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Rod Cross
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Abstract
Measurements are presented on the dynamic properties of several different tennis balls,
during impacts on a force plate. The force on a tennis ball rises rapidly to about half its
maximum value in the ®rst 200 ls of the impact due to compression of the cloth cover
and the rubber wall near the impact point. The wall then collapses inwards, resulting in
a sudden decrease in ball stiffness. Results are presented on the force waveform, the
impact duration, ball compression and coef®cient of restitution as a function of ball
speed.
Apparatus
A measurement of the force acting on a ball when it
impacts with a rigid surface provides data on the
elastic properties of a ball under dynamic condi-
tions. These properties can be quite different from
those measured during a static compression. The
apparatus used in this experiment to measure ball Figure 1 Apparatus used to measure the dynamic properties of a
properties under dynamic conditions is shown in tennis ball. The grounded circuit board was used as an
Fig. 1. The upper part of Fig. 1 shows the rotating electrostatic shield, since the ball charged electrically during
wheel ball launcher, and the lower part shows the compression. The Zn paste provided good electrical contact
force plate used to measure the force on the ball. and minimized mechanical cross-talk between the four piezos.
also commonly observed in the standard 100 inch Hooke's law F ±kx, where F is the force acting
drop test, can be attributed to (a) the effect of the on the ball, x is the ball compression and k is the
seam (b) the fact that balls are not required to be effective spring constant of the ball. This leads to
perfectly spherical and (c) the wall thickness is not the result that F vs. t is a half-sine waveform of
required to be perfectly uniform. duration
The lower force plate was constructed by the
author, since force plates with a suitably high p
s p m=k 1
frequency response are not available commercial-
ly. Commercial force plates are designed primarily
where m is the mass of the ball (Cross 1999b).
for biomechanical applications and suffer from
There is no energy loss in the ball in this case.
resonances in the plates for short duration impacts
However, it is shown below that the force on a
(Cross 1999a). The apparatus shown in Fig. 1 is
tennis ball is a strongly nonlinear function of the
quite simple, although it was developed after
ball compression, and the dynamics cannot be
many trial and error iterations to obtain a reliable
expressed simply in any analytical form. Neverthe-
response. The main component is an array of four
less, it is also shown below that Eq. (1) provides a
square piezoelectric ceramic plates, each of di-
useful estimate of the impact duration, provided
mensions 50 ´ 50 ´ 4 mm. Each plate has two
that k is interpreted as a time±average value of the
silvered electrodes bonded to and covering each of
ratio F/y where y is the displacement of the centre
the large surfaces on opposite sides of the plate.
of mass of the ball.
The four piezos were arranged in a large square
When a ball of mass m impacts vertically on a
of dimensions 100 ´ 100 ´ 4 mm, connected elec-
rigid surface at speed v1, it experiences an impulsive
trically in parallel, and were mounted on a steel
force, F, which is typically 100±1000 times larger
backing plate of dimensions 140 ´ 140 ´ 25 mm.
than mg. The force is given by F mdv/dt where
The dimensions of the array were chosen so that
v dy/dt is the velocity of the centre of mass
the contact area of the ball remained less than the
(CM) of the ball and y is the vertical displacement
area of the array. A single, suitably large area
of the CM of the ball. A measurement of F vs. t can
piezo was not available commercially. A similar
therefore be used to obtain y vs. t by numerical
system was described recently for testing baseballs
solution of the equation
(Hendee et al. 1998). The latter authors did not
give any details of the frequency response of their
system. The force plate shown in Fig. 1 provided d2 y=dt2 F=m; 2
an accurate response, free of plate resonances, for
impacts of duration between 100 ls and 100 ms, assuming that at t 0, y 0 and dy/dt v1.
as measured by bouncing a steel ball on the plate A plot of F vs. y represents a dynamic hysteresis
and by walking on the plate. The low frequency curve, analogous to the static hysteresis curve
response was limited by the RC time constant of obtained when one plots F vs. ball compression
the system, where C represents the capacitance under static conditions (Brody 1979). The rules of
of the piezos and R 10 MW is the resistance of tennis currently specify bounds for such a static
the voltage probe used to record the output hysteresis curve, but do not refer directly to
signal. dynamic hysteresis measurements. Typical F vs. t
waveforms observed with the force plate are shown
in Fig. 2, together with the corresponding y vs. t
Theoretical model of ball impact
and F vs. y curves computed from Eq. (2).
on a rigid surface
The area enclosed by a dynamic hysteresis curve,
The dynamics of the bounce of a ball can be for a complete compression and expansion cycle,
predicted approximately by assuming that it obeys represents the loss of energy during the collision.
Figure 2 A sample of results obtained with three different balls, including a Dunlop Airloc ball (previously unused, low pressure or
depressurized over time but still very ®rm), Wilson (brand new, pressurized) and a well-used, old, soft, depressurized Slazenger ball.
The ball compresses during the collision, convert- changing the total energy of the ball, so the total
ing the initial kinetic energy to potential energy, energy after the collision (including the energy
and then expands to convert the potential energy dissipated in the ball) is the same as the total energy
back to kinetic energy. However, energy is dissi- before the collision. A ball can rebound in either a
pated in the ball during this process, with the result compressed or elongated state depending on the
that the rebound speed, v2, is less than v1. The rate at which the ball recovers from the compres-
reduction in kinetic energy is given by sion and depending on the amplitude of any
I oscillations excited by the impact. All balls studied
in this paper rebounded in a slightly compressed
F dy m v21 ÿ v22 =2; 3
state, so that y remained ®nite when F dropped to
zero at the end of the impact.
which can be equated to the energy dissipated in
the ball. Eq. (3) is easily derived from the relation
Effects of cloth and rubber
F mdv/dt m(dv/dy) (dy/dt) where v dy/dt,
on initial impact force
but the circumstances are unusual in that (a) the
ball is not a rigid body and (b) the force is applied at As shown in Fig. 2, the force on a tennis ball rises
a point on the ball that remains stationary during rapidly during the ®rst 0.2 ms of the impact, to a
the impact. As a result, no work is done by F in value that is typically about half the maximum force
at high ball speeds. This effect can be attributed to 3-mm thick rubber cut from a pressurized tennis
compression of the cloth and underlying rubber in ball and glued side-by-side to the bottom section of
a small region surrounding the initial impact point. another 6-inch diameter aluminium sphere of wall
The impact properties of the cloth cover were thickness 3 mm. As shown in Fig. 3, the impact
investigated separately by covering a 6-inch duration in this case was 3 ms for a 20-mm drop,
(15.24 cm) diameter spherical aluminium ball, of and 2 ms for a 60-mm drop, indicating that the
wall thickness 3 mm, with standard tennis ball rubber is stiffer than the cloth by a factor of about
cloth of thickness about 3 mm. The mass of the four. Also shown in Fig. 3 are the corresponding
ball plus the cloth was 532 g. Without the cover, impacts when several strips of rubber, with cloth
the impact duration of the ball on the piezo array attached to the rubber, are glued to the aluminium
was 0.8 ms, as shown in Fig. 3. The addition of the ball to form a 6-mm thick composite covering. The
cover increased the impact duration to 5 ms for a combination of the cloth and the rubber is softer
low speed collision (20 mm drop height) or to 4 ms than the rubber or the cloth alone, and the impact
at a slightly higher ball speed (60 mm drop height). durations are correspondingly longer.
High speed impacts were not investigated in order The impact force waveform for the uncovered
to avoid possible damage to the ceramic piezos. aluminium ball is a half-sine wave, indicating that
Despite the low speed of these impacts, the the compression of the ball is linearly proportional
resulting force on the cloth was within the range to the applied force. The force waveform for the
of the impact forces acting on a tennis ball at high cloth-covered ball is an exponentially rising and
speed. falling bell-shaped curve, indicating that the force
The impact properties of the rubber were inves- is exponentially proportional to the compression of
tigated by a similar procedure, using several strips of the cloth. An analysis of the hysteresis curves for
the cloth-covered ball shows that, during the
compression phase,
Typical results
Measurements of the peak force, contact duration, observable change in properties. The ball had a
ball compression and the coef®cient of restitution, mass of 58.1 g and a diameter of 67.0 mm. The
e, were made for a variety of pressurized and other ball was a Wilson `US Open' pressurized ball,
unpressurized tennis balls, as a function of ball of mass 56.5 g and diameter 65.0 mm, tested
speed, v1. For this purpose, a ball launcher was immediately after opening a can of new balls.
constructed using two counter-spinning wheels of Results for the Dunlop ball are shown in Figs 7
variable speed. The maximum ball speed was and 8, and results for the Wilson ball are shown in
limited to 17 ms±1 with this apparatus. Within this Figs 9 and 10. Figures 7 and 9 show the peak force,
range of ball speeds, all new balls tested were very Fmax, and the contact duration, s, as a function of
similar in performance. Consequently, results for ball speed. Figures 8 and 10 show e and the
only two balls are presented in this paper. One set parameter ymax as a function of ball speed. ymax
of results is given for a Dunlop Airloc ball, partly represents the maximum displacement of the CM,
because this ball (like unpressurized balls) can be calculated from the measured force waveform and
tested over a period of several months without any ball speed, as described above.