a current I, the voltage across the capacitor rises linearly with time.
When this voltage reaches the level of comparator #1 (set at 2/3 of the supply voltage), the
flip-flop is triggered, changes states, and releases current source #2. This current source
normally carries a current 2I, thus the capacitor is discharged with a net-current I and the
voltage across it drops linearly with time.
When it has reached the level of comparator #2 (set at 1/3 of the supply voltage), the flip-
flop is triggered into its original state and the cycle starts again. Four waveforms are readily
obtainable from this basic generator circuit.
With the current sources set at I and 2Irespectively, the charge and discharge times are
equal. Thus a triangle waveform is created across the capacitor and the flip-flop produces a
square wave. Both waveforms are fed to buffer stages and are available at pins 3 and 9.
The sine wave is created by feeding the triangle wave into a nonlinear network (sine
converter). This network provides decreasing shunt impedance as the potential of the
triangle moves toward the two extremes.
Waveform Timing
The symmetry of all waveforms can be adjusted with the external timing resistors. Best
results are obtained by keeping the timing resistors RA and RB separate . RA controls the
rising portion of the triangle and sine wave and the 1 state of the square wave. The
magnitude of the triangle waveform is set at 1/3VSUPPLY; therefore the rising portion of
the triangle is,
The falling portion of the triangle and sine wave and the 0 state of the square wave is:
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Square Wave Duty Cycle - 50%Square Wave Duty Cycle - 80%
Thus a 50% duty cycle is achieved when RA = RB. A 1kΩ potentiometer may not allow the
duty cycle to be adjusted through 50% on all devices. If a 50% duty cycle is required, a 2kΩ
or 5kΩ potentiometer should be used. With two separate timing resistors, the frequency is
given by:
Reducing Distortion:To minimize sine wave distortion the 82kΩ resistor between pins 11
and 12 is best made variable. With this arrangement distortion of less than 1% is achievable.
Selecting Ra, Rb And C:For any given output frequency, there is a wide range of RC
combinations that will work, however certain constraints are placed upon the magnitude
of the charging current for optimum performance.
At the low end, currents of less than1μA are undesirable because circuit leakages will
contribute significant errors at high temperatures. At higher currents (I > 5mA), transistor
betas and saturation voltages will contribute increasingly larger errors.
Optimum performance will, therefore, be obtained with charging currents of 10μA
to1mA. If pins 7 and 8 are shorted together, the magnitude of the charging current due to
RA can be calculated from:
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A similar calculation holds for RB.The capacitor value should be chosen at the upper end of
its possible range.
Waveform Out Level Control And Power Supplies
The waveform generator can be operated either from a single power supply (10V to 30V) or
a dual power supply (±5V to ±15V). With a single power supply the average levels of the
triangle and sine wave are at exactly one-half of the supply voltage, while the square wave
alternates between V+ and ground.
A split power supply has the advantage that all waveforms move symmetrically about
ground. The square wave output is not committed. A load resistor can be connected to a
different power supply, as long as the applied voltage remains within the breakdown
capability of the waveform generator (30V). In this way, the square wave output can be
made TTL compatible (load resistor connected to +5V) while the waveform generator itself
is powered from a much higher voltage.
2.2 Frequency To Voltage Converter
The LM2907, LM2917 series are monolithic frequency to voltage converters with a high gain
op amp /comparator designed to operate a relay, lamp, or other load when the input
frequency reaches or exceeds a selected rate.
It provides an output Voltage which is proportional to input frequency and provide Zero
output at zero frequency. In addition, the input may be referred to ground. The devices are
designed to operate from a single supply voltage, which makes them particularly suitable
for battery operation.
Features:
✓ Op amp /comparator have floating transistor output.
✓ Frequency doubling for low ripple.
✓ Built- in zener on LM2917.
✓ ±0.3% linearity typical.
Advantages
1. Output swings to ground for zero frequency input.
2. Easy to use; Vout =Fin×Vcc×R1×C1.
3. Only one RC network provides frequency doubling.
4. Zener regulator on chip allows accurate and stable frequency to voltage or current
conversion.
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Application
1. Over /under speed sensing.
2. Frequency to voltage conversion.
3. Speedometers.
4. Automotive door lock control.
5. Clutch control.
6. Horn control.
FIGS 2.2.1 BLOCK DIAGRAM
It consists of an input amplifier, a charge pump frequency to voltage converter; and op

amp/comparator with an output transistor. LM2917 incorporates an active zener regulator
on-chip. The first stage of operation is differential amplifiers driving a positive feedback flip
flop circuit. The input threshold voltage is the amount of differential input voltage at which
the out put of this stage changes state. One input is internally grounded so that an input
signal must swing above and below ground and exceed the input thresholds to produce an
output.
A frequency signal is applied to the input of the charge pump at pin 1. The charge pump will
convert the input frequency in to dc voltage. Charge pump consist of one timing capacitor,
one output resistor, and an integrating or filter capacitor. when the input stage changes
state the timing capacitor is either charged or discharged linearly between two voltages
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whose difference is Vcc/2.Then in one half cycle of the input frequency or a time equal to 1
/2 fin .The change in charge on the timing capacitor is equal to Vcc / 2 × C1.The average
amount of current pumped into or out of the capacitor is:
ΔQ -------- = i c (avg) = C1× Vcc

T ----------- × ( 2 f in ) = Vcc × f in × C1
2
The output circuit mirrors this current very accurately into the load resistor R1, connected
to ground, such that if the pulses of current are integrated with a filter capacitor, then V0
=ic× R1 and total conversion equation becomes:
V0 = Vcc × fin × C1 × R1 × K
Where K is the gain constant-typically 1.0 .the size of C2 is dependent only the amount of
ripple voltage allowable and the required response time. Voltage appearing at pin 2 will
swing between two values which are approximately 1/4 (VCC) - VBE and 3/4 (VCC) - VBE.
The voltage at pin 3 will have a value equal to Vcc × fin × C1 × R1 × K.The emitter output (pin
4) is connected to the inverting input of the op amp so that pin 4 will follow pin 3 and provide
allow impedance output voltage proportional to input frequency. The linearity of this
voltage is typically better than 0.3% of full scale.
Choosing R1, C1 and C2
C1 provides internal compensation for the charge pump and should be kept larger than 100
pF. Smaller values can cause an error current on R1, especially at low temperatures. Three
considerations must be met when Choosing R1.
First, the output current at pin 3 is internally fixed and therefore V3 max, divided by R1,
must be less than or equal to this value
Second, if R1 is too large, it can become a significant fraction Of the output impedance at
pin 3 which degrades linearity. Finally, ripple voltage must be considered, and the size Of C2
is affected by R1. An expression that describes the Ripple content on pin 3 for a single R1,
C2 combination is:
R1 should be selected according to the following relationship:

C is selected according to:
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The kind of capacitor used for timing capacitor C1 will determine the accuracy of the unit
over the temperature range. The LM2907 operating from a fixed external supply has a
negative temperature coefficient which enables the device to be used with capacitors which
have a positive temperature coefficient and thus obtain overall stability. In the case of the
LM2917the internal zener supply voltage has a positive coefficient which causes the overall
tachometer output to have a very low temperature coefficient and requires that the
capacitor temperature coefficient be balanced by the temperature coefficient of R1.
Fig 2.2.2 BASIC F TO V CONVERTER
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3.TEMPERATURE MEASUREMENT
3.1 Introduction To Temperature Measurement
Temperature is probably the most fundamental parameter, and is a widely measured and
controlled industrial variable. It is required in the routine control of an industrial plant. The
conditions, under which temperature has to be measured, differ so widely that no fixed rule
can be followed. All that is essential is that one should select the most appropriate method
of temperature measurement for a particular use, considering the points such as, sources
of errors and limitations, precautions to be observed, the exact location of the sensing
probe, etc...
Temperature:The temperature of a substance is a measure of the hotness, or coldness,

of that substance. it is the thermal state of a body or a substance which determines
whether it will give heat to, or receive heat from, other bodies. if two bodies are placed in
contact then heat tends to flow from a body at a higher temperature to a body at a lower
temperature.
3.2 Non Electrical Type Tempertaure Sensor Bi-Metallic Strip
A bi-metallic strip is used to convert a temperature change into mechanical displacement.

The strip consists of two strips of different metals which expand at different rates as they
are heated, usually steel and copper. Each strip made from a metal having a different
coefficient of thermal expansion. The strips are joined together throughout their length
either riveting, brazing or welding.
Fig.3.2.1 BI METALLIC STRIP
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Fig 3.2.1 Thermometer with Spiral Bimetallic Element
Whenever the welded strip is heated, the two metals change length in accordance with their
individual rates of thermal expansion. The two metals expand to different lengths as the
temperature rises. This forces the bimetallic strip to bend towards the side with low
coefficient of thermal expansion .if one end of the bimetallic strip is fixed so that it cannot
move, the distance the other end bends is directly proportional to the square of the length
of the metal strip, as well as to the total change in temperature, and is inversely proportional
to the thickness of the metal.
The movement of bimetallic strip is utilized to deflect a pointer over a calibrated scale. The
deflection of the tip is small if the strip is short, and is large if the strip is long, since deflection
increases with the square of the strip length. A longer strip can be contained in a relatively
small space if the strip is wound in a spiral, helix or mulihelix form. If the bimetallic element
is wound in the form of a spiral, the spiral coil is tightened with increase in temperature. As
it coils, the counter post rotates clockwise, and thus a pointer attached to the post also
moves on a calibrated temperature scale. This type of temperature indicator is often used
in home and offices for indicating ambient air temperature.
Advantages
• Low cost.
• They are tough, and cannot easily be broken.
• They are easily installed and maintained.
• They have good accuracy relative to cost.
• They have fairly wide temperature range.
Disadvantage
• They are limited to local mounting.
• Only indicating type is available.
• There is always a possibility of calibration change due to rough handling.
• Their accuracy is not as high as glass stem thermometers.
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3.3 Electrical Type Temperature Sensors :Thermistor, Rtd, Principle, Types,

Selection Of Rtd’s And Signal Conditioning Circuits.
An RTD (Resistance Temperature Detector) is a temperature sensitive resistor. It’s having

positive temperature coefficient of resistance. The resistance of the metal increases with
temperature. The temperature coefficient (α) is the slope of the Platinum RTD between 0°C
to 100°C. It is calculated as follows:
α= ( R100 - R0)/100 X R0
α = Temperature Coefficient
R100 = RTD resistance at 100°C
R0 = RTD resistance at 0°C
With the increase of temperature, the electrical resistance of metal increases in direct
proportion to the rise of temperature.
Fig 3.3.1 RTD
The resistance element is surrounded by a porcelain insulator which prevents short circuit
between wire and metal sheath. Two leads are attached to each side of the platinum wire.
When this instrument is placed in a liquid or gas
medium whose temperature is to be measured,
the sheath quickly reaches the temperature of
the medium.
This change in temperature causes the

platinum wire inside the sheath to heat or cool,
resulting in a proportional change in the wire‘s
resistance. This change in resistance can be
directly calibrated to indicate the temperature.
The conductors used for resistance thermometer are platinum, nickel of various purities,
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The bridge circuit consist of sensing element Resistance X and resistance A,B,C. LR1 and LR2
are the lead wire resistances of the sensing element .At balance condition, the ratio of
resistance is
A (X+LR1+LR2)
- _____ = ------------------------------
B C
When resistance X changes, the wheat stone bridge becomes unbalanced and thus
galvanometer will give deflection which can be calibrated to give suitable temperature scale.
Comparison Chart of Various RTD's

Platinum RTD Platinum RTD Nickel RTD Baleo RTD
lOOn wire wound 2000n wire
Criteria IOOOn thin film JOOOn wire wound
and thin film wound
Cost High Low Medium Medium
Temperature – Wide Wide Medium Short

Range (-240°C to + 649°C) (-196°C to + 538°C) (-2IrC to + 316°C) (-73°C to + 204°C)
Interchangeability Excellent Excellent Fair Fair

Accuracy High High Medium Low
Repeatability Excellent Excellent Good Fair
Sensitivity (output) Medium High High Very high
Response Medium Medium to fast Medium Medium
Linearity Good Good Fair Fair
Self heating Very low to low Medium Medium Medium
Point (end) sensitive Fair Good Poor Poor
Lead effect Medium Low Low Low

Physical size
Medium to small Small to large Large Large
packaging
Long term stability Good Good Fair Fair
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Signal Conditioning Circuit
Characteristics Of RTD
Advantages
▪ High accuracy
▪ They have a wide temperature range from -200 to 650ºc
▪ They are small in size.
▪ They have good reproducibility.
▪ They are fast in response.
Limitations
▪ RTDs in industrial applications are rarely used above 660 °C.

▪ At temperatures above 660 °C it becomes increasingly difficult to prevent the platinum
from becoming contaminated by impurities from the metal sheath of the thermometer.
▪ Compared to thermistors, platinum RTDs are less sensitive to small temperature changes
and have a slower response time.
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Thermistors
It is an electrical temperature instrument. A thermistor is a non metallic resistor

(semiconductor of ceramic material).Its having a negative temperature coefficient of
resistance. It made from a specific mixture of pure oxides of nickel, manganese, copper,
cobalt, iron, magnesium, titanium and other metals sintered at temperature above 982ºc.As
the temperature of the substance
environment increases the resistance of the
thermistor decreases, and vice versa. The
change in thermistor resistance will be the
measure of the temperature of the substance.
At balance condition, when there is no change

in temperature the galvanometer indicates
zero. As the temperature increases or
decreases, the resistance of thermistor also
decreases or increases due to which the Wheatstone bridge circuit becomes unbalanced.An
electric current flows through the galvanometer which indicates on the calibrated scale. The
deflection of the galvanometer can be calibrated as a temperature scale They are subdivided
into:
NTC Thermistor:The material used for NTC thermistors are the oxides of iron group of
elements (such as chromium, manganese, iron, cobalt and nickel).It has resistance values
between 0.1 Ω and 100Ω AT 25ºC .They are designed to operate in the range of -100ºC to
300ºC
PTC Thermistors:PTC thermistors are designed to operate is the rang of 20ºC to 200ºC
The material used for PTC Thermistor is barium tiltanate.
Fig 3.3.2 CHARACTERISTICS OF NTC&PTC
The various types of thermistors are:

▪ Bead type
▪ Washer type
▪ Disc type
▪ Rod type
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Fig. 3.3.3 THERMISTOR TYPES
Characteristics Of Thermistor
Fig 3.3.3
Disadvantage
▪ Temperature versus resistance curve is very non linear.
▪ They are unsuitable for wide temperature spans.
▪ Stability is doubtful at higher temperature (over 316ºc).
▪ They are limited for process application.
Advantages
▪ They have small sizes and fast response.
▪ They are suitable for narrow spans.
▪ Their cost is low.
▪ Sensor exhibits a greater sensitivity as temperature drops, when temperature co-
efficient is negative.
▪ Stability of the instrument increases with age.
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3.4 Thermocouple, Principle, Types, Selection, Standard Table Of

Thermocouple And Signal Conditioning Circuits
It is a widely used temperature sensor. It will convert thermal potential difference into
electric potential difference. They are cheap and interchangeable, have standard
connectors, and can measure a wide range of temperatures.
The working principle of a thermocouple depends on the thermo-electric effect. if two

dissimilar metals are joined together so as to form a closed circuit, there will be two
junctions where they meet each other .if one of these junctions is heated,then,a current
flows in the circuit which can be detected by a galvanometer. The amount of the current
produced depends on the difference in temperature between the two junctions and on the
characteristics of the two metals. It is known as see beck effect.
Instrument which record the variations in current flow are calibrated in terms of
temperature and are known as thermocouple pyrometers. Fig 3.2.1 shows a thermocouple
made from two different kinds of metals. The wires are joined at the ends which form two
junctions, a measuring junction and a reference junction. Heating the measuring junction
produces a voltage greater than the voltage across the reference junction. The difference
between two voltages is measured and voltmeter reading is converted to its corresponding
temperatures.
Fig.3.4.1 THERMOCOUPLE
Instrument which record the variations in current flow are calibrated in terms of
temperature and are known as thermocouple pyrometers. Fig 3.2.1 shows a thermocouple
made from two different kinds of metals. The wires are joined at the ends which form two
junctions, a measuring junction and a reference junction. Heating the measuring junction
produces a voltage greater than the voltage across the reference junction. The difference
between two voltages is measured and voltmeter reading is converted to its corresponding
temperatures.
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Thermocouples are not limited single point measurement. They can be connected in parallel
to provide the average temperature in system. They can also be used to measure the
difference between two temperatures. A single thermocouple can be utilized by two
separate measuring instruments, with proper precautions.
The various types of thermocouples are:
▪ J TYPE
▪ K TYPE
▪ T TYPE
J TYPE (IRON CONSTANTAN): The wire which is highly attracted towards the magnet is
identified as iron. The wire which is non magnetic is identified as constantan. Iron is
positive terminal. Constantan is negative terminal.
Iron (+ve) terminal Constantan (-ve) terminal
Fig 3.4.2 J TYPE THERMOCOUPLE
K TYPE (CHROMEL ALUMEL):The wire which is slightly attracted towards the magnet is
identified as alumel.Thwire which is non magnetic is identified as chromel.Chromel is
positive terminal.Alumel is negative terminal.
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T TYPE (COPPER CONSTANTAN)
Constantan is bright silver in color. Copper is identified by its color.
Copper (+ve) terminal Constantan (-ve) terminal.

Fig 3.4.4 T TYPE THERMOCOUPLE
Signal Conditioning Circuit
Fig 3.4.5 Thermocouple signal conditioning circuit
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Characteristics Of Thermocouple
TEMPERATURE (0 C)
Advantages
▪ They have rugged construction.

▪ They are inexpensive.
▪ They are simpler to use than resistance thermometer.
▪ There is no need of a bridge circuit.
▪ They possess good accuracy.
▪ They have good reproducibility.
▪ They have extremely wide temperature ranges from -270ºc to2800ºc.
Disadvantages
▪ They have limited use in temperature spans of less than about 33ºc because of the
relatively small change in junction voltages with temperature.
▪ Their temperature –voltage relation ship is linear.
3.5 Measurement Of Temperature Using Diodes.
Diode is a semiconductor device which

is used for rectification .This diode can
also be used for sensing temperature.
The junction between differently doped
regions of a semiconductor has a
voltage-current curve that depends
strongly on temperature. Reverse
saturation current I0 increases 7 present
per ° C for both silicon and germanium.
The reverse saturation current
approximately doubles for every 10 ° C
rise in temperature. Germanium is more
temperature dependent than silicon
because its reverse saturation current is approximately 1,000 times larger.
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From fig 3.5.1 shows that for a fixed level of forward voltage, forward current increases with
the increase in temperature. if the
forward current is measured, at the
increased temperature, for several
levels of forward voltage and the
results are plotted it is seen that
current-voltage characteristics is
moved to the left. The horizontal
line on fig 3.5.1 shows that for a
fixed forward current, forward
voltage drops as the junction
temperature increases i.e. forward
voltage has a negative temperature
coefficient. it is found that the
temperature coefficient for the
forward voltage of a P-N junction is approximately -1.8mv/°c for Si and -2.02m V / ° c for Ge.
In the circuit given, as there is no heat in the diode, diode is in the open condition. So the
base current in the transistor is zero and no collector current in collector terminal of the
transistor. When the soldering is iron is kept over the diode the base current increases and
it switches on the collector current, and the led glows. This will justify that diode can sense
the temperature.
3.6 Ic Temperature Transducer Using Lm35 And Ad590.

LM35
The LM35 series are precision integrated-circuit temperature sensors, whose output voltage
is linearly proportional to the Celsius (Centigrade) temperature. The LM35 thus has an
advantage over linear temperature sensors calibrated in ° Kelvin.
The LM35 does not require any external calibration or trimming to provide typical accuracies
of at room temperature and over a full -55 to +150º C.Temperature range.
Low cost is assured by trimming and calibration at the wafer level. The LM35's low output
impedance, linear output, and precise inherent calibration make interfacing to readout or
control circuitry especially easy.
It can be used with single power supplies, or with plus and minus supplies. As it draws only
60 mA from its supply, it has very low self-heating, less than 0.1º C in still air. The LM35 is
rated to operate over -55 º C to a150 º C temperature range, while the LM35C is rated for a
- 40 º to +110 º C range (-10 º with improved accuracy). The LM35 series is available
packaged in hermetic TO-46 transistor packages, while the LM35C, LM35CA, and LM35D are
also available in the plastic TO-92 transistor package. The LM35D is also available in an 8-
lead surface mount small outline package and a plastic TO-202 package.
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Features
▪ Calibrated directly in º Celsius (Centigrade).

▪ Linear a 10.0 mV/ º C scale factor.
▪ 0.5 º C accuracy guarantee able (at a25 º C).
▪ Rated for full -55 º C to +150 º C range.
▪ Suitable for remote applications.
▪ Low cost due to wafer-level trimming.
▪ Operates from 4 to 30 volts.
▪ Less than 60 mA current drain.
▪ Low self-heating, 0.08 º C in still air.
▪ Nonlinearity only ± 1/4 º C typical.
▪ Low impedance output, 0.1 X for 1 mA load.
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Absolute Maximum Ratings
AD590
The AD590 is a 2-terminal integrated circuit temperature transducer that produces an

output current proportional to absolute temperature. For supply voltages between 4 V and
30 V the device acts as a high-impedance, constant current regulator passing 1 μA/K.
Laser trimming of the chip’s thin-film resistors is used to calibrate the device to 298.2 μA
output at 298.2 K (25°C). The AD590 should be used in any temperature-sensing application
below 150°C in which conventional electrical temperature sensors are currently employed.
The inherent low cost of a monolithic integrated circuit combined with the elimination of
support circuitry makes the AD590 an attractive alternative for many temperature
measurement situations.
Linearization circuitry, precision voltage amplifiers, resistance measuring circuitry, and cold
junction compensation are not needed in applying the AD590. In addition to temperature
measurement, applications include temperature compensation or correction of discrete
components, biasing proportional to absolute temperature, flow rate measurement, level
detection of fluids and anemometry.
The AD590 is available in chip form, making it suitable for hybrid circuits and fast
temperature measurements in protected environments. The AD590 is particularly useful in
remote sensing applications. The device is insensitive to voltage drops over long lines due
to its high impedance current output. Any well-insulated twisted pair is sufficient for
operation at hundreds of feet from the receiving circuitry. The output characteristics also
make the AD590 easy to multiplex: the current can be switched by a CMOS multiplexer or
the supply voltage can be switched by a logic gate output.
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Features
▪ Linear current output: 1 μA/K .
▪ Wide temperature range: −55°C to +150°C.
▪ Probe compatible ceramic sensor package.
▪ 2-terminal device: voltage in/current out.
▪ Laser trimmed to ±0.5°C calibration accuracy (AD590M).
▪ Excellent linearity: ±0.3°C over full range (AD590M).
▪ Wide power supply range: 4 V to 30 V.
Absolute Maximum Ratings
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4.PRESSURE MEASUREMENT
4.1 Introduction To Pressure Measurement
PRESSURE: It is defined as the force applied over a surface or distributed over it and is
measured as force per unit area.The unit of pressure is psi [Pounds per square inch] .
Pressure (P) = Force (F)
Area (A)
Different Types Of Pressure
▪ Gauge pressure.
▪ Absolute pressure.
▪ Vacuum or Differential Pressure.
▪ Static pressure
▪ Velocity pressure.
Gauge Pressure: The gauge pressure is the difference between the absolute pressure of
the fluid and the atmospheric pressure. It is abbreviated as psig [pound per square inch
gauge]
Absolute Pressure:Absolute pressure is actual total pressure acting on a surface. It is

abbreviated as psia [pounds per square inch absolute].
Vacuum Or Differential Pressure:Gauge that indicates gauge pressure below zero. Such a
gauge is called a vacuum gauge. Gauge that indicates absolute pressure cannot indicate
pressure below zero, because zero is a perfect vacuum.
Static Pressure:When the fluid is in the equilibrium, pressure at a particular point is identical
in all directions and independent of orientation .This is called static pressure.
Velocity Pressure:Velocity pressure is the difference between the total pressure and the
static pressure.
Velocity pressure=total pressure- static pressure.
Fig. 4.1 Relationship between absolute, gauge and barometric pressure
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Methods Of Pressure Measurement

▪ Manometer method
▪ Elastic pressure transducers
▪ Pressure measurement by measuring vacuum
▪ Pressure measurement by balancing the force produced on a measured force
▪ Electrical pressure transducers
4.2 Pressure Standards

In British units, pressure is measured in pounds (of force) per square inch (of area) .In metric
or SI units, it is measured in newtons (of force) per square meter (of area).In engineering ,it
is expressed in terms of pounds per square inch(psi).The atmospheric pressure is
14.696psi(or 1 kg/cm²).Pressure can also be measured in terms of liquid columns, in which
the atmospheric pressure will be equal to 760mm(or 29.92 inches).Following relations are
used for evaluating high and low pressure:
HIGH PRESSURE:
1 Newton per square meter (1N/m²) =one Pascal (Pa)
1 atmospheric pressure (1atm) = 14.696 psi =101.325 kPa
LOW PRESSURE:
1 millibar =100 dyne/cm² =14.5×10-6
1 micron = 10-6m Hg =19.34×10-6 psi
1 torr = 1 mm Hg = 1000 microns =19.34×10-3 psi.
4.3 Conventional Pressure Sensor
SOME OF THE PRESSURE SENSORS ARE:

1. Diaphragm
2. Bourdon Tube
3. Capsules
4. Bellows
Diaphragm: The commonly used elastic element is diaphragm. It can be made up of flexible
materials such as rubber-coated fabrics (or) it can be made up of metals and metallic
materials. When the pressure is higher on one side of the diaphragm than the other, the
diaphragm stretches towards the lower pressure.
DIAPHRAGM TYPES
▪ Flat. ▪ Corrugated.
▪ Dish. ▪ Capsules.
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Fig.4.3.1 Diaphragm Types
Corrugated shape diaphragm gives greater range of movement than the flat diaphragm.
Non metallic diaphragms are well suited for low pressure measurement .They do not have
good spring properties and it is also requires an opposing force to return them to original
position.
Metals and metallic diaphragms can be used with higher temperature and pressure and
easily return to their original position.
Flat metal diaphragm tends to produce non-linear output meaning that the amount of
deflection is not always proportional to the measured pressure.
Fig.4.3.2 Gauge with diaphragm

Advantages
▪ Moderate cost
▪ Good linearity
▪ Small size.
Limitations
▪ Difficult to repair.
▪ Limited to relatively low pressure.
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Bourdon Tube
A bourdon tube is hollow, spring like element that is closed at one end and connected to
the measured pressure at the other end.
The bourdon tubes one of the oldest mechanical instruments and remains a very popular
pressure sensing device.
Bourdon tube are made up of a number of materials depending upon the fluid and pressure
for when they are used ,such as phosphor bronze, alloy steel, stainless steel,monel metal
and beryllium copper.
An increase in pressure causes the bourdon tube to deform .When the pressure is reduced,
the bourdon tube relaxes towards its original shape, in a common application.
The reference pressure for bourdon tube is atmospheric pressure hence it measures gauge
pressure.
They are commonly available to measure pressure ranges from 0-15 psi to 0-6000 psi.
Various Shapes Of Bourden Tubes

▪ C-Shaped
▪ Twisted
▪ Helical
▪ Spiral
C-SHAPED TWISTED
Fig 4.3.3 C-SHAPED Fig 4.3.4 TWISTED
HELICAL SPIRAL
Fig 4.3.5 HELICAL Fig 4.3.6 SPIRAL
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Fig 4.3.7 Gauge with C shaped bourdon tube
Capsules
▪ It consists of flexible chamber with walls.

▪ Capsule is made up of several diaphragms like elements welded together.
▪ As the pressure rises, the devices expand its length.
▪ The measured pressure is directed into the device.
▪ The capsule has good spring properties therefore capsules are generally preferred for
measurement instruments.
PRESSURE
CAPSULES
Fig 4.3.8 GAUGE WITH CAPSULE ELEMENT

Bellows
▪ It consists of a flexible chamber with walls.

▪ It is formed from a single piece of metal.
▪ As the pressure increases. The device expands its length.
▪ The measured pressure is directed in the device.
▪ It often requires a spring or other element to pull it back to its original form.
▪ It is used in instrumentation application.
Fig 4.3.9 Gauge with bellows element
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4.4 Electrical And Electronic Pressure Transducers
Transducer:A transducer is defined as a device which converts a physical quantity, a

physical condition or mechanical output into an electrical signal.
Electrical Pressure Transducers Consist Of Three Elements:
▪ Pressure sensing element such as bellow, a diaphragm or a bourdon tube.

▪ Primary conversion element, e.g.: resistance or a voltage.
▪ Secondary conversion element.
Different Types Of Electrical And Electronic Pressure Transducers
▪ Strain gauge pressure transducers.

▪ Potentiometric pressure transducers.
▪ Capacitive pressure transducers.
▪ Reluctance pressure transducers.
Strain Gauge Pressure Transducers
Strain gauge is passive type resistance pressure transducers. It is a positive type resistance
transducer. It converts mechanical displacement in to a change in resistance. It is used for
the measurement of displacement.
Its electrical resistance changes when it is stretched or compressed. Strain gauge pressure
transducers are attached to a pressure sensing diaphragm. The wires electrical resistance
is a function of three parameters. They are:
▪ Types of wire (ρ).
▪ Its length (l).
▪ Area of cross section (A).
▪ R= ρl/A.
The heart of a strain gauge is grid , made of very fine wire using Platinum, Nichrome, or
tungsten. The grid is arranged in such a way that the measured pressure will cause the wire
in the grid to stretch or strain resulting in a change in the electrical resistance of the grid
wire.
The strain gauge is a fine wire which changes its resistance when mechanically strained. A
strain gauge is attached to the diaphragm so that when the diaphragm flexes due to the
process pressure applied on it, the strain gauge stretches or compressed.
This deformation of the strain gauge causes the variation in its length & cross section area
due to which its resistance also changes. The resistance change of a strain gauge is
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converted in to voltage by connecting one, two, or four similar gauges, as of a Wheatstone

bridge and applying excitation to the bridge. The bridge output voltage is a measure of the
Pressure sensed by the strain gauge.
Construction and Working
Two strain gauges Rsg1 and Rsg4 are mounted in such a way that increasing pressure
increases their resistance. The remaining two strain gauge, Rsg2 and Rsg3 are mounted so
that increasing pressure decrease their resistance.
At balance, when there is no pressure, no current flows through the galvanometer G. When
the pressure is applied, the strain gauge stretches or compresses accordingly and the bridge
circuit becomes balanced. Thus the current flows through the galvanometer during
unbalanced condition. So the change in current indicates the change in measured pressure.
Types Of Strain Gauges

▪ Bonded strain gauge.
▪ UN bonded strain gauges.
Stain
gauges
Rsg1 Rsg2 Rsg3 Rsg4
Diaphragm
Process pr
Fig 4.4.1 strain gauge transducer with diaphragm element
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Bonded Strain Gauge
Fig 4.4.3 Bonded Strain Gauge
A grid of fine wire is cemented to a thin paper sheet and covered with a protective sheet of
paper. When the surface to which the strain gauge is bonded is disturbed because of an
applied force, the strain gauge is also strained. The resistance of the wire changes on
account of change in length and diameter of the wire.
Unbounded Strain Gauges
The fixed element is called as frame and the movable element is called Armature. The strain
wires are suspended between the frame and the Armature. To measure pressure, an elastic
device such as diaphragm can be used to change the position of the armature. Wires are
typically arranged on the assembly so that any movement of the armature causes some of
the strain wires to stretch and some to relax.
Fig 4.4.4unbonded strain gauge with pressure sensor
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Advantages
▪ Sensitive to small pressure change.
▪ Small size.
▪ Good accuracy.
▪ Fast response.
Disadvantages
▪ Require constant voltage supply.
▪ Electrical readout is necessary.
▪ Temperature compensation required.
Potentiometric Pressure Transducers
It consists of a potentiometer which is made by winding resistance wire around an insulated

cylinder. It consist of a movable electrical contact, called a wiper, slides along the cylinder
touching the wire at one point on each turn.
Fig 4.4.5 Potentiometric pressure transducers
The position of the wire determines how much wire & therefore how much resistance is
between the end of the wire and wiper. A mechanical linkage from the pressure sensing
element controls the position of the wiper on the potentiometer which in turn determines
the pressure.
An increase in pressure makes the bourdon tube straighten out partially. This motion causes
the linkage to move the wiper across the winding on the potentiometer. As the wiper moves,
it increases the resistance between terminal A&C, which is equivalent to pressure sensed by
the bourdon tube.
Advantages
▪ The resistance can be easily converted to voltage or current signals.
▪ This pressure transducer is simpler and cheaper than the other types of transducer.
▪ They are easy to design to meet the special requirements in specific applications.
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Disadvantage
▪ They have finite resolution, the wiper does not move continuously along the wire. It only
touches the wire only at one point on each turn. As the wiper moves from one turn to
next, the resistance jumps from one value to the next.
▪ Wear occurs as the wiper moves back and forth.
▪ Each time the wiper makes and breaks contact with the wire it creates noise signals.
Capacitive Pressure Transducers
The principle of operation of capacitive pressure transducers is based upon the capacitance
equation of the parallel plate capacitor, i.e.
C =ΣoΣr A/d Farad
Where
c= capacitance of the capacitor in farad
A= area of each plate in M²
d= distance between the two plates in m
Σo= 8.854x10ˉ¹²farad/m²
Σr= dielectric constant
Thus, capacitance of a capacitor varies when,

▪ The area of the plate is changed.
▪ The distance between the two plates changed.
▪ The dielectric constant Σr is changed.
▪ The capacitance of a parallel plate capacitor is inversely proportional to the spacing
between the plates.
C ∞ 1/d
Construction & Working
It consists of fixed plate & a movable plate which is free to move as the pressure applied
changes. According to the change in pressure the movable plate also changes its position,
due to which the distance d is changed.
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With an increase in pressure, the distance d becomes less, due to which the capacitance C
is increased. With a decrease in pressure, the distance d increases & thus capacitance c is
decreased. This change in capacitance can be calibrated to measure the change in pressure.
Fig.4.4.7 diaphragm plate with capacitive pressure transducer.

Advantages
▪ It gives rapid response to pressure.

▪ It can withstand a lot of vibration.
▪ It is sensitive.
▪ It has good frequency response.
Disadvantages
▪ The metallic part of the capacitor must be insulated from each other.
▪ The performance of a capacitive transducer is severely affected by dirt & other
contaminants, because they change the dielectric constant.
Reluctance Pressure Transducers
Reluctance in a magnetic circuit is equivalent to resistance in an electrical circuit. When

ever the coupling between two magnetic devices or coil changes, the reluctance between
them also changes. The pressure sensor used to change the spacing between two coils by
moving one part of magnetic circuit. This motion changes the reluctance between the
coils, which in turn changes the voltage induced by one coil in the other. The changes in
the induced voltage can then be interpreted as a change in pressure.
Types Of Reluctance Pressure Transducer

1. Linear variable differential transformer (LVDT).
2. Servo pressure transducer.
3. Piezoelectric pressure transducer.
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Linear Variable Differential Transformer

▪ It is a most widely used inductive transducer.
▪ It will convert linear motion in to an electrical signal.
Construction And Working
It consists of a primary winding or coil and two secondary windings or coil. The windings are
arranged concentrically next to each other. They are wound over a hollow bobbin which is
usually of a non magnetic and insulating
material. A ferromagnetic core (armature) is
attached to the transducer sensing shaft (such
as bellows).
The core is made of a high permeability

ferromagnetic alloy and has the shape of a rod
or cylinder.Ac excitation is applied across the
primary winding and the movable core varies
the coupling between it and two secondary
windings. When the core is in the center
position, the coupling to the secondary coils is
equal.
As the core moves away from the centre position, the coupling to one secondary, and hence
its output voltage increases while the coupling and the output voltage of the other
secondary decreases. Any change in pressure makes the bellows expand or contract
Fig.4.4.9 Linear variable differential transformer (LVDT)
This motion moves the magnetic core inside the hollow portion of the bobbin. It causes the
voltage of one secondary winding to increases, while simultaneously reducing the voltage
in the other secondary winding. The difference of the two voltage appears across the output
terminals of the transducers and gives a measure of the physical position of the core and
hence the pressure.
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Fig.4.4.10 characteristics graph

Advantages
▪ It possesses a high sensitivity.
▪ It is very rugged in construction.
▪ It is stable and easy to align.
▪ The output voltage of this transformer is practically linear for displacement of about 5m.
Disadvantage
▪ Temperature affects the performance of the transducer.
Servo Pressure Transducer:A servo pressure transducer is also called a force balance
pressure transducer. It produces an electrical signal proportional to the pressure.
Working Principle
An increase in pressure P1 over P2 flexes the diaphragm and moves the short end of the
force beam. The force beam pivots, and the long end moves a magnetic material in the
reluctive detector. The signal from the reluctive detector is converted from ac power to dc
power, and sent to an amplifier.
Fig.4.4.11 servo pressure transducer.
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The amplifier responds by activating an inductive motor that moves the force beam back
towards its original position. It is used for measurement of pressure bellow 500psi.
Piezoelectric Pressure Transducer:It depends upon the principle that when pressure is
applied on piezoelectric crystals (such as quartz) an electric charge is generated.
Fig.4.4.12 Block Diagram
The linkage between the diaphragm and crystal produces a changing force on piezoelectric
crystal when the measured pressure changes. The piezoelectric crystal produces voltage
when the pressure is applied to it.
To make the unit complete, associated circuitry is used to amplify the voltage output of the
crystal and convert it into a standard control signal output. Some of the piezoelectric
materials are quartz and Rochelle salts.
The piezoelectric crystal generates electrical signal, which is amplified by a charge amplifier.
The second piezoelectric crystal is included for the compensation of any acceleration of the
device.
Fig.4.4.13 Piezoelectric pressure transducer
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This compensation is required because rapid acceleration of the device creates additional
pressure on the piezoelectric crystal. Signals from the compensating crystals are amplified
by a second charge amplifier.
Differential amplifier is used which subtracts pressure alone and all affects due to
acceleration are removed. The piezoelectric crystal is used where rapidly fluctuating change
in the force applied to it, but does not give a useful signal at steady state.
It can also give a large change in the output for a given change in applied force. It is used to
measure pressure in the range of 0-50000psi.They respond only to changing pressure. It is
a self generating device (active type).
Disadvantages
• It cannot measure static pressure.
• It is affected by temperature changes. Therefore temperature compensation is required.
4.5 Introduction To Calibration And Calibration Of Pressure Gauge
Pressure instrument calibration is the process of adjusting the instruments output signal to
match a known range of pressure.
All instruments tend to drift from their last setting. This is because springs stretch, electronic
components undergo slight changes on the atomic level and their working parts sag, bend
or lose their elasticity.
Calibration procedure includes zero, span and linearity adjustments.
Calibration of the instrument is carried out by applying to it an air or liquid pressure whose
value is accurately known.
The method used depends up on the range of the instrument.
For very low pressure up to 3 inch of water gauge a micrometer or an inclined water gauge
may be used.
For pressure up to 144 inch of water gauge or 23 inch of mercury gauge, a water manometer
may be used.
For higher pressure up to 72 inch mercury gauge, a mercury manometer may be used.
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5. DISPLACEMENT MEASUREMENT
5.1 Introduction To Displasement Measurement
Displacement is thought of in terms of motion of few millimeters (mm) or less. The
measurement of displacement is made frequently to relate to some other measurement
and displacement transducers are fundamental components of any instrumentation
system.Displacement is closely associated with motion and position. Displacement can be
measured by both mechanical and electrical methods. Some of the electrical methods are:
▪ Resistance strain gauge

▪ Linear variable-differential transformer (LVDT)
▪ Capacitive transducer.
5.2 Potentiometer Sensor, Types, Construction, Operation And Errors.
It is a primary transducer. It is used to sense the motion of a body and is a translational

displacement transducer. It converts the linear motion or the angular motion of a rotating
shaft in change in resistance. Types of potentiometer sensors are:
1. Linear displacement potentiometer.

2. Angular displacement potentiometer.
It consists of a resistance element, housing, wiper, shaft seal and bearing and the shaft. The
resistive element can be classified as wire wound, conductive plastic and hybrid.
It is a variable resistor whose resistance is varied by the movement of a wiper over a

resistance element. The resolution of potentiometer is depends on the construction of the
resistance element.
The wire wound resistance will gives high resistance value in small space. On wire wound
resistance elements provide improved resolution and life. On wire wound resistance
elements are more temperature sensitive, have a high wiper contact resistance and can
tolerate only moderate wiper currents.
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Fig.5.2.2.Angular Measurement Potentiometer
5.3 LVDT, Principle, Operation And Application
It is a most widely used inductive transducer. It will convert linear motion in to an electrical
signal. It consists of a primary winding or coil and two secondary windings or coil. The
windings are arranged concentrically next to each other.
They are wound over a hollow bobbin which is usually of a non magnetic and insulating
material. A ferromagnetic core (armature) is attached to the transducer sensing shaft (such
as bellows).
Fig.5.3.1 Linear variable differential transformer (LVDT)
The core is made of a high permeability ferromagnetic alloy and has the shape of a rod or
cylinder.Ac excitation is applied across the primary winding and the movable core varies the
coupling between it and two secondary windings.
When the core is in the center position, the coupling to the secondary coils is equal. As the
core moves away from the centre position, the coupling to one secondary, and hence its
output voltage increases while the coupling and the output voltage of the other secondary
decreases.
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Any change in pressure makes the bellows expand or contract. This motion moves the
magnetic core inside the hollow portion of the bobbin. It causes the voltage of one
secondary winding to increases, while simultaneously reducing the voltage in the other
secondary winding. The difference of the two voltage appears across the output terminals
of the transducers and gives a measure of the physical position of the core and hence the
pressure.
Fig.5.3.2 Linear Variable Differential Transformer (LVDT)
Fig.5.3.3 characteristics graph

Advantages
▪ It possesses a high sensitivity.

▪ It is very rugged in construction.
▪ It is stable and easy to align.
▪ The output voltage of this transformer is practically linear for displacement of about 5m.
Disadvantage
▪ Temperature affects the performance of the transducer.
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5.4 Inductive Proximity Switch
It is suitable for no contact sensing of metallic object. An inductive proximity switch is a

sensor that can only see metal. It works on electromagnetic principle. They are inherently
resistant to dust, humidity and oil in industrial environment. It generates an electromagnetic
field to sense metal objects passing close to its face.
Fig.5.4.1.Inductive Proximity Switch
Inductive proximity sensor operates under the electrical principle of inductance. It consists
of coil, oscillator, detection circuit and output circuit .The oscillator creates high frequency
electromagnetic field which radiates from sensing face of the sensor.
When a metal object moves in to the inductive proximity sensor’s field of detection eddy
circuit build up in the metallic object, magnetically push back and finally reduce the
inductive sensor’s own oscillation field. The sensors detection circuit monitors the
oscillator’s strength and triggers an output from output circuitry, when the scillatbecomes
reducedto a sufficient level.
5.5 Digital Encoder: Contact, Magnetic And Optical Encoder.

Digital Encoder:The digital encoder is the only digital Transducer in the real sense of its
structure. A digital encoder directly converts the physical variable to a parallel digital
output. The simplest example of a digital encoder is a digital shaft encoder for angular
position measurement.
Digital Shaft Encoder:A digital shaft encoder is a circular coded disc driven by a rotating
shaft. The circular disc is divided into a certain no. of sectors (Ns) and each sector is
partitioned n to a no. of tracks (Nt).
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There is a relation between the no. of sectors & tracks as Ns=2^Nt. For generating a 4-bit
binary no. from the encoder, the no. of tracks should be 4, so the total no. of sectors is 16.
The total angular revolution of 360° is divided into 16 sectors; the encoder can encode a
minimum of 22.5° angular displacement. The sensitivity and resolution of measurement is
increased by increasing the no. of sectors, which is possible only by increasing the no. of
tracks.
If the no. of tracks is doubled (i.e., 8), the resolution becomes 1.4°, which is 16 times
higher than using four tracks. There are three methods of coding the tracks & thereby
three encoding or reading methods:
Contact encoder.
Magnetic encoder.
Optical encoder.
5.5.2 Contact Encoder

In a contact encoder disc, the tracks are inscribed by a conducting and a non conducting
layer. A conducting layer in a track results a binary 1, whereas a non conducting layer gives
a 0 as the output of the reading head. Brushes are used as the reading heads that collect the
electrical voltage or current.
5.5.3 Magnetic Encoder

In a magnetic encoder the tracks are coated with a magnetic material over which the pattern
of digital codes is inscribed. The magnetic spots are either magnetized or nonmagnetized to
represent a binary 1 or 0. A tiny pickup coil reads the magnetic spots. Life of the magnetic
encoders is longer than that of the contact encoders.
5.5.4 Optical Encoder

An optical encoder uses a light source in front of an optically coded pattern, through which
the light is allowed or restricted to pass through. The pattern is made transparent to code a
binary 1 or opaque to code a 0. The light transmitted is picked up by an optical sensor and
the electrical signal represents the binary equivalent of the position of the shaft.
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5.6 Rotational Displacement/Angular Position: Using Optical Encoder And

Signal Conditioning Circuits.
An encoder is a device that provides a digital output as a result of a linear or angular

displacement. Position encoders grouped in to two. They are:
▪ Incremental encoders
▪ Absolute encoders.
Incremental encoders detect changes in rotation from some datum position. Absolute
encoders will give the actual angular position.
Incremental Encoder
A beam of light passes through slots in a disc & is detected by a suitable light sensor. When
the disc is rotated, a pulsed output is produced by the sensor with the no. of pulses being
proportional to the angle through which the disc rotates.
Fig.5.6.1 Incremental Encoder
Fig.5.6.2 Concentric Tracks
The rotating disc has 3 concentric tracks & 3 sensors. The inner track has one hole & is used
to locate the ‘home’ position of the disc. The other two tracks have a series of equally spaced
holes that go completely round the disc but with the holes in the middle track offset from
the holes in the outer track by one half width of a hole.
This offset enables the direction of rotation to be determined. The resolution is determined
by the no. of slots on the disc. With 60 slots occurring with 1 revolution then 1 revolution is
a rotation of 360°, the resolution is 360/60=6°.
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Absolute Encoder
It will give an o/p in the form of a binary no. of several digits, each no. representing a
particular angular position. The rotating disc has three concentric circles of slots & three
sensors to detect light pulses. The slots are arranged in such a way that the sequential
output from the sensor is a no. in the binary code.
Typical encoder has upto 10 or 12 tracks. The no. of bits in the binary no. will be equal to
the no. of tracks. For 10 tracks there will 10 bits & so the no. of positions that can be
detected is 2ˆ10, i.e., 1024, a resolution of 360/1024=0.35°
Fig.5.6.2 Absolute Encoder
---------------------------------------------------
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6.FORCE, WEIGHT AND FLOW MEASUREMENT

6.1 Introduction To Force, Weight And Flow Measurement
Force Measurement
Force is defined as a cause that produces resistance or obstruction to any moving body, or
changes the motion of a body, or tends to produce these effects.
F = MA
Where,
F=force
M= mass, in Kg
A = acceleration, in Kg/m²
Methods Of Force Measurement Are:

▪ Hydraulic force meter.
▪ Pneumatic force meter.
▪ Electric force transducers.
Limitations to the methods of measuring force are:
▪ Force must be either is reasonably constant in value or changing gradually and

continuously in one direction.
▪ The force must act perpendicular to the platform of the scale, otherwise only the cosine
component is measured.
▪ The measurement requires correction for local variation in gravitational constant.
Weight Measurement
Weight is the force with which a body is attracted to the earth. The relation between weight
and mass is.
Weight= mass × acceleration
The fundamental principles used in practically all methods of measuring weights are:
a. Comparison with known weights.
b. Measuring deflection of a body, using Hooke’s law, according to which the strain is
proportional to stress.
c. Measuring the hydraulic or pneumatic pressure required to support the unknown
weight.
d. Measuring the electric current in a coil whose magnetic field supports the unknown
weight.
e. Measuring displacement of a liquid, using Archimedes’, principle, that a floating body
displaces its own weight of a liquid.
f. Load cells.
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Flow Measurement
▪ It is made for determining the proportions and the amount of materials flowing in or out
of a process.
▪ Without flow measurement, plant material balancing, quality control and even the
operation of any continuous process would be impossible.
▪ Flow measurement is made both for fluids and solids.
Methods of Flow Measurements are:
▪ Inferential type flow meter.

▪ Quantity flow meter.
▪ Mass flow meter.
Inferential Flow Measurement

In the inferential type of flow measurement Methods, the flow rates are inferred from a
characteristic effect of a related phenomenon. Inferential type flow meters are:
a. Variable head or differential meters.
b. Variable area meters.
c. Magnetic meters.
d. Turbine meters.
e. Target meters.
f. Thermal flow meters.
g. Vortex meters.
h. Ultrasonic flow meters.
Variable Head or Differential Flow Meters

It measures volume rather than mass flow rates, but mass rates can be calculated or
completed easily by knowing or sensing temperature and pressure.
Basic Operating Principle
Variable head flow meters operate on the principle that a restriction or obstruction in the
line or plane of a flowing fluid, introduced by the orifice plate or venture tube, produces a
differential pressure across the restriction element which is proportional to the flow rate.
Square root relationship in the flow rate is proportional to the square of the differential
pressure.
Advantages
▪ Low cost.
▪ It offers the widest application coverage of any type of meter
▪ It is accurate (+_1/4to+_2%)
▪ It can be easily removed without shutting down the process
▪ It is adaptable to any pipe size and flow rate
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Disadvantages
▪ There is relatively high pressure loss in it.
▪ It is difficult to use for slurry services.
▪ It exhibits a square root relationship between head & flow rate, rather than linear
characteristics.
▪ It is difficult to remove pulsating flow with this type of meter.
Parts of a Differential Flow Meter

▪ Primary element
▪ Secondary element
Primary Element
Meter which is used to restrict the fluid flow in the pipe line in order to produce a differential
pressure is known as primary element.
Various primary elements are:

1. Orifice place
2. Venture tube
3. Flow nozzles
4. Dall tubes
5. Pitot tubes
Secondary Element:Secondary elements are those which measure the differential pressure
produced by the primary element & convert them to usable forces or signals.
Various secondary elements are:

1. Manometer
2. Bellow meter
3. Force balance meter
4. Ring balance meter
6.2 Strain Gauge And Its Function
▪ Strain gauge is passive type resistance pressure transducers.

▪ It is a positive type resistance transducer.
▪ It converts mechanical displacement in to a change in resistance.
▪ It is used for the measurement of displacement.
▪ Its electrical resistance changes when it is stretched or compressed.
▪ Strain gauge pressure transducers are attached to a pressure sensing diaphragm.
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▪ The wires electrical resistance is a function of three parameters. They are:

Types of wire (ρ).
Its length (l).
Area of cross section (A).
R= ρl/A.
▪ The heart of a strain gauge is grid made of very fine wire using Platinum, Nichrome, or
tungsten.
▪ The grid is arranged in such a way that the measured pressure will cause the wire in the
grid to stretch or strain resulting in a change in the electrical resistance of the grid wire.
▪ The strain gauge is a fine wire which changes its resistance when mechanically strained.
▪ A strain gauge is attached to the diaphragm so that when the diaphragm flexes due to the
process pressure applied on it, the strain gauge stretches or compressed.
▪ This deformation of the strain gauge causes the variation in its length & cross section area
due to which its resistance also changes.
▪ The resistance change of a strain gauge is converted in to voltage by connecting one, two,
or four similar gauges, as of a Wheatstone bridge and applying excitation to the bridge.
▪ The bridge output voltage is a measure of the Pressure sensed by the strain gauge.
Construction and working
Two strain gauges Rsg1 and Rsg4 are mounted in such a way that increasing pressure
increases their resistance.
The remaining two strain gauge, Rsg2 and Rsg3 are mounted so that increasing pressure
decrease their resistance.
At balance, when there is no pressure, no current flows through the galvanometer G.
When the pressure is applied, the strain gauge stretches or compresses accordingly and the
bridge circuit becomes balanced.
Thus the current flows through the galvanometer during unbalanced condition.
So the change in current indicates the change in measured pressure.
Types of strain gauges
1. Bonded strain gauge.

2. Un bonded strain gauges.
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Stain
gauges
Rsg1 Rsg2 Rsg3 Rsg4
Diaphragm
Process pr
Fig 6.2.1 strain gauge transducer with diaphragm element
Bonded strain gauge
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▪ A grid of fine wire is cemented to a thin paper sheet and covered with a protective sheet
of paper.
▪ When the surface to which the strain gauge is bonded is disturbed because of an applied
force, the strain gauge is also strained.
▪ The resistance of the wire changes on account of change in length and diameter of the
wire.
Unbounded strain gauges
▪ The fixed element is called as frame and the movable element is called Armature.
▪ The strain wires are suspended between the frame and the Armature.
▪ To measure pressure, an elastic device such as diaphragm can be used to change the
position of the armature.
▪ Wires are typically arranged on the assembly so that any movement of the armature
causes some of the strain wires to stretch and some to relax.
Fig 6.2.4
Advantages
▪ Sensitive to small pressure change.
▪ Small size.
▪ Good accuracy.
▪ Fast response.
Disadvantages
▪ Require constant voltage supply.
▪ Electrical readout is necessary.
▪ Temperature compensation required.
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6.3 Load Cell, Principle And Operation Of Load Cell
Load cell
▪ A load cell is a transducer which converts force in to a measurable electrical output.

▪ There are many varieties of load cell, strain gauge based load cells are the most commonly
used type.
▪ The strain gauge load cell is an electromechanical transducer which translates changes in
force or weight in to changes in voltage.
▪ The change in voltage calibrated directly in terms of force or load applied to the cell.
Construction
Strain gauge load cell is constructed of wire grids (known as strain gauge) bonded to
precisely machined supporting columns.
The grids are connected electrically to form a balanced Wheatstone bridge.
Additional compensation resistors are added to the circuit for maintaining the accuracy of
the bridge over a wide range of temperature.
Working
The principle of operation of the strain gauge load cell depends upon the deflection of the
column.
Fig 6.3.1
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When a force or load to be measured is applied to the supporting column, the column is
compressed causing the wires in the grid bonded to sides X1 and Y1 to decrease in length
and increase in cross sectional area, thus decreasing their electrical resistance.
The grid bonded to sides X2 and Y2 are unaffected by the comparison of the column. These
grids are attached to the column to minimize errors due to temperature variations.
When the column is stressed in tension, the measuring grid wires (strain gauge) are
lengthened and their resistance increased. The change in resistance of the strain gauge
causes the Wheatstone bridge, which is directly proportional to the force (load) applied to
the column, to become unbalanced, thus providing a linear output voltage signal with
respect to the force.
Strain gauge load cells are made for compression, tension or universal loading of either type.
The output signals of strain gauges are in the range 1 to 3mv per volt of excitation, and are
proportional to the excitation. The excitation voltage can be AC or DC in the range of 5 to
25V.Accuracy of the device is ±0.1% of full scale output.
Advantages
▪ They are small and compact in size.
▪ They are well suited for measurements where an electrical output signal is desired.
▪ They are in expensive.
▪ They respond rapidly to load variations.
▪ They can measure up to the rated capacity, with deflection in the range 0.125mm to
0.25mm.
Limitations
▪ Overloads greatly in excess of their ratings should be avoided.
6.4 Flow Measurement Using Orifice Plate.
Orifice Plate
▪ It acts as a primary device.

▪ The orifice plate restricts the flow of a fluid to produce the differential pressure across
the plate.
▪ The result is high pressure upstream and low pressure downstream i.e. proportional to
the square of flow velocity.
▪ Orifice plate produces greater pressure loss than other primary devices.
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▪ Two standard design of orifice plate are : 1. Thin orifice plate. 2. Sharp square edge orifice
plate.
▪ Important term used in orifice plate is diameter ratio.
D/d = dia of the orifice of the primary element
Upstream dia of the pipe
Types of orifice plate
A. Concentric orifice plate
B. Eccentric orifice plate
C. Segmental orifice plate
D. Quadrant orifice plate
A. Concentric orifice plate

▪ It is a simplest and largest expensive of the head meters.
▪ It is made of stainless steel.
▪ Its thickness varies from 3.175mm and to12.7mm depending on pipe line size and flow
velocity.
▪ It has a circular hole in the middle.
▪ It is also made up of material like nickel, Chromel, phosphor, bronze etc to with stand
corrosive effects of the fluid.
B. Eccentric orifice plate

▪ It is similar to concentric plate except for the offset hole, which is bored tangential to a
circle.
▪ Location of the bore prevents accumulation of solid materials or foreign particles and
makes it useful for measuring fluids containing solids.
C. Segmental orifice plate

▪ It is used for the same type of services as the eccentric orifice plate.
▪ It has a hole, which is a segment of a circle.
▪ It is installed in such a way that the curved section of the opening coincide with the lower
surface of the pipe.
D. Quadrant edge orifice plate

▪ It is used for flow such as slurries and viscous flows.
▪ It is constructed in such that the edge is rounded to form a quarter circles.
▪ The plate has a concentric opening with a rounded upstream edge rather than sharp.
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Vent and drain hole in orifice plate
▪ A drain hole is provided at the bottom when gases are measured to allow the condensate
to pass in order to prevent its building up at the orifice plate.
▪ A vent hole is located at the top when liquids are measured so that gases can pass and
gas pockets cannot build up.
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7.SPEED MEASUREMENT
7.1 Introduction, Mechanical Tachometers, Electrical
Tachometers , Types Like Contact Less, Frequency Type
In industrial processes, speed as a variable refers to the revolution per minutes of some
piece of rotating equipment. Speed is a scalar quantity equal to the magnitude of velocity.
There are various methods of measurement, of which tachometer is the most frequently
used device.
They are used for the measurement of angular speed usually in revolution per minutes
(rpm), although they can be calibrated in many other meaningful units depends upon
application, such as feet per minutes, miles per hour, yards per minutes, or even in terms of
production units per unit time.
TYPES OF TACHOMETER
▪ Mechanical tachometers.
▪ Electrical tachometers.
Mechanical Tachometers
It will employ only mechanical parts and mechanical movement for measurement of
speed. Types of Mechanical Tachometers are:
1. Revolution counter
2. Centrifugal-force tachometers.
3. Resonance tachometer.
Revolution Counter
The revolution counter is used with a timing device of some form to determine the number
of revolutions in a measured length
of time. It measures an average
rotational speed rather than an
instantaneous rotational speed.
A revolution counter consists of a

warm gear attached to spindle. The
warm gear meshes with a spur gear,
which in turn moves a calibrated dial
to indicate the revolutions. Two dials, outer and inner, are provided in which the each
division on the outer dial represents the one revolution of the spindle, while those on the
inner dial represent one revolution of the outer dial. A stop watch is attached to the counter
for indicating the time.
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For measuring the speed, a revolution counter is manually held. Warm gear attached to the
spindle is rotated by pressing the contact point of the spindle against to the rotating shaft,
whose rotating speed is to be measured. The Worm gear moves a calibrated dial through a
spur gear, indicating total revolution of the spindle which is in contact with the shaft.
Stopwatch is started and stopped simultaneously which the counter and thus average speed
is calculated.
The Manual operation of starting and stopping the stopwatch is not feasible. Therefore a
tachoscope is provided with some of the models in which a counter is combined with a
timepiece. In this case both the stop watch and timer start simultaneously when the contact
point is pressed against the rotating shaft, and stopped when the point is removed.
In some other arrangements an automatic timer is used in which a ratchet arrangement on

a measuring wheel frees the wheel for a definite period of time, and the Pointer on the
wheel indicates speed directly in rpm on a calibrated dial.
Resonance Tachometer
It employs a vibrating-reed type speed indicator which senses the repeated machine
vibrations frequency due to
reciprocating movement of
the pistons, for the
measurement of engine
speed. It consists of a series of
consecutively tuned steel
reeds of various lengths. One
side of each reed is fixed to
the base which is kept in
contact with moving part of
machine.
Other side of the reeds is

attached to the part at the
bottom of which a calibrated scale is attached that gives reading directly in rpm. When
speed of the engine or machine increases vibration of the base of the machine assembly
also increases .since resonance tachometer is fixed to this base. So that resonance
tachometer is also starts vibrating. This vibration changes the speed of the engine or
machine changes. This vibration change is calibrated to read the speed of engine.
To measure the speed of the engine, the reeds, that are tuned to resonate with the machine
vibrating frequency, respond visibility and indicate speed on calibrated scale. Range of the
resonance tachometer is wide (from 600 to100000 rpm) and their accuracy is order of ±
0.5% or better.
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Electrical Tachometers
It consists of transducer which converts the rotational speed into electrical signals, coupled
with a recorder or an indicator to indicate the measured value of speed. The electrical signal
may be either an analog signal which can be used for analog indication, or pulses which can
be digitally counted in terms of revolution in a unit time.
Types of Electrical Tachometers:
1. Eddy current or magnetic drag-type tachometers.

2. Electric generator tachometers, either AC or DC.
3. Contact less tachometer.
4. Frequency tachometer.
5. Ignition type tachometer
6. Stroboscopic-type tachometer
Magnetic-Drag (Or Eddy Current) Tachometer
In the magnetic drag type of tachometer, a transducer produces an analog signal in the form
of a continuous drag due to eddy currents induced in an aluminum cup. The induced current
is proportional to the speed.
It consists of a rotor which is coupled to rotor shaft of the machine whose speed is to be
measured. A permanent magnet is attached to the rotor which rotates within an aluminum
cup along with the rotor. A spindle is attached to the aluminum cup, to which pointer is
fixed.
A hairspring is fixed up to the spindle, which provides necessary controlling torque. As the
magnet rotate within the aluminum cup along with the shaft of the machine, eddy currents
are induced in cup which results in a torque or drag that tends to turn the cup against the
spring. The Deflection of the cup is proportional to the induced emf, which in turn is
proportional to the speed of the shaft. Deflection is indicated by the pointer which moves
on a calibrated dial scale.
This type of tachometer is commonly used in automobiles which measure the angular speed
of the wheel. In the case of car wheel the angular speed is converted into a linear speed in
kilometers per hours.
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Fig.7.1.3 Magnetic-drag (or eddy current) tachometer
In some of the applications, such as in aircraft engines, mechanical coupling of the magnet
is replaced by an electric drive consisting of a 3-phase synchronous generator driven by
machine shaft under test, and connected to 3-phase motor, which in turn drives the magnet
of the tachometer.
In industrial applications, the magnetic drag-disk torque is converted to a transmission

signal by pneumatic force-balanced system; the output pressure is directly proportional to
the speed of rotation. In the case speeds up to 12000 rpm can be measured.
Tachometer Generators
It is an electromechanical device that generates a voltage output proportional to shaft

speed. It is designed for any unit that can be converted into a function of rotational motion,
such as rpm, km per hour, etc...Types Of Tachometer Generators Are:
▪ A.C Tachometer.
▪ D.C Tachometer
A.C Tachometer
It consists of a primary winding that are placed mechanically 90 degree to secondary, and a
rotor. When rotor is stationary and primary winding is excited by one A.C input voltages, the
induced voltage in secondary is zero due to relative positions of two winding being placed
90 degree to each other.
As the rotor is turned, a voltage is induced in the secondary winding whose magnitude is
proportional to the rotor speed. Since the output signal is a voltage, a high input resistance
is connected with the readout instrument to give near-zero current flow in the secondary
winding. Any current flow in output winding will cause a voltage drop which will be
subtracted from the measured voltage and thus give the error in speed measurement. It will
measure the speed 500 to 10,000rpm.
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Fig.7.1.4 A.C.Tachometer
D.C Tachometer
It consists of a permanent magnet to provide the magnetic flux, and an output winding
placed on the rotor. When the rotor is stationary there is no relative motion between
magnetic field and winding and the output voltage is zero.
As rotor speed increases, the relative motion between magnetic field and winding also
increases, and hence an output voltage is induced in the winding which is sinusoidal and
whose magnitude is proportional to the rotor speed.
A commutator and brushes are fixed to the rotor to convert the A.C voltage in the winding
to a D.C output voltage, in the same manner as the D.C generator. This type of tachometer
speed in range of 10 to 5000rpm.
Fig .7.1.5 DC Tachometer
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Contactless Tachometer
This type of tachometer produces pulse from a rotating shaft without any mechanical
contact. It consists of a cylindrical permanent magnet placed behind a soft – iron pole piece
around which a coil is wound. The magnet pick up sensor is placed in front of the shaft gear,
made of ferrous material whose speed is to be measured.
As the gear rotates, the magnetic flux in the soft iron pole piece becomes high when the
tooth of the ferromagnetic gear comes in front of the magnetic pickup, and the flux drops
off as the tooth of the gear is passed. Thus voltage is generated in the coil which is
proportional to the rate of change of flux in the pole piece and also proportional to the
speed at which the ferromagnetic gear makes the flux build up or collapse.
The output voltage waveform varies depending upon the teeth shape of the gear, thickness,
and spacing, and the output voltage amplitude is proportional to the clearance between the
pickup tip and the surface of the gear.
Output frequency of magnetic pick up is given as,

f = rpm× no. of gear teeth
60S
f = frequency in Hz
Fig 7.1.6
It provides an accurate indication or record of equipment speed and it is used in any type of
surface, such as vibrating, rotating or moving surface. It operated under conditions when
oil, water or non corrosive liquids are present. Available in range from 0 to 25 rpm to 0 to
72,000rpm, with accuracy of ± ½ % full scale, and reproducibility of 0.2% full-scale.
Frequency Type: Frequency type tachometer is the frequency meter used as receivers to
receive A.C signals from a suitable pick up such as multiple generators. The various types of
such tachometers are:
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Electronic Counter: It counts the revolution per unit of time and is the most accurate and
has the widest range.
Resonance Frequency Meter: This type can use a polarized bridge as a null detector and is
useful in monitoring speed on an expanded scale, with a very narrow range.
Vibrating Reed: In this type the output from an ac generator energies a coil which vibrates
reeds at the natural frequency in sympathy with the generator output.
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8. ULTRASONIC MEASUREMENT
8.1 Basic Ultra Sonic Transmission Link, Pizeoelectric ,Ultrasonic Transmitter
And Reciever, Principle And Example
It consists of an ultrasonic transmitter, the transmission medium and an ultrasonic

receiver. It will convert electrical energy in to mechanical energy and mechanical energy in
to electrical. The most commonly used devices for ultrasonic transmitter and receiver are
piezoelectric sensing element.
If a sinusoidal voltage is applied to the transmitting crystal, then the crystal undergoes a
corresponding sinusoidal deformation X.This vibration of the crystal is transmitted to the
particles at the beginning of the medium, and these are set in sinusoidal motion , causing
other particles to vibrate, until eventually disturbance is transmitted to the other end of the
medium.
These sinusoidal particle displacements setup an accompanying sinusoidal pressure or

stress in the medium .This is detected by the ultrasonic receiver, which is simply a force
sensor using the direct piezoelectric effect. The fluctuating pressure causes a sinusoidal
force F over the area of the crystal, thus providing a corresponding time varying charge Q
and current I. This current produces a corresponding output voltage Vout across a load Zl
Piezoelectric, Ultrasonic Transmitters And Receivers, Principle
The ultrasonic flow meters are based on the principle of the apparent change in the velocity
of propagation of sound waves in a fluid
with change in velocity of flow of the fluid.
A piezoelectric crystal is excited by
electrical energy at its mechanical
resonance, thus emitting a sound wave,
which travels at the speed of sound in the
medium is used to infer the flow rate.
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In the transmitter network, a voltage V at the input electrical port produces a force when
drives a velocity x through the output mechanical impedance.
In the receiver network, a force F at the input mechanical port drives a velocity x through
the input mechanical impedance, this produces a current at the output electrical port.
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Examples Of Ultrasonic Measurement System
ULTRASONIC FLOW METER
In ultrasonic flow meters, the measurement of the flow rate is determined by the variation
in parameters of the ultrasonic oscillations. There are two type of ultrasonic flow meters
they are :
▪ Time difference type
▪ Doppler flow meter
Transit Time (Or) Time Of Flight (Tof) Ultrasonic Flow Meter:
Fig 8.1.6
These devices measure the flow by measuring the time taken for ultrasonic wave to
transverse a pipe section, both with against the flow of the liquid within the pipe.
It consists of two transducers A and B inserted into a pipe line, and working both as
transmitter and receiver.The ultrasonic waves are transmitted from transducer A to
transducer B and vice versa.An electronic oscillator is connected to the supply ultrasonic
waves alternately to A or B which is working as transmitter.
When the detector is connected simultaneously to B or A which is working as receiver, the

detector measures the transistor time from upstream to down stream transducers and vice
versa.
74

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CP15

6.FORCE, WEIGHT AND FLOW MEASUREMENT .................................................................................................. 55

The primary purpose of measurement in process industries and industrial manufacturing is

1.2 Measurement System And Its Constituent Elements

Example Of The Measurement System And Its Constituent Elements

Fig 1.1.2 Block Diagram of Measurement System

Direct Comparison: In direct comparison the parameter to be measured is directly

Indirect Comparison: The indirect comparison method comparison is done through, or is

1.3 Sensor And Transducers

1.4 Performance Terminology

Fig.1.4.1 Hysteresis error

NON LINEARITY ERROR:

END RANGE VALUE BEST STRAIGHT LINE FOR ALL VALUES

BEST STRAIGHT LINE THROUGH ZERO POINT

Fig.1.4.4 Best Straight Line through Zero Point

1.5 Static And Dynamic Characteristics

Accuracy:It is ability of a device or a system to respond to a true value of a measured variable

Precision:It is the degree of exactness for which an instrument is designed or intended to

True Value:It is the error free value of a measured variable.

Mistakes:These errors are due to human mistakes.

Systematic Errors:A constant uniform deviation of operating point of an instrument is

Types Of Systematic Errors:

Instrumental Errors:It is due to friction in bearing of various moving components, irregular

Environmental Error:It is due to the environmental changes like temperature, humidity,

Source Of Errors:It is due to the insufficient knowledge of process parameters conditions,

The dynamic behavior of an instrument is determined by subjecting its primary element to

Main Dynamic Characteristics Are:

Speed Of Response:It is rapidly with which an instrument responds to change in the

Lag:It is the retardation or delay in the response of an instrument to use or changes in

The ICL8038 waveform generator is a monolithic integrated circuit capable of producing

Square Wave Duty Cycle - 50%Square Wave Duty Cycle - 80%

Waveform Out Level Control And Power Supplies

2.2 Frequency To Voltage Converter

FIGS 2.2.1 BLOCK DIAGRAM

It consists of an input amplifier, a charge pump frequency to voltage converter; and op

ΔQ -------- = i c (avg) = C1× Vcc

Choosing R1, C1 and C2

R1 should be selected according to the following relationship:

Fig 2.2.2 BASIC F TO V CONVERTER

Temperature:The temperature of a substance is a measure of the hotness, or coldness,

3.2 Non Electrical Type Tempertaure Sensor Bi-Metallic Strip

A bi-metallic strip is used to convert a temperature change into mechanical displacement.

Fig.3.2.1 BI METALLIC STRIP

Fig 3.2.1 Thermometer with Spiral Bimetallic Element

3.3 Electrical Type Temperature Sensors :Thermistor, Rtd, Principle, Types,

An RTD (Resistance Temperature Detector) is a temperature sensitive resistor. It’s having

Fig 3.3.1 RTD

This change in temperature causes the

Comparison Chart of Various RTD's

Temperature – Wide Wide Medium Short

Interchangeability Excellent Excellent Fair Fair

Point (end) sensitive Fair Good Poor Poor

Lead effect Medium Low Low Low

Signal Conditioning Circuit

▪ RTDs in industrial applications are rarely used above 660 °C.

It is an electrical temperature instrument. A thermistor is a non metallic resistor

At balance condition, when there is no change

Fig 3.3.2 CHARACTERISTICS OF NTC&PTC

The various types of thermistors are:

Fig. 3.3.3 THERMISTOR TYPES

3.4 Thermocouple, Principle, Types, Selection, Standard Table Of

The working principle of a thermocouple depends on the thermo-electric effect. if two

Iron (+ve) terminal Constantan (-ve) terminal

Fig 3.4.2 J TYPE THERMOCOUPLE