M10 Laying Masonry

STRUCTURAL CONSTRUCTION
WORKS
LEVEL – I
Based on March 2022, Curriculum Version 1
Module Title: - Laying Masonry Unit

Module code: EIS SCW1 10 0322
Nominal duration: 120Hour
August, 2022
Prepared by: Ministry of Labor and Skill Addis Ababa, Ethiopia
Page 1 of 187 Ministry of Labor and Laying masonry unit Version -1

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Table of Content
Acknowledgment................................................................................................................................. 6
Introduction to the Module .................................................................................................................. 8
Unit one: plan and prepare work ........................................................................................................... 10
1.1. Quality assurance requirements .............................................................................................. 11
1.2. OHS requirements .................................................................................................................. 14
1.3. Job requirements .................................................................................................................... 16
1.4. Personal protective equipment ................................................................................................ 19
1.5. Safety protective requirements ............................................................................................... 21
1.6. Tools and equipment .............................................................................................................. 28
1.6.1 Tools ..................................................................................................................................... 28
1.6.2 Equipment/Machinery ........................................................................................................... 35
1.7. Drawings, specification and schedules .................................................................................... 37
1.7.1 Drawing ................................................................................................................................ 37
1.7.2 Specifications ........................................................................................................................ 39
1.7.3 Scheduling ............................................................................................................................ 40
1.8. Select materials ...................................................................................................................... 42
Self-check-1 ...................................................................................................................................... 48
Unit Two: Bed stone into mortar........................................................................................................... 50
2.1 Select prepare stone................................................................................................................ 51
2.2 Types of mortar ...................................................................................................................... 56

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2.3 Mechanical ties, fixtures reinforcing ....................................................................................... 60
2.4 Laying stone .......................................................................................................................... 60
2.5 Packers, wedges, mortar consistency, propping, shoring and forming structures ...................... 70
2.6 Use backing materials ............................................................................................................ 72
2.7 Maintain cavities .................................................................................................................... 72
Self-check-2 ...................................................................................................................................... 74
Operation sheet 2.1: ........................................................................................................................... 75
Operation sheet 2.2: ........................................................................................................................... 76
Lap test-1 .......................................................................................................................................... 76
Unit three: set out brick and block work ................................................................................................ 77
3.1 Erect work platform ............................................................................................................... 78
3.2 Locations of structural details ................................................................................................. 79
3.3 Locate and footing set out area checked .................................................................................. 79
3.4 Setting out brick and block works ........................................................................................... 84
Self-check-3 ...................................................................................................................................... 89
Operation sheet 3.1 ............................................................................................................................ 90
Operation sheet 3.2 ............................................................................................................................ 91
Lap test-2 .......................................................................................................................................... 91
Unit four: construct brick and block walls ............................................................................................. 92
4.1 Laying styles brick and block wall.......................................................................................... 93
4.2 Construct brick and block wall ............................................................................................... 99
4.3 Leveling wall ....................................................................................................................... 105
4.4 Building damp proof courses ................................................................................................ 106
4.5 Construct opening and install lintels ..................................................................................... 111

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4.6 Installing tie down and lateral support system for ceiling /roof structures .............................. 116
Self-check-4 .................................................................................................................................... 123
Operation sheet 4 ............................................................................................................................. 125
Lap test-3 ........................................................................................................................................ 125
Unit five: perform dry bed stone and grout.......................................................................................... 126
5.1 Prepare appropriate stone ..................................................................................................... 127
5.1 Prepare joint ......................................................................................................................... 131
Self-check-5 .................................................................................................................................... 134
Operation sheet 5 ............................................................................................................................. 135
Lap test-4 ........................................................................................................................................ 135
Unit six: perform dry stone construction ............................................................................................. 136
6.1. Select prepared stone............................................................................................................ 137
6.2. Laying stone ........................................................................................................................ 138
6.3. Laying capping stone ........................................................................................................... 140
6.4. Laying wall .......................................................................................................................... 142
Self-check-6 .................................................................................................................................... 144
Operation sheet 6 ............................................................................................................................. 145
Lap test-5 ........................................................................................................................................ 145
Unit seven: Fix slab stone using metal ties and adhesives ................................................................... 146
7.1 Fix prepare stone slab to metal or masonry ........................................................................... 147
7.1.1 Adhesives ........................................................................................................................... 147
7.1.2. Cement mortar ................................................................................................................... 148
7.1.3 Plaster ................................................................................................................................. 149

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7.2 Using metal ties or dowels.................................................................................................... 150
7.3 Fill dowel cavity (grout) ....................................................................................................... 152
Self-check-7 .................................................................................................................................... 155
Unit eight: Finish stone, brick & block surfaces and joints ................................................................ 157
8.1 Removing excess mortar ...................................................................................................... 158
8.2 Rake joints of laid masonry work ......................................................................................... 163
Types of pointing............................................................................................................................. 166
8.3 Brush masonry work .................................................................................................................. 168
Self-check-8 .................................................................................................................................... 170
Operation sheet 7 ............................................................................................................................. 171
Lap test-6 ........................................................................................................................................ 171
Unit nine: Clean up ........................................................................................................................... 172
9.1 Clean, maintain and storing tools and equipment .................................................................. 173
9.2 Dispose and reuse waste materials ........................................................................................ 175
9.3 Maintaining tools, plants and equipment ............................................................................... 177
Self-check-9 .................................................................................................................................... 183

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Acknowledgment
Ministry of Labor and Skills wish to extend thanks and appreciation to the many
representatives of TVET instructors and respective industry experts who donated their time and
expertise to the development of this Teaching, Training and Learning Materials (TTLM).

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Acronym
HCB – Hollow concert block
GIS – Galvanized iron sheet
T—Double shutter
S—Single shutter
W—Window
D—Door
CB—Concert Block
FF—Floor Finishing

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Introduction to the Module
In the structural construction work field: the purpose of this learning module is to provide
information about masonry materials, tools, techniques, and safety pre-caution; explains how to
mix mortar and lay masonry unit and describes the skills, attitudes and abilities of successful
masons.
This module is designed to meet the industry requirement under the structural construction work
occupational standard, particularly for the unit of competency: laying masonry unit
This module covers the units:
 Plan and prepare work
 Bed stone into mortar
 Set out brick and block work
 Brick and block work walls
 Dry bed stone and grout
 Dry stone construction
 Slab stone using metal ties and adhesives
 Stone, brick & block surfaces and joints
 Clean up work area
Learning Objective of the Module
 Perform work plan
 Apply Bed stone into mortar
 Apply Set out brick and block work
 Construct brick and block work walls
 Perform dry bed stone and grout
 Perform dry stone construction
 Fix slab stone using metal ties and adhesives
 Finish stone, brick & block surfaces and joints

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 Clean up work area
Module Instruction
For effective use this modules trainees are expected to follow the following module instruction:
1. Read the information written in each unit
2. Accomplish the Self-checks at the end of each unit
3. Perform Operation Sheets which were provided at the end of units
4. Do the ―LAP test‖ giver at the end of each unit and
5. Read the identified reference book for Examples and exercise

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Unit one: plan and prepare work
This unit is developed to provide you the necessary information regarding the following content
coverage and topics:
 Quality assurance requirements
 OHS requirements
 Job requirements
 Personal protective equipment
 Safety protective requirements
 Tools and equipment
 Drawings, specification and schedules
 Select materials for lay masonry unit
This unit will also assist you to attain the learning outcomes stated in the coverage. Specifically,
upon completion of this learning guide, you will be able to:
 Recognize and adhere quality assurance requirements
 Recognize and adhere OHS requirements
 Identify job requirements
 Select personal protective equipment
 Determine and using safety protective requirements
 Select tools and equipment
 Adhere drawings, specification and schedules
 Select materials for lay masonry unit

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1.1. Quality assurance requirements
Quality assurance throughout the process of construction of any building is important for the
sustainability of the building. Houses in disaster-prone areas in particular should be able to
withstand the rig ours of natural disasters such as heavy rains, high speed winds, floods and
earthquakes. This section sets out the guidelines to be followed closely to ensure the quality
of houses constructed in disaster-prone areas and has been developed for use by;
 Implementers of housing construction projects, house owners, site supervisors,

masons, & carpenters
 Technical Officers and Engineers.
The following information provides general guidelines for quality standards when building one-
story or two story houses constructed on stable soil – not multi-storied buildings that are greater
than two story. Soil conditions will vary at sites where buildings will be constructed, therefore
this document is limited to providing basic information on quality standards for foundations that
are suited to relatively stable soil. Bearing capacities of other soils (e.g. sand, soft silt, clay and
recently filled
Quality standards for foundations in other soil types – listed above – are not included in this
document. This document is intended to assist building masons, workers in concrete
construction and carpenters in maintaining reliable standards in carrying out their respective
work on a construction site.
Standards related to site organization and building services such as plumbing, sanitation and
electrical work are not included in this document. Technical officers and civil engineers too
would be assisted by the checklists in this document as these would facilitate their work in
ensuring that

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Quality is maintained throughout the construction process.
The information in this document, though essentially technical, has been prepared to serve as a
guide to implementers of housing projects as well as eventual owners of the houses who would
be concerned about the quality of the buildings that are to be occupied.
The guidelines focus on the:
 Quality assurance in the choice of basic materials.

 Quality assurance in the use of materials and construction methods.
Quality assurance vs. quality control
Quality assurance and quality control are two very closely related concepts and because of that
close relationship they are often confused and one is inappropriately used as a substitute for the
other.
Quality assurance is a process focused concept, where the processes are put in place to ensure
the correct steps are done in the correct way. if the correct processes are in place there is some
assurance that the actual results will turn out as expected.
Quality control is a product focused concept, where checking of the actual results are done to
ensure that things are as expected. if the correct controls are in place you can know for certain
that the actual results have been achieved because the actual results have been checked.
Quality assurance processes are put in place to provide some comfort that the end product is
what you want. Quality control is making sure the end product really is what you want. That can
still be a bit confusing so this article will walk through some examples to clarify the difference
between quality assurances vs. quality control.
Masonry is one of the most widely used as construction materials in the world widely. A
thorough knowledge of concrete and its properties in both the plastics and hardened stage is
necessary for the successful completion of quality product. It is simple to make concrete of good

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quality resulting in excellent service, as it is to make poor concrete, which may produce dis-
appointing service. There are too many concrete monuments today due to carelessness or
disregards for a few simple rules governing the making of a quality product.
These rules generally terms are
1. Using proper ingredients
2. Correctly proportioning the ingredients
3. Accurately measuring the ingredients
4. Mixing the ingredients thoroughly
5. Following proper finishing and curing methods
With a few minor exceptions, most concrete produced to day is essentially the same product
that has been produced for years. let us see the proper precaution and working procedures
sequentially.

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1.2. OHS requirements
Safety is the pattern of anything to avoid any injury/ dangerous substances.
The safety and health aspects of workers are largely governed by health and safety rule and
regulations in complains with the requirements for accommodation of site, which is not only
intended for the wellbeing of the public but also to protect the workers involved on the
construction site.
Special problems that arise at construction site are due to following reasons:
 Short time duration of work sites to laborers

 Seasonal employments
 Extensive &exhaustive use of migrant lab our
 Extensive sub-contracting practice
 Effect of whether
 Over-time working
 Competitive tendering
Due to this reason, workers change at every stage, safety measures are not adopted, further, no
training is given to the workers, and hence accidents take place.
The following minimum practical requirements are, however, drawn to the contractors‘
attention:
- The issue of protective closing, boots, gloves overall etc… to the workers is essential.
- A properly equipped first aid kid must be available at all times.
 Safety considerations
 People-prevention of accidents (to save, lives& limbs)

 Planet- prevention of damages to the environment
 Properties- prevention of failures, damages
 Electrical hazards

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Because building sites are often wet place, electric shocks are possible. Therefore, it is
important to inspect and check the condition of wiring at regular intervals.
 First aid
First aid is an immediate care given to a person who has been injured or suddenly ill. It includes
self-care& home care if medical assistance is not available or delayed.
AID stands for: A=ask for help

I= intervene
D=do not harm further
A building site should have a first aid box which as minimum contents: -
 Plasters;
 Bandages;
 Ointments;
 Disinfectant.
Someone on site should be in charge of the box and know how to with broken bones, burns and
electric shocks
Fig.1.2.1 simple first aid box

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1.3. Job requirements
In order to provide the mason with a setup which allow him to carry out the process required
efficiently, effectively and economically, the site should organize in proper manner.
A proper building Site has to be organized according to the following measures.

- Safety precautions have to be followed
- Economic aspects has to be taken into account
- Environmental protection has to be considered
- Should ensure that adequate support personnel are available
 Mortar mix crew
 Mason tenders (helpers)
- Should be checked adequate tools, equipment and other auxiliary tools are on site.
Fig. 1.3.1 Well-organized building area

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The following measures should to be taken to organize a building site.
- The site should be accommodated rest rooms, toilets, changing rooms, office, etc, and
working staffs.
- Lockable store room for material, machines and equipment
- Protected working places and sheds during rain season to secure preparation and work
process.
- Should provide sufficient space for storage and facilities for certain materials like sand,
stones etc.
- There should be suitable access roads and circulation space for transportation of materials
and supply.
- The site should accommodate and facilitated with water, electric power supply and
temporary storage for disposal.
Sufficient working area and circulation access is very essential in any type of construction, i.e.,
to dispose materials tools etc. Therefore, working area or space for a mason should have enough
space to accommodate materials, tools, and suitable stands for the working people including
sufficient circulation space and accesses for the whole process. And this helps to carryout the
work with out delay, and to the desired quality. In general well-organized working area avoids
accident, saves time and money.
As described above, in order to provide the mason with a set up which allow him to carry out the
process required efficiently, effectively and economically, the site should be organized in proper
manner. Under this organization of site, a working space arrangement or layout is important to
carry out the work smoothly.
It is essential to arrange the layout of masons working area properly, i.e.
 Should be free of obstructions, which impede the masons and their helper.
 Supplies of mortar mixing materials (sand, cement and lime) and masonry units (brick,
blocks, stones etc.) should be placed near the mix site.

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 The Supply of masonry units when delivered to the job site should not be placed too close
to the mortar mixing area as splashes of mortar during mixing can discolor the unit
blocks.
 The mortarboard or pan whichever used must be placed approximately 60-70cm from the
wall. This provides a clear passage or access along the wall.
 Do not place stone blocks too close to the mortarboard in order to keep them clean.
 In general, the materials should be paced in a way that the mason may work with the
fewest possible movements of the feet, hands or body in getting the materials to the wall.
 Use scaffolding for height 1.25 m.
Fig 1.3.2 The figure illustrates requirement of the layout in general.
Full equipped and organized working place eases the

work process!!

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1.4. Personal protective equipment
Joint responsibilities for safety and health at the workplace
All parties at the workplace have responsibilities for safety and health at the
Workplace. Apart from the employer‘s responsibilities outlined below, employees have
responsibilities to take reasonable care to ensure their own safety and health and that of
others affected by their work.
Hard hat:-Protects head of the worker from any falling objects dropping from high level
during construction.
Fig 1.4.1 hard hat

Overall:-
Protects the normal clothes from dust, grease and other spilling materials.
Fig 1.4.2 overall

Safety shoe (boot):-Protects the worker form nail, sharp objects and heavy falling objects by
hard-rolled leather shoes with metal toe caps.
Non-slip oil resistant shoe

Fig 1.4.3 safety shoe

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Rubber boot:- Protects the workers feet from colds, chemical, and mud in the working area.
Fig 1.4.4 Rubber boot

Mask: - Protects facade of the worker from other endangering object and dust during
construction.
Fig 1.4.5 mask

Goggle:- Protects eyes of the workers during welding of metal works and when placing
reinforcement in the form work.
Fig 1.4.6 goggle
Glove:-Protects the workers from oils, chemicals, and dust and other dangerous material that
affect the skin.
Fig 1.4.7 glove

Safety Belt:- Secures laborers working in a plane where the construction is done at high level.
Fig 1.4.8 safety belt

Note:- Keep the working clothes in safe place so that you can change it easily. A locker
should be used so that you can store your personal material safely while you are performing your
works. The first task before you start any construction activity is follow safety rules and always
dress in safety clothes as shown bellow Figure
Picture: 1 Personal Safety

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Goggles Helment
Gloves
Over all Clothes Shoes

Fig 1.4.9 personal protective equipment
1.5. Safety protective requirements

Site is a permanent working place for masons, concrete workers and others. Masons and
concrete workers are working for longer times in construction sites. Due to the nature of their
trade while finishing workers like plasterer tile painter and other finishing workers are on site
during finishing work stages of the construction process so that they are short time workers.
Working place or area is whole building/construction/ site including equipment, machines,
storerooms, etc. Within the general working place there is a personal working area /space/, where
someone is building up a wall or other related activities. Working space is essentially required
for all construction workers, to accommodate materials and equipment for the process; therefore,
it is a crucial and necessary to keep them all in proper manner.

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A neat and tidy site safes time, eases the work and avoids accidents. If things like tools, battens,
boards, stones, cables, steel bars etc. are not used or kept improperly they are obstacles for the
construction process and can be the cause for accident.
Care and proper order supports the construction process, and avoid accidents!
What does an accident mean?
Personally:
Worries for the family
Consequences of the
Accident may: -
- Permanent pain
- For short times OR
OR - Handicap
- Permanently
injured
- Loss of salary so that

financial deficiency for
In worst case
medical treatment &
other expenses
Dead /unemployment/
Fig.1.5.1 consequences of the accident

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For the company and society:
Consequences of the
Accident may: -
- Reduction of public - Affects activities

health and public and progress of the
wealth construction
- Damage of goods Loss of working time

& company’s and money
properties
Fig. 1.5.2 Affect of accident for company and society

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Ware
Helmet
Ware Ear
Protection
Ware safety
Boots
Fig. 1.5.3 Basic safety signs for personal protection

Behavior and rules to avoid accidents
- Keep Tools, Materials, Equipment‘s, etc., in proper way at working area and keep them
all neat/tidy/.
- Ware tight clothes during work
- Ware safety boots
- Ware Helmet
- Do not stop under lifted loads
- Use only proper and safe tools
- Report safety deficiencies immediately
- Obey safety signs and signals
- Do not drink alcohol at work

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Fig. 1.5.4 stop under lifted load
IN ADDITION: -
- Never stop under lifted loads
- Use all safety measures
- Do not drink Alcohol
- Do not walk on top tie beams without safety protections or guard rails

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Safety measures to be taken whenever using Scaffolds and ladders
Scaffolds and ladders are very

The top barrier -
essential structures in construction handle protects
and they are commonly used as an People from
access and working places when the falling down from
the scaffold
height of work extends beyond the
While workers are
hand range of the working people. performing
different tasks on
But, Scaffolds and ladders may cause the scaffolds, in
different position,
an accident if they are misused or
the intermediate
erected improperly; so that they must barrier protects
People from
have tight stand, be anchored against falling down
shifting or sliding. In addition through the
middle, as shown
sufficient protecting rails or guards in the figure
should provide and braced properly.
Fig 1.5.5 using scaffolding and ladders

Scaffolds must bear the load of materials, tools and working people safety. In order to protect the
people against falling down a triple side protection is necessary. (See Fig. 1.5.5 above).
If the height of work exceeds 2m, a three-part side protection and anchoring is necessary. The
proper side protection consists of barrier handle, intermediate barrier and footboard. The
footboard should sufficiently protect materials and tools from falling down.

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 Working with Ladders
Ladder is very important measures in construction to serves as an access & to reach higher or
lower work points. But it is also a cause of accident for a very frequent reason when it is
misused, that is, can slip away if it is improperly placed; therefore it is necessary to find a stable
and secure stand for the ladder. Ladder should be placed at an angle of approx. 70 ˚. In case of
stepping over, lower point to the higher part of a building, part of the ladder has to be exceeding
the top point at least 1m.
Fig.1.5.6 working with ladder

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1.6. Tools and equipment
 Tools
There are several type tools used by a Mason. Hand tools, in general, ease the work and
accelerates the process, improves quality of work significantly and they are very important for
everybody who wants to do decent work so that keep tools in perfect order. In addition tools and
equipment also represents highly valued assets. For this reasons it is crucial necessary to handle
tools and equipment with extra care. That means cleaning after use, storing neatly, slightly
greasing if necessary and regular maintenance.
Measuring and Levelling Hand Tools
Measuring Hand tools and instruments are precise devices but needed to be handled with extra
care, e.g. Spirit level should be checked every day before use!
Spirit level:-
It is used to control the horizontal and vertical alignment of wall surface and edges. The length is
at least 80 to 120cm long. It is made of metal, synthetic material or wood. It has two measuring
bubbles: one is located at mid length is used to check horizontal positions. While the second one,
at the end, is used to check vertical position. This tool requires always to be handled with care
and needs to be checked from time to time weather it is still working accurate or not.
Fig 1.6.1. Sprit level

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Plumb bob
A plum bob is made of metal. When suspended from a vertically attached string, it is employed
to check the vertical alignment of corners and surface of walls. A freely hanging plumb bob
gives exactly the vertical alignment, because any
undisturbed freely hanging mass points to the centre of
the earth.
Fig. 1.6.2 plumb bob

Alignment string /masons’ line/
Alignment string /mason line/, sometimes called, Fish line, is a rope used to transfer horizontal &
vertical alignments or lines, i.e., use to mark base line on the floor or vertical point alignments of
wall. In other words, it is used to align the walling blocks, (stone, bricks, concrete blocks, hydra
form etc). It is available in different thickness & sizes in the market.
Fig 1.6.3. Mason alignment line

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Graphite Pencil
This is used for marking in wall construction. It is specially produced for this purpose in such a
way that it will not wear out fast.
Fig 1.6.3 graphite pencil
Hose level
It is a transparent PVC hose. It is used to transfer or mark vertical levels on surface of wall when
it is filled with water, but without any air bubbles. The water level in each end of the hose is
equal. It is an instrument to mark equal levels on site. It is very accurate but not eases to handle.
Fig 1.6.4 hose level

Straight edge/Level/
This is a perfectly straight metal/aluminium/ with all long and short edges parallel to its
centreline. It is employed to check straight alignments of walls. Its length ranges from 2m up to
4m. Together with the sprit level, it can be used to bridge over the point to be checked. A straight
edge/Level/ can also be made from a wooden plank with perfectly parallel edges.
Fig 1.6.5 straight edge
Angle / Try square

It is used to measure a right angle (90º) of a corner. Used in laying masonry units or blocks at
corners of masonry wall.
Fig 1.6.6 try square
Measuring tape

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Tape is used to measure dimensions of building parts and distances in site. It is manufactured
from steel, plastic or fibre in lengths of 1m, 2m, 3m, 5m, 30m, etc. and 50m. In using tapes for
measurements, the two points should be aligned perfectly. In addition, when long horizontal
measurements are needed, care should be taken to avoid sag on the tape meters.
Fig 1.6.7 measuring tap
Folding meter/rule-2/
For measuring length in wall construction, it is convenient to use rigid scales. Such a measuring
scale/ folding rule/ is made of 20cm separate wooden pieces joined together by pins. The scale
has subdivisions in cm and mm.
Fig 1.6.8 folding meter

Measuring box. A traditional box used to measure a proportion of gravel and sand with the
Dimension of 12‖ wide; 12‖ in long; 12‖ in deep width net volume of 1 cu. Foot or 0.30 m x 0.30
m x 0.30m. Take note that these dimensions are inside the box.
Fig 1.6.9 measuring box

Mortar barrel/ drum

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This is used by mason, plasterer, tiller, etc, and serves to prepare small amount of mortar right at
the working place. It is also used as temporary mortar storage, supplied from mixing station, and
to control water ratio of the mix when it gets dry. Always, keep it workable and clean.
Fig 1.6.10 mortar barrel

Mason tools
Block laying trowel
This is a tool, which every mason needs. Used for picking up mortar out of the barrel, spreading
mortar on the wall, bed joints and cutting off excess mortar. In addition to the picture shown, a
Triangular and rectangular trowel are also used by the mason.
Different Kinds of Trowel

1. Ordinary Trowel
2. Pointing Trowel
3. Brick Trowel
4. Buttering Trowel
5. Edger
6. Margin Trowel

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Fig 1.6.11 Different Kinds of Trowel
Walling Hammer/Mason hammer/
Walling Hammers are used especially to knock of parts of walling unit blocks, /brick, concrete
blocks etc/. The hammer weighs about half a kilogram and is made of steel. It has a wooden
handle, which should always fit, firmly to the hole in the head. The flat part of the hammer at one
of its end is called cutting edge/use to cut bricks or concrete blocks/ and the square head of the
hammer on the other end is called striking face which is used to strike laid stones. The hammer
must be formed in a kind that the cutting edge and central line of the hammerhead lay in a
circular arc.
Fig 1.6.12 walling hammer

Club hammer and bolster
Is used to strike marrow – headed chisels and brick set or for driving stakes into the ground.
Cutting bricks with bolster and hammer
Fig 1.6.13 club hammer

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Chisel
Used to cut concrete blocks, bricks, plaster surface and to remove mortar projections etc. Cold
chisels are available in different sizes and shapes. The operation is done together with a club
hammer. There are two types of chisel
1. Flat chisel 2. Pointed chisel
Fig 1.6.14 The use of chiseling

Mortar barrel/ drum
This is used by mason, plasterer, tiller, etc, and serves to prepare small amount of mortar right at
the working place. It is also used as temporary mortar storage, supplied from mixing station, and
to control water ratio of the mix when it gets dry. Always, keep it workable and clean.
Fig 1.6.15 mortar barrel

Mortar spade
Mortar spade is used to stir the mortar paste, prepared in the barrel or drum and keeps the mix to
right and uniform consistency.
Fig 1.6.16 mortar spade

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Bucket
A Bucket is used to serve small amount of water or material and to take the tools after work.
Fig 1.6.17 bucket

Brush
Is used for wetting the building stones, cleaning fresh mortar joints of masonry wall, to clean
hand tools before and after use and to clean dust on surfaces.
Fig 1.6.18 brush
 Equipment/Machinery
Concrete/ Mortar Mixer
Concrete mixers are available in from of different capacities. Small mixers can produce 50Lit of
mortar or concrete and the big ones produces more and more, up to 6000Lit. widely used, small
mixers up to a capacity of 1000Lit. Mixers are driven with diesel, benzene engine or electrical
power.
They can be distinguished into

Free-fall or gravity mixer consists from a rotating drum with metal blades inside

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Compulsory mixer, here is the drum fixed and the Blades alone are rotating
Advantages of Mixers:
In case where a large quantity of mortar or concrete is to be produced, hand mix becomes
costly even if the labour is cheap. Hence machine mixing becomes essential and the mix
(mortar or Concrete) can be thus being produced at faster rate, at a lesser cost and of
better quality.
Fig 1.6.19 mixer

Wheelbarrow
Wheelbarrow is used to dispose disposal materials from working place, to transport or serve
materials and tools during construction activities in the site. It is the most efficient way in
transporting materials or items. ; In comparison to a barilla, (commonly used in the country), a
wheelbarrow is much more efficient.
For this reason, it is operated by one person and can be carried up to 100 kg at once. So that it
saves operation cost; it is time effective and therefore in general.
Fig 1.6.20 wheelbarrow

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a) Bulldozer, b) Mechanical shovel
fig 1.6.21 bulldozer and mechanical shovel
1.7. Drawings, specification and schedules

1.7.1 Drawing
What is plan means? Plan is a proposal for doing or achieving something or draws a plan of
proposal building.
Drawing is a universal language which is important to world tread.
Drawing is a pictures made with a pencil or pen. drawing from which a design is constructed often
called detail drawings because it describes and gives the dimensions of the details building parts being
presented.
Detail drawings; The detail drawings delineated the actual connection between the various
building elements in bigger scale. So that the system of construction including materials would
be easy to understand by every one involved in the design and construction team.
 Details are enlarged drawings that provide essential specific information.

 A detail is often an enlarged segment of another section.
Purpose; Used to describe and define area that requires additional emphasis.
Provided for area that is too small on plan to describe fully and dimension accurately like parts
toilet rooms, kitchen stair, chimney etc…
A good detailed drawing;
 Easy to supervision
 Reduced the participation of the designer in the construction phase.

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Easy to understand assembly of parts by this the whole construction clear and reduce the
construction phase. Most of the time the contractors questions the delay of construction time
is because of poorly detailed drawings.
Before draw detail drawing a number of factors can be adjusted
 The number of details to be shows
 The scale of the details
 What details to show
Function provided by building (working) drawing during the realization of the project
1. Communicate technical information though out the building team
2. To show how to design is to materialize
3. Convey information‘s for people concerned in erecting the building
4. Give information‘s to specification writer
5. for instructing the contractors and other members of building team
6. Means of obtaining official approval.
7. Helps in the analysis of cost factor.
8. Establish use of materials.
9. Provides detail for tendering.
10. Indicate contractual committeemen
11. Indicate degree of supervision.
12. Demonstrate construction details.
13. Assist in the measurement of progress.
14. Forms parts of documentation in site meetings.

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15. Establish type and amount of labor requirement.
16. Basic for ordering materials and components.
1.7.2 Specifications
Specifications are devices for organizing the information depicted on the drawings and they are
written descriptions of the legal and technical requirements forming the masonry work
Specification is defined as the designation or statement by which written instructions are given
distinguishing and/or limiting and describing the particular trade of work to be executed.
a specification contains a detailed written description of the quality of materials and

workmanship necessary to complete the mortar work.
Specifications and plan generally describe the following:

 Assess type of masonry and curing time in predicted weather conditions for each pour
and schedule tasks to meet project requirements.
 Review work health and safety (whs) and environmental requirements, and apply to
planning.
 Develop or adapt safe work method statements (swmss) for individual tasks in
accordance with workplace procedures and safety requirements.
 Assess potential hazards and contingencies and develop risk controls.
 Identify, document and source plant, tools and equipment required for each project stage
in line with task schedule to ensure availability on site.
 Identify, document and source plant, tools and equipment required for each project stage
in line with task schedule to ensure availability on site.
 The purpose of specifications generally includes
A. Provide guidance for the execution of the work
B. Guide workers for the concrete materials
C. Guide the work to identify his capacity to execute the work

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D. Guide the function and use hiring of equipment‘s.
Generally specification mortar materials follow:
 All mortar is if possible mixed in an approved mechanical batch mixer. If not possible it
could be mixed by hand until its color and consistency are uniform
 Lime for mortar in freshly burnt limestone. Lime shall be delivered to the site in large
lumps, slaked, run to putty and mature for not less than two weeks before use.
 If hydraulic lime is used, it is stored in the same manner as described for cement.
 Cement used in mortar is Portland cement and have quality as described for concrete
works.
 Sand for mortar is of quality as described for concrete works.
 Water is of quality described for concrete works.
 Cement mortar consists of cement and sand as specified. If not given in the specification,
check that cement mortar consists of one part cement to three parts of sand (1:3)
measured by volume.
 Compo mortar consists of cement, lime and sand as specified. If not specified, check that
the compo mortar is composed of one part cements two parts of lime and nine parts of
sand (1:2:9) measured by volume.
 Cement mortar is used within 30 minutes of the duration of cement.
1.7.3 Scheduling
The scheduling of a construction project is often confused with Planning, which is an entirely
different and separate function. Although the planning function may never be accomplished
in a total manner, it can be accomplished in a broad and practical sense. Planning must be
done before the project can be intelligently scheduled.
Scheduling is a mechanical process for formalizing the planning function, assigning time
boundaries for each part of the work in such a manner that the work proceeds in logical
sequence and in an orderly and systematic manner.
Thus, a construction project scheduling is a projected time table of construction operations
that will serve as the principal guide line for project evaluation.

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Preparation of schedules:
Preparation of schedules involves the following three steps:
1. Determination of activities or job steps. Breaking the works into smaller units or
activities.
2. Determining of the activity durations.
3. Determining the sequential relationships among the activities or preparing the Job
Logic.
4. Establishment of a plan network i.e. developing a bar chart or network

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1.8. Select materials for lay masonry unit
Building materials have an important role to play in this modern age of technology. Although
their most important use is in construction activities, no field of engineering is conceivable
without their use. Also, the building materials industry is an important contributor in our national
economy as its output governs both the rate and the quality of construction work.
There are certain general factors which affect the choice of materials for a particular scheme.
Perhaps the most important of these is the climatic background. Obviously, different materials
and forms of construction have developed in different parts of the world as a result of climatic
differences. Another factor is the economic aspect of the choice of materials. The rapid advance
of constructional methods, the increasing introduction of mechanical tools and plants, and
changes in the organization of the building industry may appreciably influence the choice of
materials.
Due to the great diversity in the usage of buildings and installations and the various processes
of production, a great variety of requirements are placed upon building materials calling for a
very wide range of their properties: strength at low and high temperatures, resistance to ordinary
water and sea water, acids and alkalis etc. Also, materials for interior decoration of residential
and public buildings, gardens and parks, etc. should be, by their very purpose, pleasant to the
eye, durable and strong. Specific properties of building materials serve as a basis for subdividing
them into separate groups. For example, mineral binding materials are subdivided into air and
hydraulic-setting varieties. The principal properties of building materials predetermine their
applications. Only a comprehensive knowledge of the properties of materials allows a rational
choice of materials for specific service conditions.
Which materials we use?

 Cement
 Sand (fine aggregates: fine and thick sand)
 Crushed Stone (thick aggregates)
 Sand & Gravel (natural mix of aggregates)
 Water
Cement
Coming in bags of 50 kg. It must be protected from humidity for not harden before its use.
Storage Space should be insulating from soil humidity through plastic sheets or wood stands.
Material with adhesive and cohesive properties. Material capable of uniting or bonding solid
particles together
Fig 1.8.1 Storage of cement

Sand (fine aggregates: fine and thick sand)
It will use on the mix with cement, stone and water. Its mission is to reduce voids between
stones. Sand shouldn‘t contain earth (soil), mica, salt, organic filthy, odor, iron compounds,
blackish appearance. Don‘t damp sand before use
Fig 1.8.2 sand

You can prove if sand is bad putting sand in a recipient with water. If too much soil or dust is
present, it will separate from the mix.
Crushed Stone (thick aggregates)

Stone should be crushed or angular (sharp).Should be hard and compact. Stones easily breakable
are not good.

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Fig 1.8.3 crushed stone
Hollow concrete Block (HBC):-are blocks manufactured from concrete and processed into
molds, to achieve the required physical strength and dimensions to requirements and standards.
Fig 1.8.4 Hollow concrete Block standard size

Water
Water shouldn‘t contain filthy elements, should be clean, drinkable and fresh.
Do not use dirty water
fig 1.8.5 water

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 Kinds of masonry unit
Fig 1.8.6 Brick fig 1.8.7 Reinforcement
Fig 1.8.8 Block (HCB) Fig 1.8.9 Wood

 Materials handling and storage
Proper way of storing material should be considered in schoolwork shops and training area and
this has to be adopted in the real work of construction sites. It is use full to keep materials in a
proper manner, to preserve materials long lasting, to secure chemical character of the material,
for easy access and handling etc. In general proper way of storing material saves time and
money. Accordingly methods of storing for some materials and hand tools are described and
illustrated below.
Storing materials and tools depend up on the type, size, and product character, etc.
Storing of Binding Material /Cement and Lime/

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In general cement and lime should be stored in a way that it does not come in contact with
moisture. As soon as it gets moisture, setting starts, which render it, unfit for future use. In order
to avoid this cement and lime should:
 Be stored in storage sheds with raised damp proof floors.
 Be stored about 60cms away from external walls.
 Be stacked up to reasonable height for ease of handling and for avoiding cooling (not
more than 10 bags be stocked over one another)
 Not be stored in rainy season and long periods of storing should be avoided.
 Be stored in silos or bins, if stored in bulk form.
 Be used on first in first out basis.
Fig 1.8.10 Storing of bricks, HCB and aggregates
- Bricks and stones should be piled near where they are needed
- They should be handle carefully to minimize breakage
- They should be piled on edges and a layer crossing over the previous
- The piles should be stable.
- Aggregates /Sand and gravels/ should be stored in bunkers to protect from surrounding
impurities.

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Fig 1.8.11 Improper way of storing bricks! Fig 1.8.12 Properly stored HCB
Fig 1.8.14 Storing sand and gravel in bunkers

Fig 1.8.13 Properly stored bricks

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Self-check-1
Part I: Choose the best answer
1. --------is a process focused concept, where the processes are put in place to ensure the
correct steps are done in the correct way
A. Quality assurance, C. Quality
B. Quality control D. Assurance

2. -------- is a product focused concept, where checking of the actual results are done to ensure
that things are as expected
A. Quality assurance, C. Quality
B. Quality control D. Assurance
3. Quality control is very important for one country
A. True B. False C. A & B are correct D. None

4. Which one the following hand tool used to transport masonry materials
A. sprit level B. hose level C. wheel barrow D. all
5. Which one of the following helps to measure distance or length?
A. String B. Peg C. Tape D. Sprite level
6. --------------tools are used for scooping up material and loading it on to a truck or
wheel barrow
A. Shovel B. Trowel C. Hand rammer D. Pick Axe
Part II: Say True or False

1.Working space is essentially required for all construction workers.
2.Ear protection protects the carrier from damages of the ears.
3. Before, during and after carrying out any work, the workplace must be clean.
4. Drawing is a universal language which is important to world tread

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5. Construction drawings are necessary in most spheres of the building industry
6. Specifications are written instructions which supplement the drawing to set forth the
complete technical requirements of the work
Part III: Matching
A B
---------1. Measuring box A. To check only vertical alignment
---------2. Try square B. Protect the head of the worker from any falling
object dropping from high level
---------3. Plumb bob C. Used to measure a right angle
---------4. Hard hat D. Protect the worker foot from nail, sharp objects
and heavy falling objects.
---------5. Safety shoe E. Used to check vertical and horizontal alignment
F. Used to measure a proportion of gravel and sand

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Unit Two: Bed stone into mortar
This unit to provide you the necessary information regarding the following content coverage
and topics:
 Select prepare stone
 Types of mortar
 Place Mechanical ties, fixtures and reinforcing
 Laying stone
 Packers, wedges, mortar consistency, propping, shoring and forming structures
 Use backing materials
 Maintain cavities
This guide will also assist you to attain the learning outcomes stated in the coverage.
Specifically, upon completion of this learning guide, you will be able to:
 Select prepare stone
 Prepare mortar
 Place mechanical ties, fixtures and reinforcing
 Lay stones to line and in a sequence
 Use packers, wedges, mortar consistency, propping, shoring and forming structures
 Use backing materials
 Maintain cavities

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2.1 Select prepare stone
Stone is naturally occurring material and usually obtained from quarries for construction
purpose. It is used to construct foundations, retaining walls, bridges, etc.
Good building stone should have the following qualities.

 Appearance
For face work it should have fine, compact texture; light-colored stone is preferred as dark colors
are likely to fade out in due course of time.
 Structure
A broken stone should not be dull in appearance and should have uniform texture free from
cavities, cracks, and patches of loose or soft material. Stratifications should not be visible to
naked eye.
 Strength
A stone should be strong and durable to withstand the disintegrating action of weather.
Compressive strength of building stones in practice range between 60 to 200 N/mm2.
 Weight
It is an indication of the porosity and density. For stability of structures such as dams. retaining
walls, etc. heavier stones are required, whereas for arches, vaults, domes, etc. light stones may be
the choice.
 Hardness
This property is important for floors, pavements, aprons of bridges, etc.
 Toughness
The measure of impact that a stone can withstand is defined as toughness. The stone used should
be tough when vibratory or moving loads are anticipated. Porosity depends on the mineral
constituents, cooling time and structural formation. A porous stone disintegrates as the absorbed
rain water freezes, expands, and causes cracking.

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 Fire-resistance
Stones should be free from calcium carbonate, oxides of iron, and minerals having different
coefficients of thermal expansion. Igneous rock show marked disintegration principally because of
quartz which disintegrates into small particles at a temperature of about 575°C. Limestone,
however, can withstand a little higher temperature; i.e. up to 800°C after which they disintegrate.
The common types of stones available are:

1. Granite: It consists of grains of quartz in combination with feldspar and mica. These are the hardest
types of stones and difficult to work with. They are available in various colors ranging from white
to green. These are used for the construction of steps, walls, sills and as facing over other
masonry.
2. Sandstone: They are made of quartz cemented by a matrix of silica. They also contain mica,
feldspar and oxides of iron. The colors of sandstones are due to the presence other minerals in
them. They can be worked easily to take any ornamental shape. Their texture being coarse, they
give a good appearance when used along with brick masonry. Colored sandstones are used in the
face work of building to give architectural treatment. They are used for walls, columns, facing,
steps, flooring, etc.
3. Limestone: These are calcareous rocks and consist of carbonate of lime. They are available in
various colors and easy to work with. They are used for walls, floors, steps, etc.
4. Marbles: They are like limestone, are calcareous rocks and consist and consist of carbonate of lime.
They are very useful material for flooring and monumental structures. Marble are available in various
colors and can very good polish.
5. Slates: These are available in hilly areas and are metamorphic rocks. Generally they have a black
color. Slates can be split in thin sheets along their bedding planes. They mostly used for roofing
work.
The properties of stones:

The proprieties of stones which are important for stone masonry are strength and durability.
Economy and appearance are additional requirements. The main considerations for durability are the
lasting qualities of the stone itself and the locality where it is to be used. Porous stones are unsuitable for
areas prone to heavy rainfall and frost. Stones, e.g. marbles having low porosity and low coefficients of
expansion and contraction should be used in areas subjected to large variations in rainfall and
temperatures.

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Generally lime and cement mortars are used for stone masonry. Their function is to provide a
workable matrix and ultimately a hard building material, which renders masonry into a monolithic unit.
Cutting and dressing of stones:
Stones found in nature, have to be quarried from their thick beds. After quarrying large pieces of stones, it
is essential to break them into smaller sizes so that they can be used in a building. They are also dressed
into suitable shapes and polished to give a smooth surface, if desired. Various types of finishes and the
methods of dressing and cutting the stones to get the desired surfaces are described below:
1. Scrabbling: Irregular edges of the stones are broken off and the stone is shaped somewhat.
2. Hammer dressed: Large raised portions of the stones are cut and the stone is made somewhat flat
but rough due to hammer marks.
Fig 2.1.1 hammer dressed

3. Boasted or droved finish: The stone is cut to a little level face and is finished by means of a boaster.
4. Tooled finish: In this case the chisel marks are continuous and parallel throughout the width of
stone.
5. Furrowed finish: In this case about 1 cm vertical or horizontal grooves are sunk with a chisel
having its end shaped as a hollow semi-circle.
6. Reticulated finish: In this type of work, irregular shaped sinking is made within the center portion
of the stone having a 2 cm wide margin on its sides.

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7. Vermiculated finish: The sinking is of the reticulated type except that they are more curved and
give a worm eaten type of appearance.
8. Combed or dragged finish: This type of finish is done on soft stones. A comb is driven over the
surface of this stone to remove all elevating portions.
9. Punched finish: Depressions are formed on the rough surface with a punch.
10. Picked finish: This type of finish is obtained by dressing stones with a point and the depressions
are smaller than the above type.
11. Chisel drafted margins: They give a better appearance and help in getting uniform joints.
Fig .2.1.2 chisel drafted margins

12. Molded finish: Moldings of various types can be worked on the stones to improve their
appearance.
Fig 2.1.3 molded finish

13. Rubbed finish: The surfaces of the stones are rubbed get a smoother surface finish.
14.Polished finish: Stones which can take polish, e.g., granites, marbles, lime-stones are first rubbed
to a smooth surface and then polished by using rubber and pad, sand and water, pumice, and putty
powder.
15. Sand Blasting: This is done to imprint letterings and designs on the surface of granites.

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Fig. 2.1.4 Finishes for stone work

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2.2 Types of mortar
Mortar: - Workable paste used to bind construction blocks together and fills the gaps between
stocks.
Generally 1:3 cement sand mortar is used for stone masonry work. In order to increase the
workability of mortar 15% of cement should be replaced by lime. In order to protect limestone's
mortar from getting them stained white Portland cement mortar should be used.
Mortar is the mixtures of lime, cement, sand and water for holding HCB, bricks or stones
together.
When a binding material, a fine aggregate/sand/ and water are mixed together in suitable
proportions, they form an easily workable paste, which is termed, as mortar. For preparing
mortars, cement and lime are generally used as binding materials; sand and sand as fine
aggregate. A mortar is essentially required for masonry work, plastering, pointing etc.
In this level, some important topics concerning Mortars have been discussed in order to provide
adequate knowledge to the students about the use of mortar in Building Construction. In general
the workable paste prepared by mixing a binding material, fine aggregate/Sand/and water in
suitable proportions is called mortar.
Cement and lime are generally used as binding materials, whereas sand is used as fine aggregates
for preparing different types of mortars.
Mortars are usually named according to the binding material used in their preparation. They are
essentially required for masonry work, plastering, pointing, etc.
Types of mortars and their uses to be discussed under this level

The mortars are classified into the following types.
No Mortar type ingredient

1 Cements mortars Cement, sand. water
2 Compo mortar or cement lime mortars cement, sand , lime
sometimes called as Gauged mortar
3 lime mortar lime & sand
4 mud-mortar soil & Straw

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Ratio of mortars: - 1:3 this is the common ratio of building construction.
1= cement
3=sand +water
Compo mortar or cement lime mortars Ratio
Cement+ lime sand +water
Lime + sand+ water

General formula for calculating material list of mortar
Cement Mortar
Assuming 25% Shrinkage and 5% wastage
Material required to produce
Item Types 1m3 mortar

1 CementofMortar
Work1:3 Cement = 460kgs
Sand = 0.99 m3
2 Cement Mortar 1:4 Cement = 308kgs
Sand = 1.05 m3
Sand = 1.10 m3
Sand = 1.13 m3
 Functions of mortar
The following are the functions of mortar:
I. into bind together the bricks or stones properly so as to provide strength to the structure.
II. To form a bonded mass of the structure so as to resist all the loads coming over it without
disintegration.
III. To provide a weather resisting i.e. a durable layer between the different courses of masonry
in the structure.
IV. To hold coarse aggregate together in any concrete so as to form a solid mass. The mortar
used in a concrete is termed as matrix.

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V. To do pointing and plastering to the structure. The mortar used for plastering is also known
as plaster.
VI. To fills up empty joints in brick masonry and stone masonry. The mortar used for such
purposes is a thin liquid mortar, which is termed as grout. The process of filling up the joint with
a grout is called grouting.
 How to Mixing mortar
Work method:
1. Place and spread six parts of sand on a clean platform or hard surface.
2. Add one part of cement on top of the sand.
3. Thoroughly mix the sand and cement until a uniform grey mixture is achieved. The
general rule is that sand and cement is mixed dry together at least three times before adding
water. It is important to achieve a consistently uniform mix.
Fig 2.2.1 dry mix

4. Rake the mix together and dig a well in the center of the heap and carefully add
water. Add the water in portions to avoid ending up with a too wet mix.
5. Carefully shovel the dry mix into the water in the middle of the heap and continue
mixing until the mortar has a uniform mass with the preferred consistency.

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Fig 2.2.2 hand mix
Caution:
 Always use fresh and lump free cement.
 First mix the dry ingredients (sand and cement) before adding water.
 Protect the mortar-mixing place from wind, rain and sunshine.
 Since the mortar sets relatively quickly, it should never be mixed in larger quantities
than what can be used during the next hour. Do not use mortar that has already
hardened
Quality checkpoints:
 Check that the cement has not expired and does not contain any lumps.
 Check that the sand is clean and with correct grain size.
 Ensure that the water is clean - no salt water.
 Check that batching is done correctly, to an appropriate amount and with the desired
mix ratio.
 Continuously check consistency when mixing and avoiding a too wet or too dry mix.
 Ensure that the mortar used is fresh.

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2.3 Place Mechanical ties, fixtures reinforcing
Location
If required, locate as follows:
- In first 2 bed joints above and below head and sill flashings to openings.
- In first 2 bed joints above and below openings.
- In second bed joint below top of wall.
- In third bed joint above bottom of wall.
Maximum vertical intervals: 500 mm.
Installation
Lap 450 mm at splices. Fold and bend at corners so that the longitudinal wires are
continuous. Stop 200 mm short of control joints.
- In brickwork: Extend 450 mm beyond each side of openings.
Reinforcement
Material: Galvanized welded wire mesh.
Width: Equal to the width of the leaf, less 15 mm cover from each exposed surface of the
mortar joint.
2.4 Laying stone

Stone masonry wall is constructed using suitable mortar similar to other types of masonry
wall constructions. Horizontal and vertical alignments in the process are almost carried out
in the same manner i.e. leveling with sprit level, straight edge, string, plumbing using plumb
bob, etc are carried out in the same procedure. But due to the irregular edges and uneven
sizes of stone blocks / units, Care should be taken in leveling, aligning and providing
vertical joints of the wall. Moreover, the hearting (the inner portion between facing and
backing) of a wall is filled with crushed stones for proper packing with mortar to form
homogeneous mass of wall. Since natural stone blocks are heavier than the artificial one's
double scaffolding should be adapted to carry out the stone masonry construction.
The figure bellow illustrates methods and procedures of erecting (construction) stone
masonry wall units.
Materials used for stone masonry:
The materials used for masonry are stone and mortar.

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The natural stones used in building can be classified to their origin as:
1. Igneous: The igneous stone principally used in building is granite, which was formed from
the fusion of minerals under great heat below the earth‘s surface many thousands of years
ago.
2. Sedimentary: It was formed gradually over thousands of years from particle of calcium
carbonate or sand deposited by settlement in bodies of water. Gradually layer upon layer
of particles of lime or sand settled into depression in the earth‘s surface and in course of
time these layers of lime or sand particles became compacted by the water or earth above
them.
3. Metamorphic: Those that have been changed from igneous or sedimentary stone or from
earth into metamorphic stone by pressure, or heat, or both in the earth‘s crust. Example
are marble which was formed from limestone and slate and shale formed from clay.
Advantages of stonewalls
Stone is Very common in Ethiopia and by nature it is:
1. More durable under normal conditions:

2. Less likely to develop cracks:
3. Greater load-bearing capacity:
4. Do not require further external surface treatment if they are semi or fully dressed:
5. More attractive due to natural surface finish
6. Terminologies in stone masonry there are many terms relating to stone masonry work. But a
few technical terms of common use are described below:
Natural bed of stone: the original surface occupied by a stone during its formation is called natural bed
of the stone.
Bedding plane: the plane along which the stone can be separated into different layers is called bedding
plane.
Stringcourse: a horizontal course of masonry provided at different levels projecting outside the wall to
drain out water.
Corbel: a projecting stone which is usually provided to serve as support for roofs, weather sheds, joists
… etc.
Cornice: a large molded course of stone masonry provided at ceiling level of a roof which projects
outside a wall surface of a building.

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Blocking course: it is another course of stone placed immediately above the cornice to hold down and to
prevent the cornice from overturning.
Dripstone: a projecting molded stone having its undersurface throated. It is provided on the inside
of parapet wall to throw rain water off the parapet wall.
Parapet: it is a projected wall constructed round the terrace of a building above roofline. It is mainly
provided to act as a fancy wall for persons moving on the roof.
Throating: the process of cutting grooves in the soffit or underside of a stone to give drip channel.
Molding: ornamental features given to construction members to improve their appearance.
Grouting: The process of spreading and working of mortar or cement slurry over stones or bricks to fill
up their joints.
Through stone: The stone extending through the entire thickness of a wall to increase its lateral stability
is called through stone or bond stone.
Coping: a molded stone covering the top of a masonry wall to prevent rainwater from entering the wall.
Frieze: Stone course provided below the cornice.
Spalls: Chips of stones used for packing up and filling hollow spaces in stone masonry.
Buttresses: a stepped masonry projections, which intend to provide lateral strength to a wall.
Lacing course: a horizontal regular course of stone blocks provided to strengthen a wall made of
irregular courses of small stones
Abutment: Massive vertical structural element of masonry or concrete provided at ends of arches or
bridges to support against movement.

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General principles to be followed in the construction of stone masonry:
1. The stone used shall be hard, durable and tough. All stones should be laid on its natural bed.
2. The pressure acting on the stones should not act parallel to the bedding planes. This will try to split
the stones. Sometimes stones used in corbels are laid with pressure acting parallel to bedding
planes.
3. The bond stones and headers should not be of dumb-bell shape.
4. Large flat stones should be laid under the ends of girders, roof trusses, etc.
5. In all slopping retaining walls, the beds of the stones and the plan of the courses should be at right
angles to the slope.
6. All laid fine dressed stone work should be protected against damage during further construction by
means of wooden boxes.
7. Jambs for door and window openings should be made of quoins which are equal in height to the
course. They should be in breadth equal to at least 1½ times the height of the course and their
length should be at least twice the height.
8. All the surfaces should be kept wet while the work is in progress and also till the mortar has set.
9. Double scaffolding will be used wherever it is difficult to fit in the stones later on.
10. All the portions of the masonry should be raised uniformly. Wherever this is not possible, the
stone work built earlier should be raked (stepped) so that the new work can be bonded well with
the old.
11. Sufficient through stones should be used and they should form ¼th of the area in elevation.
12. The hearting of the masonry should be properly packed with mortar and chips, if necessary, to
avoid any hollows or very thick mortar joints.
13. Vertical faces of the masonry walls should be checked with a plumb rule and the battered faces
should be tested with wooden template corresponding to the batter and a plumb rule to ensure a
constant batter.
14. The stones used in the masonry should be wetted before use to avoid moisture being sucked from
the mortar.
15. Masonry should not be allowed to take tension.

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The stone masonry section should always be designed to take compression and not the tensile
stresses.
1. The stone masonry work should be properly cured after the completion of work for a period of
2 to 3 weeks.
2. As much as possible broken stones or small stone chips should not be used.
3. Double scaffolding should be used for working at higher levels.
4. The hearting should be properly packed with mortar and chips of stone if necessary to avoid
hollows.
5. The properly wetted stones should be used to avoid mortar moisture being sucked.
Mortars for stone masonry
Generally cement sand mortar is used for stone masonry work. In order to increase the
workability of mortar 15% of cement should be replaced by lime. In order to protect limestone's
mortar from getting them stained white Portland cement mortar should be used. Generally 1:12:6
(non - staining cement, hydrated lime six parts of clean sand) should be used for stones liable to
be stained by cement mortar alone. Non - staining special waterproof cements are also available.
Rich mortar is used for pointing work of stone masonry.
Types of stone masonry:

Masonry can be classified according to the thickness of joints, continuity of courses and finish of face.
Broadly speaking there are two types of stone masonry, namely:
1. Rubble masonry: This consists of blocks of stones either undressed or roughly dressed and having
wider joints.
A. Random rubble:
i. Uncaused
ii. Coursed

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Fig. 2.4.1 Random rubble coursed
B. Squared rubble
i. Uncaused
ii. Coursed
iii. Built to regular courses

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Fig. 2.4.2 Square rubble Built to regular courses
2. Ashlars masonry: This built of stones carefully dressed and has narrow joints.
The following rules should be strictly observed:

Headers should extend not less than 2/3 the thickness of the wall.
Bond stones should be used (long stones across the entire width of the wall) at 120cm
intervals to ensure proper bonding.
The vertical joints of each course should break with the joints of the course below.
The largest stones should be used for the lowest courses.
Stratified stones should be laid on their natural beds (sandstones).

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Fig 2.4.3 stone bonding
Place bond stones at frequent intervals thereby increasing the cohesive strength of the wall.
Fig 2.4.4 stone bonding

The joints should be in staggered rows, thereby ensuring that stones in overlaying layers
produce good overlap above joints in the underlying course. The ideal is to allow for a
maximum of three intersecting joints. More intersecting joints will result in poor bonding and
reduce the strength of the wall.

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Fig 2.4.5 stone masonry joint
Steps in Stone masonry Construction using cement mortar
1. Preparation
• Set out exactly the proposed structure by marking the sides of the walls on the
foundation or the trench bed.
• Clean the foundation with a steel brush, wet it properly and if necessary rough it
by chiseling.
• Two masons should work at the same time on a wall, one inside and one
outside.
Fig 2.4.6
• Use crack-free and washed stone.

• A stiff mortar should be used. Never fill the inside of the wall with slurry mortar
because this will reduce the strength.

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Fig 2.4.7
2. Construction
• Use the largest and straightest stones on the ground and as corner stones.
• Use two-faced shaped and squared stone for corners as well as for the top of the wall.
• The stones are laid on a mortar bed and then tapped gently into the mortar with a
hammer.
• Build the corner stone‘s inside and outside, then stretches a string on each side and build
in between these lines.
• Leftover mortar from each course should be cleaned from the
stones as well as from the ground and can be used in the next course.
• The overlap of the stones should be minimum 10cm.
Fig 2.4.8
• The face and the inner part of the wall should be built at the same time.

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• The joints should not be thicker than 2.0-2.5 cm but never less than 1.0 cm, depending
also on the size of the stone.
• Small pieces of stone are used for better seating of the shaped stone but they
should not be visible at the outside of the wall. These stone chips needs to be well
embedded in mortar
Fig 2.4.9
o Ensure proper bonding of the stone.
o Use a plumb bob to check that all walls remain vertical.
o Ensure all joints are fully filled with mortar and all stones are fully embedded in
mortar.
o Immediately remove excess mortar protruding from the joints.
o In hot weather, cover the completed works with wet gunny bags
2.5 Packers, wedges, mortar consistency, propping, shoring and forming
structures
Rules of thumb for mortar for stone masonry:
The consistency should be such that it does not flow out of the trowel.
The mortar can be needed in the hand and retains its form.
The quantity of mortar to be mixed should not be more than a mason can use within one
hour.

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Approximate Requirements for 1
Masonry Type Width of m3 of Finished
Joints Wall
Rubble stone masonry; the stones are not specifically cut or

shaped. To build a wall with proper bonding using rubble Stones: approx. 1.2
stones requires well-developed skills from a mason. m3 (includes waste
) Mortar: 200 to
1cmto2.5 cm
300 lt./ m3
Fig 2.5.1 rubble stone masonry
Shaped stone masonry; the stones are shaped to a rectangular

prism. Using these stones it is easier to produce a wall with Stones: approx. 1.2
proper bonding and uniform surface. m3 (includes waste
) Mortar: 200 to
1cmto2.5 cm 300 lt./ m3
Fig 2.5.2 shaped stone masonry
Brick masonry; bricks can be of various sizes and can be laid

in many different bonds Bricks:
1,2 cm to approx. 1.1 m3
1.5 cm (includes waste)
Mortar:
250 to 270 lt./m3
Fig 2.5.3 brick masonry

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Block masonry; blocks can be of various sizes. Blocks may be
off different material, e.g. burned clay, concrete, sand-cement, Blocks:
etc.
approx. 1.1 m3
1,2 cm to (includes waste)
2 cm Mortar:
200 to250lt/m3
(depending on the
Fig 2.5.4 block masonry size of the blocks)
2.6 Use backing materials

Furnish and install sealant and backing materials, including cleaning and preparation of E.
ASTM C1193 - Standard Guide for Use of Joint Sealants recommendations for joint size;
joint preparation; back-up material; sealant .... Provide closed cell backer rod with self-
leveling sealant (SLNT-2) horizontal applications
2.7 Maintain cavities

 Cavity wall construction
The purpose of cavity walls is to ensure that the inner leaf of the wall remains dry and that no
moisture penetrates to the inside of the building. Cavity construction increases thermal insulation
and this is improved further if lightweight concrete blocks are used for the inner leaf. Even
greater improvement may be obtained if the cavity is filled with plastic foam. It is most
important that the cavity is kept clean during construction and that no mortar droppings are
allowed to accumulate on the ties, which then act as a bridge for the passage of moisture to the
inner leaf. One method of preventing this is to use cavity battens. These are laid on the wall ties
with lifting wires attached and drawn up when the level for the next ties is reached. Any mortar
droppings are thus easily removed. Clearing or coring holes may also be left at the base of the
cavity to allow it to be raked clear of any droppings.

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Cavity walls consist of two 'skins' separated by a hollow space (cavity).The skins are commonly
masonry such as brick or concrete block. Masonry is an absorbent material, and therefore will
slowly draw rainwater or even humidity into the wall, as well as from the inside of the house as
from outside. The cavity serves as a way to drain water back out through weep holes at the base
of the wall system or above windows. The weep holes allow wind to create an air stream through
the cavity and the stream removes evaporated water from the cavity to the outside. usually weep
holes are created by intentionally leaving several vertical joints, also open head joints, open
about two meters apart at the base of in every story.
Fig 2.7.1 typical cavity wall

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Self-check-2
2. --------is made of quartz cemented by a matrix of silica.
A. Sandstone B. limestone C. granite D. marbles

2. Which one is the best types of quality mortar?
A. cement mortar C. compo mortar
B. lime mortar D. mud mortar
3. Which one is good quality building stone requirements?
A. appearance B. strength C. fire resistance D. ALL

4. Which one the function of mortar?
A. to provide a weather resisting C. in to bind together the bricks or stones
B. to do pointing and plastering to the structure D. all
5. One of the following true about rules of thumb for mortar for stone masonry:
A. The consistency should be such that it does not flow out of the trowel.
B. The mortar can be needed in the hand and retains its form.
C. The quantity of mortar to be mixed should not be more than a mason can use within
one hour.
D. All of the above are correct

Part II: Short answer writing
Direction: Give short answer to the following questions. Time allotted for each item is 2mniut
and each question carry 4 point.
1. Blocking course
2. Natural bed of stone
3. granite
4. sandstone
5. Limestone

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Operation sheet 2.1: stone masonry constructing using cement mortar
 Operation title: stone masonry

 Purpose: how to construct stone masonry to using cement mortar
 Procedure:
Step 1. Preparation (work place, stone, mortar...)
Step 2. Construction
Step 3. Use the largest and straightest stones on the ground and as corner stones.
Step 4. Use two-faced shaped and squared stone for corners & the top of the wall.
Step 5. The stones are laid on a mortar bed and then tapped gently into the mortar with a hammer
Step 6. Immediately remove excess mortar protruding from the joints.
Step 7. The overlap of the stones should be minimum 10cm.
Step 8. The face and the inner part of the wall should be built at the same time.
Step 9. The joints should not be thicker than 2.0-2.5 cm but never less than 1.0 cm,
Step 10. Use a plumb bob to check that all walls remain vertical
Tools and requirement:

1. Measuring tape
2. Rakes
3. Mason‘s squares
4. Builders lines
5. Spirit level
6. Plumb bob

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Operation sheet 2.2: proper bonding in stone masonry
 Operation title: stone masonry

 Purpose: Proper bonding in stone masonry
 Procedure:
Step 1. Headers should extend not less than 2/3 the thickness of the wall
Step 2. Bond stones should be used (long stones across the entire width of the wall) at 120cm
intervals to ensure proper bonding.
Step 3. The vertical joints of each course should break with the joints of the course below.
Step 4. The largest stones should be used for the lowest courses.
Step 5. Stratified stones should be laid on their natural beds (sandstones).
Step 6. Place bond stones at frequent intervals thereby increasing the cohesive strength of the
wall.
 Tools and requirement:
1. Measuring tape
2. Rakes
3. Mason‘s squares
4. Builders lines
5. Spirit level
6. Plumb bob
Lap test-1
Task 1. Construction stone masonry using cement mortar
Task 2. Do proper bonding in stone masonry

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Unit three: set out brick and block work
 Erect work platform
 Location of structural details
 Locate and footing set out area checked
 Setting out brick and block works
 Erect work platform
 Determine location of structural details
 Location set out area
 Check footing location and dimension
 Set out brick and block works

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3.1 Erect work platform
Setting out in bricklaying is not as difficult as it looks as long as you follow the correct
procedures. Below is a step by step guide on how to mark up and build footings on a house,
when finished it should be square, plumb, level and to gauge.
Step 1
Start off by marking the thickness of your wall around your footing, for instance if your wall is
300mm wide including cavity space and your foundation is 600mm wide, then you will want
150mm of concrete either side of your wall, as it goes up this will maximize spreading out the
weight of the house evenly.
Step 2
Start off by marking the front of the house out by banging a wooden stake in at each end and
fixing a bit of string line to each stake using a nail. Sometimes you can mark the front out by
taking a measurement off an existing house, road or pavement if not then it doesn‘t matter.
Step 3
Now by using a set square or the formula 3:4:5 you can put a mark down so your two front
corners are square. The best way to do this is to skim a thin layer of mortar on the floor and
mark out with your trowel.
Step 4
Now attach a piece of line to one of the corners and measure back the length of the side of your
house and put a mark down, now pick up the line and move it from left to right a couple of times
until it crosses over your mortar mark, when its directly above the mortar mark, hold it and bang
another peg in, attach the line to this peg so you have your second mark, repeat this process
down the other end and you now have three sides of your house marked up.
Step 5
now pull a line in from the pegs at the back of your house and nail them in, your building is now
roughly set out; all it requires now is to check the diagonals.

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Step 6
If the building is square then the 2 diagonal angles from corner to corner should be the same
length, if they are different then adjust one by moving it in or out to make it shorter or longer,
once they are the same length then your building is truly square now. You now have your
relevant markings and can begin with your brickwork.
3.2 Locations of structural details

Foundations are at least 100mm deep for a wall that is not more than 800mm high and 150-200mm
deep for a higher wall. The foundation must be wider than the brickwork or block work, an easy way
to calculate the width is to add the width of the wall to double the depth of the foundation, for
instance if a 220mm wide 1 brick thick wall is built on 150mm deep foundation then the foundation
should be 520mm wide. The footings for a free standing brick pillar measuring about 400mm x
400mm must be at least 200mm deep and at least 200mm wider than the pillar on all sides. For an
extension or house footings they are normally 600mm wide and 1000mm deep this is the minimum
though, and building inspectors can ask you to go deeper depending on the soil conditions.
3.3 Locate and footing set out area checked

It is often necessary to setting out by bricks, block and stone in construction work such as
build the wall, Column, footing pad
Conditions or situations for the operations:
PROCEDURE:-
1. Prepare a simple plan in setting out certain in masonry materials and tools on a plan.
2. Observe carefully the procedure specified in the plan.
3. Record significant observations and techniques or tips for preparing the mortar to set up the
chosen masonry materials.
4. Evaluate the finished group project based on the performance assessment criteria
given below:
Directions: - Check the appropriate acceptability rating based on your honest personal
evaluation of your project.

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A concrete footing should be 100mm deep by 300mm wide if the footing is for a free standing
wall. The footing should be increased to 150mm deep and 450mm wide if the wall being built is
a retaining wall. For larger retaining walls an engineer may need to be approached for advice.
 Firstly mark out the position of the footing with pegs and a string line.
 Dig a shallow trench to the required depth of the footing and drive the pegs into
the ground along the line of the trench.
 The tops of the pegs should be set level to indicate where the finished surface of
the footing is to be.
 A spirit level along the top of adjoining pegs will show whether the pegs are in
fact level.
Setting out posts for pergolas and fences
 First you need to establish where your first and last post will be
 And then the distance between the remaining posts.
 Check each post for height,
 Then line and plumb using string lines and spirit levels as shown in diagram below.

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The depth will depend on the length of the post, normally one third of the post length must go
into the footing, with a minimum footing depth of 230mm. The footing diameter should be
three times the diameter of the post being placed.
Place each post into a hole and wedge them into position. Check the posts are the right height
and are plumb and in line with the other posts.

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The footing should be provided at a depth below the zone of deep freezing in cold regions and
below the level of shrinkage cracks in clayey soils but not less than 800 mm for one story
building and not less than 900mm for two story building.
The minimum dimensions for footing in soft soil shall be as per Figure 1 For other soil types,
the footing dimension shall be taken as per Table 1.
Table 1: Base width of footing

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Figure 1-1: Wall Section and Stone/Brick Wall Footing Details
3.4 Setting out brick and block works

Setting out is bringing the dimensions from a plan to the real situation. The activity
consists of establishing the exact location and measurements of the house to be built.
 In setting out simple building we use one of the three methods.
These are: -
 The 3, 4, 5 method
 The builder‘s square method
 Leveling instruments
The 3, 4, 5 method
1. Mark out the building line from the road by measuring the required distance from the
center of the road, or by stretching a line along an existing building to the proposed site
2. Mark out the overall length of the building by driving pegs at A and B along the ranging
line.
3. Obtain two steel tape measures; mark out four equal distances on the ranging line starting
from the corner peg at B.
4. Pull a tape measure from point B to C
5. Pull the second tape from fourth mark at D on the ranging line to point E on the first
tape.
6. The distance 5m if using meters on tape DE should coincide with point 3m on tape BEC.
Then the angle B is 90 degree (from Pythagoras theorem). If the points do not coincide,
the tape BC is either shifted out wards or in wards until 5m on the second tape coincide
with the 3m marks on the first tape.
7. Repeat the same procedure to obtain the right angle for BAF and mark out the overall
width of the building.

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8. Establish corner pegs and erect profiles.
9. Mark the position of partition wall on the profile with either nails or saw cut.
Installing Pegs and Hurdles/Profiles

We need the following materials;
1. 2 batter boards
2. 2' length of 1/2" rebar
3. String
4. Mallet
5. 4 wooden stakes
6. 2 green stakes or small wooden dowels
7. Tape measure
8. Knife
1. Peg the four outside corners: -Determine the location of the building in relation to other
buildings and boundaries (as usually shown on the site-plan or other relevant plan), and place
pegs in the ground marking the four corners of the building.

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This method can be used to create a square or rectangular string line of any size. For this tutorial
a 4' by 12' area is being marked off. Start by pounding a piece of rebar into the ground to mark
one corner of the rectangle.
Tie one end of the string to a batter board. Don't tighten the string down too much around the
batter board because you will need to adjust it later. Pull the string taut, and loop it around the
rebar a couple times. Move to the second batter board, pull the string taut, and tie it off.

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Following one leg of the string line, measure 3' away from the outside of the rebar. Use a green
stake or a small dowel to mark the spot. Move to the other leg of the string line and measure 4'
away from the outside of the rebar, again marking it with a small, round stake
The Pythagorean Theorem states that if one leg of a triangle is 3 units, one leg is 4 units, and the
hypotenuse is 5 units, then the angle in between the legs is 90 degrees. Measure the distance in
between the two marker stakes. The object is to get that value to be 5' by sliding the string along
the batter board. Adjust the position of the string on the batter board until you have a 3' by 4' by
5' triangle.

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You can verify this mark by measuring the distance diagonally between the two corner stakes
that are already in the ground. Hook your tape measure on the first piece of rebar and measure
the distance between it and the marks you made in the dirt. If the values are identical, you have
right angles all the way around your rectangle.
Pound in the fourth stake and run the string line the rest of the way around the rectangle. Tie off
the ends and you're finished.

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Self-check-3
1. One of the following methods is used in setting out simple building

A. the 3, 4, 5 method
B. The builder‘s square method
C. Leveling instruments
2. One of the following material is used when constructing simple building using
3,4,5 method
A. string B. peg C. profile board D. All of the above are correct

3. One of the following Hand tools is used when constructing simple building
using 3,4,5 method
A. Sprit Level B. Tap rule C. Claw Hammer D. All of the above are correct

1. A concrete footing should be 100mm deep by 300mm wide if the footing is for a free
standing wall
2. Before excavation of footing firstly mark out the position of the footing with pegs and a
string line.
3. Plumb bob and spirit levels are important tools in footing construction
4. Before starting to lay the blocks, drive stakes into the ground and build a form at each
corner
5. Drop a plumb bobs down from each line, both at the corner point used the horizontal
alignment

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Operation sheet 3.1: Setting Out Simple Building Using 3, 4, 5 Method
 Operation title: setting-out

 Purpose: setting out simple building using by 3,4,5 method
 Procedure:
Step 1. Mark out the building line from the road by measuring the required distance from the
center of the road
Step 2. Mark out the overall length of the building by driving pegs at A and B along the ranging
line.
Step 3. Obtain two steel tape measures; mark out four equal distances on the ranging line starting
from the corner peg at B.
Step 4. Pull a tape measure from point B to C
Step 5. Pull the second tape from fourth mark at D on the ranging line to point E on the first tape
Step 6. The distance 5m if using meters on tape DE should coincide with point 3m on tape BEC
Step 7. Repeat the same procedure to obtain the right angle for BAF and mark out the overall
width of the building
Step 8. Establish corner pegs and erect profiles
Step 9. Mark the position of partition wall on the profile with either nails or saw cut
1. Measuring tape
2. String lines
3. Builder’s squares
4. Builders lines
5. Spirit level
6. Hose level
7. Hammer

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Operation sheet 3.2: laying the concrete blocks
 Operation title: HCB masonry work

 Purpose: construct HCB masonry work
 Procedure:
Step 1. Locate the exact corner by stretching lines from one corner form to the other
Step 2.Drop a plumb bobs down from each line, both at the corner point
Step 3. Determine the exact number of blocks required for the first course
Step 4. Be sure to use the corner blocks where needed, and cut blocks as required
Step 5. Use scrap pieces of 3/8" plywood to fill in the mortar joint between each block
Step 6. After this test run, remove the blocks and prepare for the actual laying of the first course.
Step 7. Drop plumb bobs down from the corner string and at positions about 3' out from the
corner
Step 8. Spread the mortar out about 1" deep and 8" wide in the marked area
Step 9. Put a furrow in the center of the mortar with a trowel.
Step 10. Set the corner block first. Be sure you are using the correct block
Step 11. Check the starting corner block, both horizontally and vertically
Step 12. Follow this same procedure as you reach the other corners

1. Measuring tape
2. String lines
3. Builder‘s squares
4. Builders lines
5. Spirit level
6. Trowels
Lap test-2
Task 1. Setout simple building using 3,4,5 method
Task 2. Lay the HCB

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Unit four: construct brick and block walls
 Laying styles Brick and block wall
 Construct brick and block wall
 Leveling wall
 Building Damp proof courses
 Construct Opening and install lintels
 Installing tie down and lateral support system for ceiling /roof structures
 Mix mortar and lay brick and block
 Construct brick and block wall
 Leveling wall
 Building damp proof courses
 Construct opening and installing lintels
 Install ceiling /roof, accordance with plan
 Install tie down and lateral support system

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4.1 Laying styles brick and block wall
Introduction
The art of brick laying consists in arranging and bedding bricks in mortar in such a manner as to
form a well-united mass known as bricks work or bricks masonry. Such a mass can withstand
forces without disintegration of the structure. In other wards an assemblage of bricks properly
bounded together in mortar is called bricks masonry or brick work.
The mortar to be used in brick masonry may be cement mortar, lime mortar or cement-lime
mortar, depending upon the class and strength of work desired.
At this level some of the important topics concerning Bricks Masonry have been discussed in
order to provide adequate knowledge to the student about the principles and use of this type of
masonry used in building construction.
Brick masonry is commonly used for the construction of ordinary as well as important buildings
and other structures in areas where natural stone is not obtainable cheaply and abundantly but
there is plenty of suitable clay for the manufacture of bricks.
Technical terms used in brick masonry
Some important technical terms concerning brick masonry are discussed below:
 Arrises: - The edge formed by the intersection of plane surfaces
 Frog: - the depression provided on the face of a brick.
 Course: - A complete layer of bricks laid on the same bed.
 Bed: - The bottom surface of the brick when it is laid flat.
 Stretcher: -
brick face exposed showing (250 x 60) mm or(25 x6) CM (full brick).
 Header: - The end surface of the brick when the brick is laid flat & end of brick exposed
showing (120x 60) mm.
 Perpends: - These are vertical joints between bricks either in longitudinal or cross
directions.
 Bed joint: -The horizontal mortar joint between two successive courses.
 Lap: - The horizontal distance between two perpends in two successive courses.
 Quoins: - The external corner of walls.
 Bat: - portion of brick greater than a quarter

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 Closer: - The portions made by cutting standard bricks along their length usually one
quarter of stretcher.
 Queen closer: - A portion of bricks with the widths half of full brick, but the length equal
to full brick.
 Facing: - the external surface of brick wall.
 Backing: - the internal surface of brick wall.
 Hearting: - The inner portion between the facing and backing of brick wall.
All pictures are we use in brick Laying work!

Rules of bonding
Most of the following rules are applied to brick masonry work

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o Length of the brick is twice of the width plus one mortar joint, so that it
will give us a uniform lap.
o The vertical joints in the alternate courses should be along the same
perpends.
o Centerline of stretcher should coincide centerline of header.
o As much as possible the use of brick portions have to be avoided.
o The lap should be one-fourth of the brick length.
Factors governing the strength of brick masonry

The following three factors greatly affect the strength of brick masonry work
 Quality of the brick
 Quality of the mortar
 Type of bonding
Identification of methods of Bond
Bonding is a process of arranging bricks with mortar to tie them together in a mass of brickwork.
It is the method of arranging bricks in courses so that individual are tied together and the vertical
joints of the successive courses due not lie in the same vertical line. It should have a minimum of
vertical joints in any part of the work. A wall having continuous vertical joints shall act as
independent column. Hence, in such cases, load on wall shall not be uniformly distributed and
there are chances of load settlement.
A more strong and durable brick masonry construction must not have continuous vertical joints.
It shall distribute load on a wider area and thereby minimize the tendency to settlement and other
horizontal forces.
Brick bonds are of various types but at this level we are going to discus on the following some
important bond types in brick masonry wall.
TYPES OF BONDS
The following are types of bonds commonly used in brick masonry
1. Stretcher bond
2. Header bond
3. English bond
4. Flemish bond (Single and double)

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5. Other bond types
1. Stretcher Bond
In this type of bond all the bricks are laid with their length in the direction of the wall. This
pattern is used only for walls having thickness 12cm only. For higher thickness walls, this
arrangement is not at all practicable.
Running
½ brick wall stretcher bond, elevation, first and second course

2. Header bond
It is the one in which all the bricks are laid as headers on the face of the wall. Thise pattern is
used only when the thickness of the wall is equal to one brick (i.e. 25cm).
In this type of bond three quarter brick bat is amply used in each alternate courses as quoin to
achieve the overlap equal to 6 cm. This bond is unsuitable for load bearing walls. However, it is
specially used for curved brickwork.

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3. English Bond
The bond having headers and stretchers laid in alternate courses is called English Bond. In this
bond, a queen closer is placed after every quoin header in the header course to break the
continuity of vertical joints. This bond is considered, as the strongest bond and dose not require
any special attention in its formation. The bond is commonly adopted for brickwork of buildings
where strength is of prime importance.

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Elevation
4. Flemish bond
In this type of bond, each course is comprised of alternate headers and stretcher. Every alternate
course starts with a header at the corner (i.e. quoin header). Queen closers are placed next to the
quoin header in alternate courses to developPlan
thefor courses
face lap. 2, 4, 6, etc
Every header is centrally supported
over the stretcher below it.
Plan for courses 1, 3, 5, etc
Flemish bond is of two types
o Double Flemish bond
o Single Flemish bond
Example:- Double-Flemish bond (One brick thick)

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4.2 Construct brick and block wall
Procedures and steps of cutting bricks
Before proceeding to lay or carryout brick masonry wall, in various brick bond types, it is
important to know parts of bricks to be cut and use in the process. Brick is cut in different shapes
and sizes to fulfill the bond joints perfectly in wall construction.
Full brick
½ brick
¾ brick ¼ brick
Brick Cutting procedures

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When several pieces of same size such as closer and half brick, etc., are to be cut, it is better to
cut a number of them all at one time rather than one at a time as they needed.
Strike the brick with cutting edge of the hammer
Turn the brick in your hand
Strike from the backside of the brick
After Preparations and arrangement of work place as discussed earlier and cutting brick pieces to
desired size, the following points are to be considered.
I) In some areas hot, dry wind and weather conditions, these who to be laid in cement or lime
mortar, it necessary to wet the bricks before they are laid. This may apply depending on the
weather conditions of the site.
It should be properly wetted with water to:
 Prevent the bricks from absorbing any moisture from the mortar so that the mortar can
properly set.
 Provide better bond between the bricks and mortar as kiln dust is washed away during
wetting the blocks and to facilitate spreading the mortar more evenly on the surface of
bricks.
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Block-Laying Basics
BLOCKS. There are many types of blocks which are most widely used as masonry materials.
The CHB (sometimes called as Concrete Hollow Block) is used for all the types of construction
walls, partitions, dividers, corners, etc.
Advantages of concrete block masonry
 Low cost construction

 Very good Sound and heat insulation
 Easy and rapid for erection
 Uniform in size
 Structurally strong
 Saves mortar
 Great durability
 High weather and fire resistance
The following steps are recommended for the laying of concrete block walls:
Step 1: check the designers dimension to determine an accurate block layout
Step 2: Set one course of block on the foundation without the use of mortar. This helps to
determine if any cutting of blocks will be necessary.
Steps 3: To lay the first course of blocks with mortar follow the following steps.
 Mix the mortar with the proportion of 1:3; for superstructure, and 1:4 for substructure.
 Spread the mortar with trowel to ensure complete bedding.
 Lay corner block, and great care should be taken in positioning it correctly as the block
will act as a guide for the entire work.
 Lay other blocks in the middle in each course, and it is carefully checked for the level and
alignment.
 Take great care in aligning, leveling and plumbing the first course, as it is essential in
building straight and true wall.
 In laying block for the wall between corners, a mason line is stretched from corner for
each course. The outside top of each block is then laid to this line.
 If the block must be cut, care should be taken that the cut is accurate.
 Excess mortar squeezed from the block joints as it is laid is removed with a trowel.
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 All final adjustment to a block must be made while the mortar is wet. For steps stated
above refer, figures below.
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4.3 Leveling wall
Useful example of horizontal and vertical alignments on a corner and horizontal level fixing
using mason line lead and nails.
Correct plumbing of a corner lead

Horizontal level and fixing mason line lead with help of nails.
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Correct horizontal alignment using straight edge, Spirit level and water hose level
4.4 Building damp proof courses

General
The moisture present in the ground or rain water may penetrate in to the building from below,
from sides and also sometimes from the top of its roof. It causing the structure to remain in damp
condition and thus deteriorating the structure as a whole. It is there fore, very essential to prevent
any moisture penetrating into a building. Now days, care is taken while designing and
constructing any building so that dampness can be prevented from affecting it and its inhabitants.
At this level some of the important topics concerning Dampness and Damp-proofing have been
discussed in order to provide adequate knowledge about this important aspect in building
construction.
 Dampness
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The access or penetration of moisture contents inside a building through its walls, floors or roof
is known as dampness.
Dampness is not only injurious to buildings but also it affects adversely the health of their
inhabitants. It becomes, therefore, essential to know the causes of dampness and methods of its
prevention so that the building can be constructed damp- proof.
The following are the common ill or harmful effects of dampness in a building:
 It causes dry rot to the wooden members provided in the building.

 It causes corrosion of metals used in the construction of a building.
 It causes peeling off and removal of the plaster
 It causes the paints to get blistered and bleached, and the surface thus gets disfigured.
 It causes floors of the building to remain ugly since they cannot be cleaned well.
 Carpet, if used on floor of a damped building, gets destroyed earlier.
 All electric installations get deteriorated.
 It causes efflorescence which affects the exposed surface of the brick word to disintegrate
and fall to powder.
 It reduces the life of the structure as a whole.
 It causes unhygienic conditions for the occupants of the building and affects adversely their
health.
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 Causes of Dampness
The following factors are cause for dampness.

- Rain penetration
- Level of the site
- Drain ability of the soil
- Climatic conditions
- Defective orientations
- Moisture entrapped during construction
- Defective materials
- Defective construction
- Moisture which originates in the building it self
 Rain penetration
is considered as chief source of dampness. Some buildings withstand heavy rains for a short
duration whereas they fail to withstand mild showers for a number of days.
 Methods of preventing Dampness
There may be other methods but the

following are discussed at this level
By providing damp-proof course
By surface treatment
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Rain penetration is considered as chief source of dampness.
 Damp-Proofing Materials
The materials used for damp-proofing purposes in buildings and in other engineering structures
are called damp-proofing materials.
There are many damp-proofing materials used for preventing dampness in different part of a
building or any other engineering structures.
Among the others we are only to discus only the followings.
Flexible materials:
Materials which do not crack and deform their shape when subjected to any loading are called
Flexible materials.
- Bitumen mastic (mastic asphalt)
- Bitumen felt
- Hot laid Bitumen
- Perforated pipes
 Application of damp proofing material to building parts
Damp proofing is applied to:

- Under ground floors
- Plinth and walls
- Parapet
- Window sill
- Basements
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 Vertical and horizontal layer of damp proofing material application in
building structure
 Damp- proofing to Foundations structure.

A perforated pipe at the foot of the foundation is used to take all the water, which seeps from the
soil and it, conducts the water to the drainage system.
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4.5 Construct opening and install lintels
Installing doors, windows, lintels and ventilators
This section attempts to provide the trainees with the necessary skills to:
Setting out the location of doors, windows and ventilators,
Install frames for doors and windows,
Construct lintels,
Install ventilators.
Installing frames for doors and windows
Doors and windows are fixed into wooden or sometimes metal frames. Frames are installed
together with the on-going masonry work to ensure they are properly fixed into the wall and that
they fit exactly into the opening.
Great care should be taken to ensure that the frames are fixed without being twisted. The doors
and windows should fit exactly into the frame.
Work method for installing door and window frames
1. Mark the exact location of the doors and windows to be fixed. Combine this with setting out
the walls before commencing the masonry work.
2. Place the frame at marked locations and hold it upright with temporary support. These are
usually timber supports, which are firmly fixed into the ground.
3. Construct the masonry walls next to the frames
4. Grout between the frame and wall, filling all gaps with mortar.
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o Check that the frames are in the correct position.
o Ensure no deformation of the frames takes place.
Installation of ventilators
Ventilators are prefabricated elements that are integrated into the wall right below the roo
Commonly, there are two different types:
They are usually prefabricated concrete blocks with integrated ventilation holes. Ready-made
ventilators are usually available from local suppliers.
Jallys can also be made of steel. These are also easily integrated into the wall.
When constructing the walls, these ventilators are normally positioned just below the roof slab.
The exact position of these ventilators is shown in the construction drawings.
Constructing lintels and sunshades
Lintels are the small beams constructed above openings for doors, windows and terraces.
The lintels are built into the walls once the masonry reaches the top level of the door and/or
window frames.
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Sunshades are extensions of lintels, creating small cantilever slabs kept above windows and
doors in rural houses basically to provide shade and to prevent rain sprinkling into the
room. The thickness of the lintel varies from 15 cm to 30 cm depending on the size of the
opening. In some places sunshades are not taken up to reduce costs.
The lintel is supported by the wall on both sides of the door, window or other opening.
Therefore the masonry work up to the level of the lintel needs to be completed before starting the
installation of the lintel.
Work method for Constructing lintels and sunshades
1. Remove bricks in the wall for 15 cm width for sufficient support for the lintel on either
side of the opening and so that the lintel can be placed in its correct position in the wall.
2. Cut, bend and assemble reinforcement bars according to the plan or instructions from the
engineer.
3. Cut shuttering boards, support and props to the correct sizes and assemble the formworks
to the correct shape and position.
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4. Install the reinforcement steel in the correct position in the formworks.
5. Mix 1:2:4 concrete on a hard and clean surface. Pour concrete into formworks and compact.
6. Cure the concrete for a minimum of 14 days. Ideally, the curing should be given 21 days
for all beams, lintels and sunshades. Cover the concrete with wet gunny bags to facilitate the
curing and protect it from sunshine.
7. The shuttering on the vertical sides can be removed after 14 days but leave the support in
place.
8. Once the shutters are removed, check for honeycombs. Remove any loose aggregate and fill
the voids with cement mortar 1:4.
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 Check that the formwork is in the correct position, that it is straight and at correct
levels.
 Check that the reinforcement bars are in the correct position and properly fixed.
 Secure sufficient support on both sides of the wall.
 Ensure that the concrete is mixed to correct proportions.
 Ensure continuous curing for 14 days, keeping the concrete moist and protected
from the sun.
 Do not remove the props before 14 days
4.6 Installing tie down and lateral support system for ceiling /roof structures
A roof is the upper most protecting part of a building against weathering (wind, rain, snow, heat).
Roof helps in providing privacy, comfort and safety by keeping away disturbing agents (natural
& man-made) to the dwellers.
Requirements
 providing light and ventilation
 Reasonably cheap
 Durability (by giving more years of maintenance-free service)
 Fire resistance and heat insulation
 Free contraction & expansion with out failure
 Stability
 Free drainage
 Types of roof
Based on the geometry and inclination of the roof surface, roofs are classified as:-
1. Flat roof
2. pitched roof
3. curved roof
1. Flat roof – it has a surface slopes up to 10o .
Example- RCC slab roof
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 Flat roof needs surface proofing against dampness and wearing
 Flat roof is suitable for hot region where rain fall & snow fall is minimum.
Advantage.
 simple in construction
 usability of the area for playing gardening
 less roofing material
 easy for vertical extent ion
Disadvantage
 slower drainage capacity
 less suitable for long span
2. Pitched roof: - have a slope more than 10o. They are mostly seen in Ethiopian society.
Examples: - Lean-to-roof, Gable roof, Hipped roof, Butter fly roof, Combination roof
a. Lean-to-roof- simplest type of sloping roof provided for a short span room
(E.g. verandah). It has only one side slope.
Fig Lean- to roof
b. Gable roof- The roof slopping in two directions. The two slopes meet at the ridge.
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Fig Gable roof
c. Hipped roof- This is formed by four sloping surfaces in four directions.
Fig Hip roof

d. Butter fly roof - The roof slopping inward meeting at the middle & forming
V- Shape.
Fig Butter fly roof

e. Combination roof -Intersecting gable roof
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Fig intersecting gable roof
3. Curved roof - It is mainly selected for its beauty appearance.
- Shell roof -for stadium
- Domed roof -for museums, mosques, churches etc.
Basic terminology in pitched roof

 Span – the clear distance the end supports of beam, roof truss or arch.
 Rise – the vertical distance that the ridge is above the plate line
 Pitch – the mathematical r/n b/n the total rise and span.
- Pitch = Total rise It describes the amount of slope.
Span
 Total run – the level distance over which the rafter passes.
 Ridge – the apex of the angle formed by termination of the inclined surface at the top of
the slope. Apex line is called as ridge line.
Fig Parts of pitched roof
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 Truss
- A roof truss is frame work, usually of triangles, designed to support the roof covering & ceiling
load over rooms.
Fig 9.7 Parts of truss
When the span of the roof exceeds 5m and where there are no intermediate walls to support the
purling, framed structure (known as trusses) are provided at suitable interval along the length of
room.
Rafter = supports the purline c/c 120/130cm

Purline = supports the roof covering c/c 90cm
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Fig Roof lay out (rafter)
Fig 9.9 Section of a building showing roof structure
How to Installing tie down and lateral support system for ceiling/roof structures
Joining walls to roof structure

Join walls and roof to strengthen each other.
 Column reinforcement should protrude from the top of concrete columns and be bent
around roof trusses for structural strength, or roof trusses should be strapped with metal
ties to the wall structure.
 Exposed metal should be painted with rust proof paint to prevent corrosion.
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An illustration of binding roof trusses to building structure.
Roof trusses should be constructed over columns, and for a concrete column the reinforcement
should protrude at the top and be bent over roof trusses to join the roof structure with the wall
structure. Metal straps or plates can be used for this role, particularly where the building
structure is made of wood.
A good roofing example of column steel reinforcement bent over roof truss to tie house structure
to the roof structure. This is an essential detail in areas subject to
earthquake and to winds, to keep the roof on the house when a natural hazard strikes the
structure. Such exposed steel should be painted with rust-proof paint to minimize
corrosion.
Example of good roofing practice. Steel roof trusses are connected to columns through welding
of truss members to column reinforcing steel and purlins are welded with ties to roof trusses.
This will hold the roof firmly on the house in storms or other hazards from nature.
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Self-check-4
1. Which one of the following points true bout for horizontal joints (mortar bed) the
thickness of 1cm is recommended for brickwork to ensure
A. leveling of the mortar bed,
B. placing of bricks completely in mortar
C. No uneven or incomplete support of the bricks due to stones in the mortar
2. One of the following is the type of brick bond

A. Stretcher Bond B. Header Bond
C. English Bond D. All of the above
3. Which one true about quality checkpoints of English bond

A. Check that all corners remain vertical at all times.
B. Check that the level of each course is correct height of courses
C. Ensure the mason‘s line is tightly pulled to avoid any sagging.
D. All of the above
4. One of the following is the cause of dampness in building
A. Faulty design of structure
B. Faulty construction or poor workmanship
C. Use of poor materials in construction
5. One of the following is the characteristics of damp proofing material

A. The material should be durable,
B. The material should be strong, capable of resisting super imposed loads.
C. The material should be flexible,
D. All are correct
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6. ---------is the upper most protecting part of a building
A. Roof B. Stone C. Wood D. All of the above are correct
7. What is the requirement of good roof
A. providing light and ventilation C. Durability
B. reasonably cheap D. All of the above are correct
8. ------simplest type of sloping roof provided for a short span room
A. Butter fly roof C. Hipped roof
B. Lean-to-roof D. A & B are correct
1. One of the advantages of concrete block masonry is very good sound and heat
2. We can check vertical alignment block using plum bob and sprite level
3. HCB is can be used for construction purposes, including the erection of buildings, fences,
and other similar structure
4. Leveling wall can be done with plastering of walls
5. Walls are plastered to obtain a smooth finish to the surfaces of wall.
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Operation sheet 4: laying of English bond
 Operation title: brick masonry work

 Purpose: construct brick masonry work
 Procedure:
Step 1. Set out the exact position of the structure (wall) by marking the external side of the
walls on the plinth.
Step 2. Lay the first two courses using ‗dry‘ bricks without mortar
Step 3. Always begin a wall with a stretcher course
Step 4. Continue with the following bricks off the corner in both directions
Step 5. Start with the second course again in the corner, but now place the corner bricks in
the opposite direction from the corner bricks in the first course
Step 6. The third course is exactly the same as the first course and the fourth course is
identical to the second course.
Step 7. Build all walls simultaneously for better bonding. The maximum brick wall height per
day should not exceed 10 layers.
1. Measuring tape
2. String lines
4. Builders lines
5. Spirit level
6. Trowels
7. Rubber mallets
Lap test-3
Task 1. Laying of English bond
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Unit five: perform dry bed stone and grout
 Prepare appropriate stone
 Prepare joints
 Apply grout
This unit will also assist you to attain the learning outcomes stated in the cover page.
 Prepare appropriate stone
 Prepare joints
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5.1 Prepare appropriate stone
The art of building a structure in stone with any suitable mortar is said to be stone masonry. It
may be adopted for the construction of foundations, columns, walls, arches, floors… etc of a
building. Dams, retaining walls and other structures can also be built up in stones. Stones are
available in nature and after properly cutting and dressing to the proper shape they provide
strong, durable and economical material for the construction of buildings and other similar
structures.
Good stone masonry requires advanced skills from a rural mason. The mason has to be able to
determine the required wall and bond type in accordance with the drawings. The preparatory
activities need to be carried out in a planned manner to ensure that the right material, tools and
labor are available.
Stonewalls are usually not plastered and are therefore seen by everybody. The quality of these
walls is therefore the ‗business card‘ of the rural mason.
Standard tools for stone masonry work Stone masonry requires the same tools as for brickwork.
In addition, the following tools are required:
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The following shapes of stones are used for construction
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 Stone quality
A good stone should be hard. It should be possible to dress a stone without it crumbling. In
general, stone found on the surface is less durable than quarried stone. Still, there are a number
of rock types found on the surface that are of sufficient quality to be used in house The hardness
of stone can easily be checked with a hammer. Strong rock resists a hammer blow and does not
disintegrate when being shaped.
Some types of rock such as sandstone are more porous and may absorb water. If the rock is hard
enough, it can still be used, but it is then important to add a damp proof course on
the plinth.
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 Steps for dressing:
 Prepare the work ground, tools and safety equipment.
 Clean the stone to be dressed, e.g. using a brush and water.
 First cut it roughly on all sides, to the extent possible using its natural
shape. Stones should be of size and weight that can be carried by one person.
 Dress the face to a plane and check it with a straight edge.
 Select the stones that could be used as corners and shape the reverse face.
 Make sure all dressed stones are clean and stockpile them neatly.
 Clean the work area from debris. Stone chips may be used as backfilling
material for foundations or plinths.
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5.1 Prepare joint
Stone masonry wall is constructed using suitable mortar similar to other types of masonry wall
constructions. Horizontal and vertical alignments in the process are almost carried out in the
same manner i.e. leveling with sprit level, straight edge, string; plumbing using plumb bob, etc
are carried out in the same procedure. But due to the irregular edges and uneven sizes of stone
blocks / units care should be taken in leveling, aligning and providing vertical joints of the wall.
Moreover, the hearting (the inner portion between facing and backing) of a wall is filled with
crushed stones for proper packing with mortar to form homogeneous mass of wall. Since natural
stone blocks are heavier than the artificial one's double scaffolding should be adapted to carry
out the stone masonry construction. The figure bellow illustrates methods and procedures of
erecting (construction) stone masonry wall units.
FIG
Principles in stone masonry construction

1. The stones to be used for stone masonry should be hard, tough and durable.
2. The pressure acting on stones should be vertical. The pressure acting along the direction
of bedding planes causes splitting of stones.
3. The stone should be properly dressed as per the requirements.
4. The headers and bond stones should not be of a dumbbell shape.
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5. In order to obtain uniform distribution of load, large flat stones should be used under the
ends of girders, roof trusses, etc.
6. Wood boxing should be fitted in to walls having fine dressed stonework to protect it
during further construction.
7. The mortar to be used should be good quality and in the specified proportion.
8. The construction work of stone masonry should be raised uniformly.
9. Plumb bob should be used to check the verticality of erected wall. Also wooden template
should be used to check the battered faces.
10. The stone masonry section should always be designed to take compression and not the
tensile stresses.
11. The stone masonry work should be properly cured after the completion of work for a
period of 2 to 3 weeks.
12. 12 .As much as possible broken stones or small stone chips should not be used.
13. Double scaffolding should be used for working at higher levels.
14. The hearting should be properly packed with mortar and chips of stone if necessary to
avoid hollows.
15. The properly wetted stones should be used to avoid mortar moisture being sucked.
 Applying grout
Grouting is the process of spreading and working of mortar or cement slurry over stones or
bricks to fill up their joints.
Grouting is a thin mortar used to fill cracks and crevices in masonry.
The mortar mix for grouting mortar depends first of all on the width of the joint.
For small joint from 1to 2mmcan be filled with pure cement, but when the joint become bigger
sand has been added.
Up to 5mm it is also possible to add a small amount of tile adhesive(ratio 2:1:
2 parts of cement &1 part of adhesive).
To prepare the grouting mortar follows the steps
1. Fill the joint of the wall with appropriate joint filling board.
2. Wipe always diagonal over the mason to fill the joint proper.
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3. Grout in a space you can handle not too much .if you apply too much at once the
starting bonding goes too fast & you will not be able to follow with the washing.
4. Wait for the joint until they start bonding .this is the time you start washing the joints
with a clean sponge.
5. Clean the surface by pulling off the material diagonal from the tiles.
6. Remove the remaining dust from the surface by wiping it with a dry rag.
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Self-check-5
1. Which one of the following true about the type of stone chiseling tools
A. Measuring tape (3m) C. Sledge hammer
B. Mason‘s square (90°) D. All of the above are correct

2. Appropriate stone is good for chiseling and dressing
A. True C. sometimes it is true
B. False D. All of the above are correct
1. Stone masonry wall is constructed using suitable mortar

2. The stones to be used for stone masonry should be hard, tough and durable.
3. Wait for the joint until they start bonding is the time you start washing the joints with a
clean sponge
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Operation sheet 5: prepare of corner stone
 Operation title: chiseling

 Purpose: how to chisel corner stone
 Procedure:
Step 1. Prepare the work ground, tools and safety equipment.
Step 2. Clean the stone to be dressed, e.g. using a brush and water.
Step 3. Cut it roughly on all sides, to the extent possible utilizing its natural shape.
Step 4. Dress the face straight and check it with a straight edge
Step 5. Select the stones that could be used as corners and shape the reverse face.
Step 6. Make sure all dressed stones are completely clean and stockpile them neatly.
Step 7. Clean the work area from debris
1. Measuring tape
2. Stone hammer
3. Brick hammer
4. Chisel
Lap test-4
Task 1. Prepare of corner stone
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Unit six: perform dry stone construction
 select prepared stone
 Laying stone
 Laying capping stone
 Laying wall
 Prepare and select stone
 Laying stone
 Laying stone capping
 Laying wall
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6.1. Select prepared stone
What is Dry Stone Construction?
Through time, people have figured out many ways to build structures. One of the world's oldest
construction methods date back thousands of years and it's called dry stone construction.
Dry stone construction is a type of construction using in building walls and other structures by
carefully layering stones. It was traditionally done in geographic areas with lots of stone as a
natural resource. Examples of buildings created in this method include impressive ancient
structures like the pyramids in Egypt and parts of Machu Picchu, built by Incas in Peru. Dry
stone construction was also often used for agricultural walling (to keep livestock contained) in
places like the British Isles.
Fig. Example of excellent dry stone construction at Machu Picchu, built by the Incas in Peru
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But how does dry stone construction differ from other brick or masonry construction? Dry stone
construction is done without mortar, a mix of sand, cement and water that serves as a glue or
binder to hold brick walls and some stone walls together. Instead, in dry stone construction, the
position and weight of the stones themselves keep the structure in place. The craftsmen who
build using the dry stone method have to be very skilled, and it's a very time-consuming process.
But the results last for a very long time.
6.2. Laying stone

Materials and Techniques of Dry Stone Construction
Dry stone construction begins with a simple list of materials, namely a good selection of stones.
Ideally, the stones should be flat or angled instead of round. The best stones will have lots of
surface contact with stones above and below them, which makes them more stable and limits
slippage. Stones should be in a variety of sizes, with some very large ones. You can build in dry
stone with only your hands, but tools like hammers and chisels, used to shape and cut stone, can
be helpful. Another good tool is a string line, made of two large flat metal pins connected to a
long string. The string line, mounted into the ground with the pins with the string stretched out
tight between them, serves as a line guide to help the builders keep the wall straight.
The builders start by clearing an area to serve as the foundation. Debris, small stones, and
remains of trees must be removed and the ground smoothed. Then, the footing, the bottom layer
of stones, is put into place. These are the largest stones in the wall, and they're sometimes called
foundation stones. They are placed flat side down to help support the weight of the wall.
Then the builders lay the courses, horizontal layers that make up the body of the wall. They
make sure that all stones in the course are as level as possible. During this phase, stones are
positioned carefully to ensure a tight fit. Some stones should be as wide as the wall, with ends
visible on either side, perpendicular to the direction the wall is running. These stones are called
through stones, and they're crucial to a sturdy wall because they give it stability. As each course
is laid, smaller stones called hearting are used to fill in any gaps. The tighter the hearting, the
stronger the wall. The process is then repeated for each course.
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6.3. Laying capping stone
Coping- a finishing or protective course or cap to an exterior masonry wall or the like
Cap the Wall
When the wall stands at the desired height, prepare the top for coping. This final addition not
only provides character; it protects your hard work from the elements and ensures that the weight
of the wall transfers downward to the foundation with the batter.
1) Before capping, layer a final course with flat stones that span the entire width of the wall
This layer acts as a unified tie-rock that evenly distributes the weight of the wall coping.
2) Select desired stones to top your wall. Flagstones and fieldstones are practical wall coping.
Experiment with each type and determine what looks best with the surrounding environment.
3) If flagstone seems appropriate due to its flat and smooth appearance, place each stone atop
the wall snug with adjacent pieces. Allow an overhang of one inch on each side.
4) If fieldstone seems appropriate due to its rustic and rough appearance, place each stone atop
the wall to stand snug with adjacent pieces in a perpendicular fashion. Allow minimal overhang
on each side.
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6.4. Laying wall
A collection of stones piled one on top of the other, dry stone is an iconic building
method found just nearly everywhere in the world. Relying solely on an age-old craft to
create sturdy, reliable structures and characterized by its rustic, interlocking shapes, the
technique has deep roots that stretch back even before the invention of the wheel. Its
principles are simple: stack the stones to create a unified, load-bearing wall. But the
efficient, long-lasting results, coupled with the technique’s cultural significance, have
lead to continued use and updated interpretations all the way to contemporary
architecture today.
Pre-dating the wheel, pottery, metallurgy and writing, dry stone as a structural concept
has been around since at least the 10th millennium BC. Prominent in north-west
Europe, the historic walls that are left are normally dated between 7000-1600BC,
whereas in Southern Europe early examples are traced back to the first Bronze Age
settlements - around 1350BC. Latin America and Africa’s dry stone heritage is slightly
more recent, dating back to roughly 800AD. And as the Northern European nations colonised
the Americas and Australasia they brought with them the storied tradition.
Although on first glance you may dismiss dry stone as a simple, quick building solution, once
you attempt to build something similar you are left with a deep, burning question: how do you
make it stand up?
The core idea is to interlock the stones in such a way that they cease to act independently;
creating the effect of one large stone acting under gravity. Achieving this takes a lot of skill, with
many dry stone wallers investing years to perfect their craft. Covering each joint with a stone on
top—similar to a standard Flemish brick bond—is key, while the bottom is always wider and
contains larger stones to provide support. This secure base sits upon the subsoil in a shallow
channel, transferring the weight directly into the compact earth below. Templates are often used
to maintain a consistent layering and batter (the gradual thinning towards the walls top), and in
more complex projects molds can be utilised to ensure a secure, safe structure.
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Popular in specific areas, its surge to prominence is usually dependant on an abundance of rocky
outcrops, alongside a high proportion of large stones readily found in the topsoil. Harsh
conditions—whether too hot or too bleak—also encourage the use of dry stone, where the
context calls for a more steadfast solution than hedges or wooden fencing.
This direct relationship between what is found and what is built creates regionally specific dry
stone aesthetics. The construction technique is extremely emotive as a result, showcasing an
intense sense of historic and environmental place.
In the British Isles, where dry stone walling is common for denoting land boundaries for farmers,
herders and churchyards alike, the walls are jagged, lateral and grey. Most of Britain‘s 125,000
miles worth of dry stone wall were built in the early 1800s, a response to the Enclosure Acts.
They are often capped with a run of vertical, thinner stone. Other building types used the
construction method, too—in particular the mysterious brochs of Scotland, hollow round
structures with an unknown, much-debated function. Regional heritage groups ensure the craft
remains an essential part of the vernacular.
The Greeks, in their ancient cities of Mycenae and Tiryns, used dry stone as the primary load-
bearing structure. Due to the rounded stones available in the area, a cyclopean aesthetic was
created, differing to its Northern European counterparts
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Self-check-6
Part I: Say True or False
1. Dry stone construction is a type of construction using in building walls and other
structure
2. Dry stone construction is one of the world's oldest construction methods
3. An examples of buildings created in dry stone construction include impressive ancient

structures like the pyramids in Egypt
4. Dry stone construction begins with a simple list of materials,
5. In dry stone construction the best stones will have lots of surface contact with stones
above and below them, which makes them more stable
6. In dry stone construction the builders start by clearing an area, debris, small stones, and
remains of trees to serve as the foundation.
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Operation sheet 6: laying stone
 Operation title: dry stone masonry work

 Purpose: how to construct dry stone masonry work
 Procedure:
Step 1. Selected prepared stone
Step 2.Set out the exact position of the wall
Step 3. Lay the first two courses using

Step 4. Always begin a wall with a large size stone
Step 5. Continue with the following stone off the corner in both directions
Step 6. Start with the second course again in the corner, but now place the corner stone in
the opposite direction from the corner stone in the first course
Step 7. The third course is exactly the same as the first course and the fourth course is
identical to the second course.
Step 8. Build all walls simultaneously for better bonding.
1. Measuring tape
2. String lines
4. Builders lines
5. Spirit level
6. stone hammer
7. Rubber mallets
Lap test-5
Task 1. Laying stone
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Unit seven: Fix slab stone using metal ties and adhesives
 Fix prepare stone slab to metal or masonry
 Adhesives
 Cement mortar
 plaster
 Use metal tie or dowels
 Fill dowel cavity
 Fix and prepare stone slab to metal or masonry
 Use metal ties and dowels
 Fill dowel cavity
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7.1 Fix prepare stone slab to metal or masonry
7.1.1 Adhesives
The most important requirement for a bedding mortar which is intended to transfer loads to the
foundation, be it concrete, brickwork or masonry, is for it to provide complete and permanent
filling of the space. Plain mortars, consisting of cement, aggregate and water, do not have such
characteristics. Several other properties of the bedding mortar such as cohesiveness, rapid
strength build-up, chemical resistance and compatibility with the operating environment are also
important. for most applications, the space between the foundation and the ironwork frame, stone
slab, masonry block or other component, can best be filled by placing the mortar onto the
foundation and then lowering the component and leveling it. a plain sand / cement mortar with
this consistency could be placed in the space and may develop adequate strength. However, after
placement, the simple mortar will lose contact with the component because of settlement,
shrinkage and bleeding and may not be able to resist dynamic forces and impact caused by
traffic. The resultant breakdown of the bedding will cause settlement, misalignment and possibly
danger. To maintain permanent contact with the component, a bedding mortar must be
formulated using special additives with cementations or resin systems. These mortars have a high
early strength, good eba (effective bearing area - which is the actual area of contact under a
bearing surface), and excellent dynamic resistance.
Primary Functions of Bedding Mortars
 Load transfer (EBA)

 Rapid Setting
 Lateral support Structural
 Component Bedding Mortar Complete void filling zero shrinkage
 Early load bearing, Dynamic resistance
 High bond strength
 Structural Component
 Bedding mortar
 Concrete foundation
Before starting stone or tiling works, it is important to select the correct bedding adhesive to
ensure its performance. No one single formula adhesive can be used with all stones/tiles and
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substrates. The first step in choosing a tile adhesive is to consider the location of the installation
e.g. whether the stones/tiles are to be installed inside or outside the building, to the wall or on the
floor, in a wet or dry area, and the type of receiving substrate e.g. concrete, render, screed
drywall, etc.
Classification of Adhesives
Mixture of hydraulic binding agents, aggregates and additives; to be mixed with water or other
liquid just before use. Type d (dispersion): ready -for-use mixture of binding agents in the form
of polymer dispersion, additives and other mineral fillers. type r (reaction resin): single or multi-
component mixture of synthetic resin, mineral fillers and other additives in which the curing
occurs by chemical reaction.
7.1.2. Cement mortar
Types of Cement & Sand Mortars

A basic thick bed mix is cement & sand in a 1:3 mix for floors and a cement, sand & lime mix of
1:5:0.5 or 1:7:1 for walls. There are two recognized ways of fixing stone using this mix (1)
fixing the stone on a mortar bed that is still plastic or (2) fixing onto an already cured bed.
This type of mortar is suitable for most surfaces; the thick bed (9-12mm) on walls and nominally
30mm on floors facilitates accurate slopes in the finished work and provides versatility for stone
with variable thickness.
The mortar can be reinforced with mesh or backed with fibre membranes Dry-set mortar is a
mixture of cement & sand with additives that enhance water retention and is used as a bond coat
for setting stone tile. It is typically a single layer 2-3mm thick into which the stone tiles are
tamped.
Dry set mortar is a factory prepared product to which water is added; it can be cleaned in water.
Once laid, it has excellent water and impact resistance and is not affected by prolonged contact
with water even though it does not form a water barrier. It is therefore popular for external work.
Latex cement mortar is a mixture of cement, sand & latex additives that is used as a bond coat
for setting stone tiles. This type of mortar is often used around swimming pools and in shower
recesses.
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Epoxy mortars employ epoxy resin and epoxy hardeners. They are used for sub-floor
applications e.g. concrete, wood & ceramic tile
7.1.3 Plaster
What is plastering?
Plastering is the process of covering rough surfaces of walls, columns, ceilings and
Otherbuilding components with thin coat of mortars to form a smooth durable surface. The c
oatingof mortar is termed as plaster.
Plastering is done to achieve the following objects:
 To protect the external surfaces against penetration of rainwater and other atmospherica
gencies.
 To give smooth surface in which dust and dirt cannot lodge.
 To give decorative effect.
 To protect surfaces against vermin.
 To conceal inferior materials or defective workmanship.
Requirements of good plaster
The plaster material should fulfill the following requirements:
It should adhere to the background, and should remain adhered during all variations inse
asons and other atmospheric conditions.
It should be hard and durable.
It should possess good workability.
It should be possible to apply it during all weather conditions.
It should be cost efficient.
It should effectively check penetration of moisture.
The selection of type of plaster depends upon the following factors:

Availability of binding materials.
Durability requirements.
Finishing requirements.
Atmospheric conditions and variations in weather.
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Location of surface (i.e. exposed surface or interior surface
7.2 . Using metal ties or dowels
Trussed Roof
In trussed roofs, all trusses shall be supported on the eave or roof-band. Where a trussed roof
adjoins a masonry gable, the ends of the purlins shall be carried on and secured to a plate
securely bolted to the band at the top of gable-end masonry (Figure -1).
Gable triangles are very weak when loaded perpendicular to their plane and may fail even in
small earthquakes. Hence, all trusses shall be sufficiently braced to transmit the lateral forces
from the roof to the appropriate cross walls. Also, where possible, gable walls should be made of
lightweight material
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Fig. Intermediate Truss Fixing
Fig. Roof Fixing Details at Walls
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7.3 Fill dowel cavity (grout)
Grout Joints
The width of joints varies with the stone; 3-6mm joints are usually used for smooth, honed or
polished stone whereas 6-10mm joints are used with stone that has a textured finish.
Adhesion installation methods usually require a minimum 6mm joint.
Use spacers to achieve neat corners & uniformity of grout joints.
Grouting
Grout is the mortar used to fill joints. Grouting should only commence when the area is
thoroughly dry – wait at least 24 hours after tile fixing.
Choose a grout color that will complement the natural color of the stone; conduct a small test
first to ensure the correct match.
Grout can be applied with a pointed trowel, rubber grouting trowel or squeegee.
Make sure the grout completely fills the spaces between the tiles to the full depth of the stone tile
leaving no hollow cavities that might allow moisture infiltration.
Wipe off any excess grout as you go, using a rubber squeegee. Drag a clean damp sponge
diagonally over the tiles to prevent the removal of the wet grout out of the joints; wash the
sponge regularly in clean water and wring out excess.
Leave the newly laid and grouted surface to dry and cure for at least 7 days before sealing or
walking on the floor.
Specification of Grouts
The joint width of tiles is not just a matter of design preference. The manufacturing tolerance of
the tiles should also be considered. For example, when using more dimensionally accurate tiles
(e.g. dry pressed tiles), the joint width could be smaller than using dimensionally less accurate
tiles (e.g. extruded tiles).
In accordance to BS 5385-3:2014, the width of the grout joint should not exceed the tile
thickness. There is a provision for wider joints if wider joints are required to accommodate
dimensional irregularities in the tiles, maintain modular control or provide a decorative effect.
The depth of the grout joints should be at least 2/3 of the tile thickness.
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While the minimum joint widths may be different between the wall and floor tiles, it is a good
practice to adopt a uniform joint width for both tiles. This will enable the joints to be consistent
and straight throughout the wall and floor tiles.
Grout is the material that is used to fill up the gap between tiles and support the tiles. It is
classified into cementations and reaction-resin types. They should have suitable fineness and
consistency that are compatible with the designed joint width, such that grout can fill the joints
successfully. Selecting the right type of grout is as important as selecting the right tile and
adhesive. Before proceeding, it is advisable to test its compatibility with the tile. Table 1
provides guidance on the selection criteria in accordance to BS EN 13888 and ISO 13007-3.
Table 1: Grout selection criteria

Classifications of Grout
There are 2 types and classifications of grout in accordance to EN 13888 and ISO 13007-3:-
 Cement-based grout (CG) : available in Sanded Grouts or Non-sanded Grout
Normal Performance (CG1)
Improved Performance (CG2)
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 Epoxy-based grout (RG)
Grout is visible and can be water-resistant. However, in most Portland cement based grouts,
water or other liquids can still be absorbed into the joints due to its capillary pores. Table 2.3.1
describes different types of grout and applications.
Table 2 Different types of grout and applications
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Self-check-7
1. One of the following points is the selection criteria of good plaster
A/ Availability of binding materials. C/ Finishing requirements
B/ Durability requirements. D/ All of the above are correct
2. One of the following is a part of mortar
A. Cement B. Aggregate C. Water D. All of the above

3. The main objective of plastering is done to achieve
A. To give smooth surface in which dust and dirt cannot lodge.
B. To give decorative effect.
C. To protect surfaces against vermin.
D. All of the above
4. ------------ is the mortar used to fill joints.
A. Mortar B. Grout C. Specification D. None
5. One of the following hand tools is used to applying of grout
A. pointed trowel C. Float
B. Rubber grouting trowel or squeegee. D. All of the above
6. One of the following is the classifications of grout in accordance to EN 13888 and ISO
13007-3:
A. Cement-based grout (CG) C. A & B
B. Epoxy-based grout (RG) D. None

1. In trussed roofs, all trusses shall be supported on the eave or roof-band
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2. In roof construction the ends of the purlins shall be carried on and secured to a plate
securely bolted to the band at the top of gable-end masonry
3. All trusses shall be sufficiently braced to transmit the lateral forces from the roof to the
appropriate cross walls
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Unit eight: Finish stone, brick & block surfaces and joints
 Remove excess mortar
 Rake joints
 Brush masonry work
 Clean excess mortar from masonry surfaces
 Rake joints of laid masonry work
 Brushing down brickwork, block works and stone
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8.1 Removing excess mortar
Cut out any defective mortar in exposed masonry and tuck point with mortar. Dry clean the
wall first, removing blobs of mortar with a wooden paddle, a brick, a trowel or a metal hoe.
 How to Clean Mortar Off stone tool is used, metal colors or surface
Dried-on mortar over the face of brick is unsightly and can ruin the appearance of a wall. The
easiest way to have clean bricks is to prevent mortar splatter during wall construction, but you
can also chisel off the mortar once it's dried. For mortar that you can't remove regardless of what
you do, using muriatic acid to remove the stubborn mortar may be a good solution. Irrespective
of your situation, it's important that you follow the correct procedures and take safety precautions
when cleaning mortar off of stone /brick
Step 1. Use the edge of a trowel to even out the mortar with the wall face. Use a forward lifting
and rolling motion with the short edge of your trowel to even out the mortar with the face of the
brick. Continue to do this as you lay new bricks to prevent mortar from bunching up and creating
large chunks on the bricks.
You can also use a large, clean sponge to even out the mortar with the face of the bricks.
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Step 2. Rub off remaining mortar dust with a medium-soft bristle brush. The goal is to brush
away dust on the face of your brick rather than wiping the mortar dust deeper into the brick.
Avoid pressing down on the brush and wipe away from the surface of the brick. Use a back and
forth motion until the mortar dust on the face of your wall is removed
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Step 3. Set up a scaffold 2 inches (5.08cm) from the wall to prevent mortar splatter. A
scaffold should be set up 2 inches (5.08cm) from the wall to prevent mortar splatter at the
base of your wall. Scaffold boards that are closest to the wall should be angled away and
slightly downward from the wall.
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Step 4. Allow larger clumps of mortar to dry before removing them. If you take all of
these precautionary measures, but large clumps of mortar still end up on your wall, you
should allow them to dry and then attempt to remove them using the chisel or acid
method.
Step 5. Wet down the stone/brick with a garden hose. Ensure that the mortar has had at least
7 days to dry before trying to remove the dried on mortar. Saturating the wall with water
before you chisel will make removing the mortar easier and can protect your bricks from
being damaged. Fully saturate the brick before you start working with a garden hose or with
buckets of water.
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Step 6. Tap the chisel parallel to the brick to remove excess mortar. Hold the chisel at a
20° to 30° angle against the face of your wall on areas that have built-up mortar. Lightly
tap on the end of the chisel and start to break the dried up mortar from off the wall. Start
from the top and work your way to the bottom. Continue to work slowly and carefully
until most of the mortar is removed from the wall.
Break up larger pieces of mortar into smaller more manageable pieces instead of trying to remove it all at
once.
Lime mortar is easier to remove than cement based mortar using this method
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Step 7. Wipe off excess mortar with a hard wire brush. Go in a back and forth motion over the
face of the unit to remove any broken up mortar dust. Try to scrape off any stubborn mortar that
wasn't removed from chiseling. Do not spend too much time in one area or you may discolor the
stone/brick in that area.
Step 8. Wait for mortar to set up before commencing cleaning. While industry standards
generally require masonry to be 7 days old before cleaning, it is possible to start cleaning
operations with chemicals 24 hours after completion of masonry work provided the mortar has
hardened. However, if after cleaning commences the mortar paste in the joints begins to wash
out, then cleaning should be stopped for several more days. For best results, cleaning should be
carried out within 30 days after work is completed.
8.2 Rake joints of laid masonry work

The object of finishing the joints is to impart better look to the stonework and to make it
more waterproof. Merely drawing one edge of trowel along the joints is detrimental for
brickworks as it may disturb the adhesion between the, mortar and the brick. The finishing of
joints as the brickwork proceeds is termed as jointing where as finishing of joints after the
brickwork has been completed is known as pointing.
Rake / rule Joints: A masonry joint in which a thin line has been cut in the face of the
mortar between bricks after it has been smoothed with a metal tool
The joint having all the brick and block laid at an angle to the facing and backing the wall
The object of finishing the joints is to impart better look to the stonework and to make it
more waterproof. Merely drawing one edge of trowel along the joints is detrimental for
brickworks as it may disturb the adhesion between the, mortar and the brick. The finishing of
joints as the brickwork proceeds is termed as jointing whereas finishing of joints after the
brickwork has been completed is known as pointing
How to Rake Joints in Brick Walls
Older brick and mortar walls commonly had raked joints, which are flat mortar joints
slightly recessed from the front edge of the brick. Modern masonry joints often bring the mortar
flush with the front edge to do a better job of sealing out moisture. If you need to repair
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mortar on a brick wall, you should maintain a similar joint with the rest of the mortar. It‘s a
simple process to rake mortar joints. You can even make your own tool to do it.
Fig 1 before raking and point of brick work
Fig 2 after raking and pointing of brick work
Steps for Raking/ruling joints

1:-Remove old damaged mortar from between the bricks using a hammer and chisel.
Remove mortar from both horizontal and vertical joints.
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2:- Save a chunk of mortar to take with you to the home improvement store so you can try to
match the mortar color. Matching mortar makes the repair work less noticeable, even though all
mortars change color slightly as they age.
3:- Cut a piece of 1-inch-by-2-inch lumber about 4 inches long with a circular saw.
Measure the depth of the raked joints on the brick wall. Hammer a 6d box nail into the end of the
piece of wood.
Leave the same amount of the nail sticking out of the wood as the depth of the joint. This is the
mortar rake.
4:-Mix mortar with water to the consistency of peanut butter. Let the mortar set for
about 10 minutes, then stir it again. This resting period lets the water absorb into the mortar.
5:- Pack mortar into the horizontal joints with a trowel. Smooth the front face of the
joint. Try to avoid letting any mortar fall onto the brick. Repeat the process for the vertical
joints. Let the mortar harden to the point where you cannot see your fingerprint when you press
into the mortar.
6:-Insert the nail head on the rake you made into a vertical joint. Pull the board straight
down to created a raked joint. Remove any mortar you pull away from the joint. Repeat this
process for all the vertical joints, and then move the rake from side to side do all the horizontal
joints. When you finish this step, the repaired joints should all be the same depth and
look like the original raked joints.
7:-Brush the surface of the bricks with a soft brush after the mortar dries to remove any excess
mortar you dropped on them.
Pointing
It is the process of sealing the masonry unit joints with good quality mortar. Sometimes it
gives ornamental /architectural appearance to the brick masonry work. Generally pointing is
done on outer or eternal exposed brick masonry surface
Steps in pointing work
Preparation of background: - before pointing the background has to be prepared by racking

the joints to a depth of 10 to 20 mm to give good bond. The racked joints are brushed out to clear
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of the dust. The racked joints after cleaning may be made wet for avoiding loss of moisture from
mortar by absorption.
Application of pointing: - The mortar will be pressed inside the joint. The finishing of the joint
can be done as per the requirement.
Types of pointing
Flush pointing: - formed by pressing mortar inside the joints and finishing it to outer surface of
masonry units.
Half round or concave pointing: - this is modification over flush pointing. Concave groove of
approximate size is formed at the center by special tools. This improves appearance.
Weather struck pointing: this is also a modification over flush pointing. Topside of mortar
joint is pressed inside the racked joint by about 10mm and made inclined up wards. It is suitable
for surfaces exposed to heavy rains, as it gives good drainage. This is also known as cut or
weathered or struck pointing.
Recessed pointing: - mortar is uniformly pressed inside the racked joint by about 5mm or more.
This gives good appearance. And collects dust and may need regular cleaning.
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Finishing of Brick Joints
The object of finishing the joints is to impart better look to the brickwork and to make it more
waterproof. Merely drawing one edge of trowel along the joints is detrimental for brickworks as
it may disturb the adhesion between the, mortar and the brick. The finishing of joints as the
brickwork proceeds is termed as jointing whereas finishing of joints after the brickwork has been
completed is known as pointing
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8.3 Brush masonry work
A masonry helper assists a mason who might be working with stone, brick, or tile. They would
assist the mason to carry the tools and materials needed for the job and set the location up for the
project. They might even help with the mortar and then assist with the site clean-up at the end of
each day
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One of the great things about doing masonry work apart from the pleasure of seeing a fantastic
job well done is in that masonry tools and masonry materials are basic, inexpensive, and easy to
understand and work with. Masonry work requires tools for various purposes i.e. handling of
mortar, for dressing of stone, for cutting of bricks to get required shape etc. As it goes with
traditions in existence since the days of the Ancient Indian and Egypt, masonry deals with some
common elements as crushed stones from the earth and simple metal tools.
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Self-check-8
1. Which one of the following points is true about of finishing the joints
A. It is to impart better look to the stonework C. A& B
B. It is to make it more waterproof. D. All of the above are correct
2. One of the following is hand tools used for raking/ruling joints

A. Hammer B. Chisel C. Tape measure D. All of the above
3. It is possible to remove old damaged mortar from bricks using a hammer and chisel
A. True B. False
1. After grouting, all remaining smears of dried grout or mortar need to be removed before
sealing
2. Removing of removing excess mortar from the wall can be achieved by rubbing lightly
with a dry cloth or scouring pad.
3. Acid based cleaning solutions on porous stone may damage both the stone and grout
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Operation sheet 7: raking joints
 Operation title: raking joints for masonry work

 Purpose: how to rake masonry work
 Procedure:
Step 1. Remove old damaged mortar from between the bricks using a hammer and
chisel.
Step 2. Save a chunk of mortar to take with you to the home improvement store so you can try to
match the mortar color
Step 3. Cut a piece of 1-inch-by-2-inch lumber about 4 inches long with a circular saw.
Step 4. Mix mortar with water to the consistency of peanut butter
Step 5. Pack mortar into the horizontal joints with a trowel. Smooth the front face of the joint.
Step 6. Insert the nail head on the rake you made into a vertical joint.
Step 7. Brush the surface of the bricks with a soft brush after the mortar dries to remove any
excess mortar you dropped on them
1. Trowels
2. Jointing tools
3. Angle grinder
4. Builders lines
5. Rakes
6. Brooms
Lap test-6
Task 1. Raking joints
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Unit nine: Clean up
 Clean, maintain and store tools and equipment
 Dispose and reuse waste materials
 Maintaining tools, plants and equipment
 Clean, maintain and store tools and equipment
 Dispose and reuse waste materials
 Maintaining tools, plants and equipment
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9.1 Clean, maintain and storing tools and equipment
Maintenance is an excellent means of improving the performance and condition of equipment

and facilities.
Maintenance - work that is done regularly to keep equipment, buildings and grounds in good
condition and working order.
An effective maintenance program identified problems long before any equipment or facility
breaks down or deteriorate.
A good maintenance system presents the early discovery of problems, thus providing plenty of
lead time for effective maintenance planning.
What we can gain from maintaining our facilities?

 Ensured Safe Environment
 Improved Morale of Human Resources
 Reduced Operational Cost
 Increased Production
 Prolonged Life of Facilities
 Prompt Delivery of Services/Product
 Waste/Garbage Reduction
Maintenance Program
A maintenance program is a comprehensive list of maintenance and its incidents.
A maintenance schedule is a list allocating specific maintenance of an area, including

equipment and tools to a specific period.
TYPES OF MAINTENANCE
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A. Preventive Maintenance
Maintenance performed to PREVENT or FIND failures BEFORE they develop into a

breakdown.
1. Time-Based Maintenance
Cleaning, lubrication, programmed replacements and repairs.
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Eg. Change oil every month.
2. Condition-Based Maintenance
Monitoring of temperature, hydraulic fluid, wear, surface condition, crack, leaks, vibration,
corrosion/erosion, electric insulation, etc.
A. Predictive Maintenance.
Maintenance performed at a scheduled point in time when the maintenance activity is most cost
effective and before the equipment fails.
C. Corrective Maintenance
Maintenance performed to CORRECT or REPAIR a failure.

1. Controlled Maintenance
Condition Improvement/enhancement of equipment.
Eg. Engine overhaul. Also referred to as Proactive Maintenance performed to stabilize the
reliability of machines or equipment.
2. Breakdown Maintenance
Repair done when the equipment fails while in operation. Also referred to as Reactive
Maintenance
– Maintenance performed as a reaction to a failure.
9.2 Dispose and reuse waste materials

Observe the following point
 All excess material should not be wasted, but used or safely removed from site according
to appropriate legislation.
 Identify the waste types that are likely to be produced and aim to reduce the amount of
waste as much as possible, through identifying routes to reuse or recycle materials.
 Control access to storage areas to minimize risk of theft or damage.
 Set up a dedicated store for timber, from which workers can re-use supplies
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 .-Store any materials away from sensitive locations in fenced off areas.
 -Label all waste storage and skips, detailing the type of waste.
 -Employ a just-in-time policy to deliver materials in order to reduce the storage time on
site.
 Consider using recycled materials and recycle any materials used on site rather than
disposing of them (including timber, Brick Block) CIRIA provides lists of recycled
materials that companies will accept.
Reusing refers to using an object as it is without treatment. This reduces pollution and waste,
thus making it a more sustainable process.
The reusing process is not just about re-purposing materials, but the object as it is. This includes
buying and selling used goods and repairing items rather than discarding them.
Reusing is better than recycling because it saves the energy that comes with having to dismantle
and re-manufacture products. It also significantly reduces waste and pollution because it reduces
the need for raw materials, saving both forests and water supplies.
Purpose
When looking into environmental sustainability
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9.3 Maintaining tools, plants and equipment
1. cleaning
A clean, well-ordered, attractive work environment sets the tone of your establishment. It
encourages tidy work habits in employees. It helps reduce fatigue. It promotes good worker-
management relations. It also gives a lift to morale, which is reflected in the quality of
production and overall efficiency. Good housekeeping is also a good advertisement for your
company. Customers and clients have more confidence in an organization when they we work
being carried out efficiently in clean, pleasant, well ordered surroundings. There‘s an even more
important reason why good housekeeping matters — it makes the undertaking a safer place to
work in.
2. Maintaining Plant, tools and equipment
Proper tools and equipment are essential for the effective operation of any civil works site.
Equipping the construction site with the correct tools and equipment plays an essential role in
achieving timely and good quality results. For every construction activity there is an optimal
combination of tools, equipment and labor. Depending on the nature and content of the works,
the technical staff needs to know which tools to use and how to effectively combine them with
manual labor.
Once on site, equipment requires trained operators and supervisory staff who are proficient in its
operation and maintenance.
Faulty equipment is a common reason for delays on construction sites. A major responsibility of
the project management is to ensure that tools and equipment are maintained in a good condition
and are readily available when required for the various work activities.
For certain construction activities, particularly hauling of materials and compaction, high labor
productivity and good quality of work may be difficult to achieve using only manual labor and
hand tools. In such cases, using light construction equipment can increase the efficiency of work.
Site supervisors need to know how to use the tools and how to operate the equipment in order to
secure good work progress and the expected high quality results. It is also important that staff
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know the full potential, as well as the limitation, of the use of manual and equipment-based
works methods.
Finally, tools and equipment need regular maintenance, requiring good workshop facilities, a
reliable supply of spare parts and qualified mechanical staff.
Instructions
1. Clean the construction tools and equipment after each day's work. While a
thorough cleaning is not required each day, a general wipe-down and removal
of the heaviest construction dirt is key to extending the life of the tools.
2. Keep airlines and electrical cords protected from heavy foot-traffic and
construction vehicles. Forklifts, or other motorized machinery, can easily cut
or crush cords and hoses, preventing the tools from working properly, and
creating potential electrical hazards. Cover the electrical cords with purpose-
built ramps or casing.
3. Lubricate air tools and pneumatic equipment before each day's use.
Condensation in the airline creates an environment for corrosion inside
pneumatic tools. Coating the internal components of these tools with air-tool
oil will displace the moisture and prevent tool corrosion.
4. Inspect and repair all construction equipment and tools at the completion of
each job. Make all repairs to the equipment that are necessary for future
construction work. This will prevent time being wasted repairing faulty
equipment at future construction job sites
How to Maintain Tools & Equipment at Construction Site?
In construction workplace all tools, equipments and vehicles should be maintained properly so
that workers are not seriously at risk of extinction. Work place management should inspect all
tools, equipments and vehicles, whether it is properly working or not. To limit downtime and
extend productivity we should maintain effectively the tools, equipments, machinery and
vehicles. So that we can reduce the operational costs of the construction project. It is also
important to know that all the maintenance tasks are also hazardous too. The successful
maintenance program is:
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1. Good planning and managing effectively
2. Identifying and controlling hazards at workplaces
3. Define operational procedures
4. Providing proper training to workers for effective utilization of tools, machinery,
equipment and vehicles.
In construction workplace, different equipment have different inspection requirements. For

example, heavy vehicles such as cranes have very specific inspection and maintenance
requirements. Mobile heavy vehicles such as loaders, dozers, scrapers etc may have different
maintenance requirements. Passenger vehicles such as trucks, cars, vans, etc may require only
normal requirements. Power tools like blades are replaced when needed and that guards should
be maintained in good working order. Other safety devices are operable and any damaged
electrical cords are repaired or replaced, etc.
General requirements for equipment maintenance include:
1. Keep a copy of the maintenance schedule as instructed by the manufacturer.

2. Ensuring that the persons performing the maintenance are competent (eg. licensed
mechanic).
3. Ensuring that maintenance is performed as required.
4. Retaining records of maintenance/service conducted.
5. Set up a system for removal and tagging of damaged or defective tools and equipment.
6. Specifying who is the supervisor of equipment and also the places where records are
kept.
3. Storing Plant, tools and equipment

Improve Storage Facilities: Tidiness and order are essential in overcoming storage problems,
both in storerooms and in the yard. Good storage utilizes air space instead of floor space, and
also saves time-wasting delays. It‘s important to prevent stores and scraps accumulating on the
floor and around machines. Never keep more stores and materials than necessary near machines
and provide proper facilities (such as bins, shelves, boxes, racks, etc.) in which to store them.
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Keep Floors Clean: Every year thousands of work injuries are caused by people falling. Floor
conditions are responsible for many of these accidents. When floors are given the right treatment
they are much easier to keep clean and hygienic.
Spilt oil and other liquids should be cleaned up at once. Chips, shavings, dust, and similar wastes
should never be allowed to accumulate. They should be removed frequently, or better still, be
suitably trapped before they reach the floor
Paint the Walls: Paint is one of the cheapest means of renovating walls, and a fresh coat of paint
can give a boost to morale. Light-colored walls reflect light. Dirty or dark-colored walls absorb
light. Dirty walls have a depressing effect and encourage dirty habits and sloppy attitudes.
Choose suitable colors to paint walls, ceilings and working surfaces. See that the paintwork is
cleaned down periodically
4. checking,
Prepare Check List:
A sound method to ensure that housekeeping is done is for management to prepare a check list to
suit the requirements of the workplace. The following can serve as a guide for nearly all
industries.
Sample Checklist:
Buildings
(1) Walls clean.
(2) Windows clean.
(3) Walls free of unnecessary hangings.
(4) Proper light provided.
(5) Platforms in good condition.
(6) Stairs clean and well lit. Handrails and steps of sound construction and well
maintained.
Floors
(1) Good floor surface.
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(2) Kept clean and free of loose material. Clean in corners, behind radiators, along walls,
and around pillars or columns.
(3) Free of oil, grease, etc.
(4) Operating floors, or work positions free of loose scrap, metal or other materials.
(5) Free of unnecessary articles.
(6) Bins provided for refuse.
Aisles
(1) Free of obstructions.
(2) Safe and free passage to fire-fighting equipment and fire exits.
(3) Safe and free access to work positions.
(4) Clearly defined.
The good housekeeping checklist Check off your housekeeping programme against this
checklist. Better still, make a more comprehensive list of your own.
Machinery and Equipment
(1) Clean and free of unnecessary material.
(2) Free of unnecessary dripping of oil or grease.
(3) Area around machines clean and free of rags, paper, etc.
(4) Lockers and cupboards clean and free of unnecessary material both on top and inside.
(5) Benches and seats clean and in good condition.
(6) Drinking fountains clean.
(7) Toilet facilities clean and well ventilated.
(8) Proper guards provided and in good condition.
(9) First-aid facilities and equipment fully stocked and in clean condition
Stock and Material
(1) Properly piled and arranged
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(2) Kept in storage areas.
Tools
(1) Properly arranged in place.
(2) Free of oil and grease.
(3) Inspected and maintained in good order.
(4) Tool rooms and racks in clean and orderly condition.

Grounds
(1) Yard and building surrounds free of refuse such as fruit peelings, scrap, wood, iron,
etc.
(2) Grounds kept free of weeds and overgrown vegetation.
(3) Wastes and refuse removed frequently.
Good housekeeping helps to create:
Better working conditions
Safer workplaces
Greater efficiency.
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Self-check-9
1. What we can gain from maintaining our facilities?
A. Ensured Safe Environment C. Reduced Operational Cost
B. Improved Morale of Human Resources D. All of the above are correct
2. --------is a type of maintenance performed at a scheduled point in time when the

maintenance activity is most cost effective and before the equipment fails
A. Corrective Maintenance C. Predictive Maintenance
B. Time-Based Maintenance D. All of the above are correct
3. -------is an excellent means of improving the performance and condition of equipment

and facilities
A. Maintenance B. Deposing C. Cleaning D. None

4. Good housekeeping helps to create:
A. Better working conditions C. Greater efficiency
B. Safer workplaces D. All
5. Which of the following Information is true about Machinery and Equipment neatness
A. Clean and free of unnecessary material.
B. Free of unnecessary dripping of oil or grease.
C. Benches and seats clean and in good condition. D. All of the above
6. The successful maintenance program include one of the following
A. Good planning and managing effectively

B. Identifying and controlling hazards at workplaces
C. Define operational procedures
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D. All of the above
1. Reusing refers to using an object as it is without treatment
2. One of the Purpose of reusing is environmental sustainability
3. To minimize risk in the work site storage waste materials according to their kind.
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Reference
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Participants of this Module (training material) preparation
No Name Qualificati Field of Study Organizatio Mobile E-mail
on (Level) n/ number
Institution
1 Habtamu B(BSC) Civil Engineering Ethio Italy 0948284573/ wendimagegnhabtamu@
Wendmagegn poly 0910797363 gmil.com
2 Derbabaw Mulaw A(MSC) Con Mgt Gonder 0967593066 Derbabawmulaw2020@
gmil.com
3 Tibebnesh G/ Micael A(MSC) Con Mgt Awasa 0919116033 Tibebnesh1 @ gmil.com
4 Seblewengel bekele A(MSC) Con Mgt Bishoftu 0934916466 Seblewengelb4@gmail.co
5 Remedan Mohamed B(BSC) Con Mgt Harer poly 0974720826 Mohamed remedan82@
gmil.com

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STRUCTURAL CONSTRUCTION

Module Title: - Laying Masonry Unit

Page 1 of 187 Ministry of Labor and Laying masonry unit Version -1

Introduction to the Module .................................................................................................................. 8

Unit one: plan and prepare work ........................................................................................................... 10

1.1. Quality assurance requirements .............................................................................................. 11

1.2. OHS requirements .................................................................................................................. 14

1.3. Job requirements .................................................................................................................... 16

1.4. Personal protective equipment ................................................................................................ 19

1.5. Safety protective requirements ............................................................................................... 21

1.6. Tools and equipment .............................................................................................................. 28

1.6.1 Tools ..................................................................................................................................... 28

1.6.2 Equipment/Machinery ........................................................................................................... 35

1.7. Drawings, specification and schedules .................................................................................... 37

1.7.1 Drawing ................................................................................................................................ 37

1.7.2 Specifications ........................................................................................................................ 39

1.7.3 Scheduling ............................................................................................................................ 40

1.8. Select materials ...................................................................................................................... 42

Unit Two: Bed stone into mortar........................................................................................................... 50

2.1 Select prepare stone................................................................................................................ 51

2.2 Types of mortar ...................................................................................................................... 56

Page 2 of 187 Ministry of Labor and Laying masonry unit Version -1

2.4 Laying stone .......................................................................................................................... 60

2.6 Use backing materials ............................................................................................................ 72

2.7 Maintain cavities .................................................................................................................... 72

Operation sheet 2.1: ........................................................................................................................... 75

Operation sheet 2.2: ........................................................................................................................... 76

Lap test-1 .......................................................................................................................................... 76

Unit three: set out brick and block work ................................................................................................ 77

3.1 Erect work platform ............................................................................................................... 78

3.2 Locations of structural details ................................................................................................. 79

3.3 Locate and footing set out area checked .................................................................................. 79

3.4 Setting out brick and block works ........................................................................................... 84

Operation sheet 3.1 ............................................................................................................................ 90

Operation sheet 3.2 ............................................................................................................................ 91

Lap test-2 .......................................................................................................................................... 91

Unit four: construct brick and block walls ............................................................................................. 92

4.1 Laying styles brick and block wall.......................................................................................... 93

4.2 Construct brick and block wall ............................................................................................... 99

4.3 Leveling wall ....................................................................................................................... 105

4.4 Building damp proof courses ................................................................................................ 106

4.5 Construct opening and install lintels ..................................................................................... 111

Page 3 of 187 Ministry of Labor and Laying masonry unit Version -1

Self-check-4 .................................................................................................................................... 123

Operation sheet 4 ............................................................................................................................. 125

Lap test-3 ........................................................................................................................................ 125

Unit five: perform dry bed stone and grout.......................................................................................... 126

5.1 Prepare appropriate stone ..................................................................................................... 127

5.1 Prepare joint ......................................................................................................................... 131

Self-check-5 .................................................................................................................................... 134

Operation sheet 5 ............................................................................................................................. 135

Lap test-4 ........................................................................................................................................ 135

Unit six: perform dry stone construction ............................................................................................. 136

6.1. Select prepared stone............................................................................................................ 137

6.2. Laying stone ........................................................................................................................ 138

6.3. Laying capping stone ........................................................................................................... 140

6.4. Laying wall .......................................................................................................................... 142

Self-check-6 .................................................................................................................................... 144

Operation sheet 6 ............................................................................................................................. 145

Lap test-5 ........................................................................................................................................ 145

7.1 Fix prepare stone slab to metal or masonry ........................................................................... 147

7.1.1 Adhesives ........................................................................................................................... 147

7.1.2. Cement mortar ................................................................................................................... 148

7.1.3 Plaster ................................................................................................................................. 149