Pathways To Just, Resilient and Livable African Cities - Final

PATHWAYS TO JUST,
RESILIENT AND LIVEABLE

AFRICAN CITIES
A POSITIVE URBANISATION NARRATIVE

Authors: Prof. Alfred Omenya | Rose Lukalo-Owino
PATHWAYS TO JUST,
RESILIENT AND
LIVEABLE AFRICAN
CITIES
© Friedrich-Ebert-Stiftung Kenya Office, 2022
All rights reserved. No part of this publication should be

reproduced without the written permission from the publisher
except for brief quotations in books or critical reviews. For
information and permission, write to Friedrich-Ebert-Stiftung
Kenya Office. Opinions expressed are those of the authors, and
do not necessarily reflect the views of Friedrich-Ebert-Stiftung
or UN-Habitat.
ISBN 9966-957-35-9
Photo credits: Shutterstock
Friedrich Ebert Stiftung, Kenya Office

info@fes-kenya.org
P.O. Box 14932-00800
Nairobi, Kenya
© SHUTTERSTOCK.COM
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
This White Paper is the result of a partnership between the Friedrich-Ebert-Stiftung - Kenya
Office and the United Nations Human Settlements Programme (UN-Habitat). From UN-
Habitat - Oumar Sylla,Charles Wagura and Njoki Ng’ethe. From FES Bastian Schulz,Titus
Kaloki , Robert Muthami and Cynthia Muthoni
Parts I and 4 on the impact of the COVID-19 pandemic and maximising the urbanisation
dividend were authored by Prof. Alfred Omenya, an environmental architect and sustainable
development expert. Parts 2 and 3 on the digitilisation dividend and climate change and
cities were authored by Rose Lukalo-Owino, a media practitioner and communications
consultant. The lead consultant and editor of this publication was Rasna Warah, a writer,
researcher and urbanist.
CONTENTS
01| Introduction
05 | Part 1: Surviving the COVID-19 Pandemic:

Insights from Africa’s Urban Areas
16 | Part 2: Harnessing the Digitalisation

Dividend in Africa Cities
36 | Part 3: Climate Change and the African

City
50 | Part 4: Maximising Africa’s Urbanisation

Dividend
INTRODUCTION
PATHWAYS TO JUST, RESILIENT AND LIVABLE AFRICAN CITIES | 1
AFRICA’S FUTURE IS URBAN
United Nations estimates indicate that urban areas in Africa will be home to
nearly one billion people, or slightly more than half the continent’s population,
by 2035.1 Africa is rapidly urbanising; in the last three decades, the number
of cities in Africa has doubled from 3,300 to 7,700.2 This massive expansion
of urban populations will challenge urban areas’ resources and lead to calls
for urban governments to scale up rapidly and efficiently to ensure planning,
management and financing of infrastructure and public services that match the
Urban areas in Africa needs of this growing population.
will be home to nearly Data shows that despite the high levels of urban poverty and inequality,
one billion people by urbanisation has brought about significant social and economic benefits to
2035. In the last three urban populations in Africa. Urban children receive nearly 5 years more education
than their rural counterparts. City dwellers also have better access to services,
decades, the number
such as water and electricity, than people living in rural villages. Wages in
of cities in Africa has large African cities are twice as high as in rural areas and underemployment
doubled from 3,300 to is less prevalent.3 While agriculture is the still the mainstay of predominantly
7,700. rural African economies, in an increasing number of highly urbanised African
countries, cities are not only driving national economies but also expanding
economic opportunities.
Africa’s Urban Population (2015-2035)
Year 2015 2020 2025 2030 2035

Population (millions) 492 588 698 824 966
Source: UN-Habitat, World Cities Report 2022
Cities generate agglomeration economies that increase productivity, and are the
sites of innovation, creativity and entrepreneurship. According to a joint OECD-
UN report, labour productivity in five African countries (Ethiopia, Malawi, Nigeria,
Tanzania and Uganda) increased by an average of 0.3 per cent when the urban
population increased by 10 per cent.4 African national and city governments
should, therefore, view urbanisation as an opportunity to raise citizens’ quality
of life and to bring about prosperity, not just to cities and their citizens, but to
countries and the region as a whole. This means investing in urban areas, both
large and small.
While agriculture is African cities are also sites of immense innovation and creativity and arenas
the still the mainstay for social interactions. They are creating wealth, attracting investment, and
harnessing resources to bring about sustainable urban development. In our new
of predominantly rural knowledge-based economies, cities have also become hubs for information and
African economies, in communication technological innovations that are improving the lives of millions
an increasing number of people across the continent.
of highly urbanised
It is now generally recognised that problems such as climate change and rising
African countries, cities inequalities require an urban response. By highlighting the positive achievements
are not only driving of African national and local governments in bringing about just and sustainable
national economies urbanisation, we can inspire hope, confidence, collaboration and support among
those who are trying to make African cities more just, democratic, resilient,
but also expanding
inclusive and livable.
economic opportunities.
INVESTING IN AFRICA’S URBAN FUTURE

The question we seek to answer in this publication is how urbanisation can be
a positive force in Africa’s transformation. The topics covered are informed by
the United Nations Sustainable Development Goal 11 of making cities more
inclusive, safe, resilient and sustainable, and the African Union’s Agenda 2063,
the blueprint for transforming Africa into a global powerhouse of the future.
PART 1 provides insights on how African cities coped with the COVID-19
pandemic and the lessons they learned from this global disruption
of public health systems and economies. This part underscores the
importance of good urban planning in the wake of a public health
crisis and the critical role of the informal sector in African economies.
PART 2 provides several examples of how digitalisation is impacting African

By highlighting the urban dwellers and increasing their access to services. It shows how
“smart cities” are driving innovation and entrepreneurship in several
positive achievements
African countries, but warns that without adequate data protection
of African national and regulations, digitalisation could be used to weaken democracy
and local governments and deny people their rights to the city. Technological innovations can
in bringing about also end up serving corporate rather than citizens’ interests, so there
is need to ensure that technology does not further marginalise those
just and sustainable who are excluded from the benefits of urban life.
urbanisation,
we can inspire PART 3 explores how climate change – one the greatest threats facing
hope, confidence, humanity in the 21st century – is impacting African cities. This part
demonstrates practical solutions of how African cities are coping
collaboration and and can mitigate against climate change by bolstering their resilience
support among those through appropriate policies and practices.
who are trying to make
PART 4 looks at how African countries can take advantage of the “urbanisation
African cities more just,
dividend” to drive their economies through key investments in urban
democratic, inclusive infrastructure and more decentralised forms of urban governance that
and livable. make cities more accountable to their citizens. Investing in Africa’s
largely youthful population, both male and female, is also a prerequisite
to maximising this dividend.
Since Africa’s future is If implemented, the lessons and recommendations listed could go a long way in
urban, the decisions making African cities more liveable, democratic, just, prosperous and resilient.
The decisions made by city leaders and national governments at this point in
taken by African cities Africa’s history will have a massive bearing on the future of urbanisation on
and governments the continent. National governments must, therefore, consider urban areas
today will determine as an integral part of economic planning, and develop and implement urban
what the continent’s policies that support sustainable urbanisation. Since Africa’s future is urban, the
decisions taken by African cities and governments today will determine what
future will look like. the continent’s future will look like.
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REFERENCES
1. UN-Habitat. 2022. World Cities Report 2022:

Envisaging the Future of Cities, UN-Habitat, Nairobi.
2. OECD/UN ECA/AfDB (2022), Africa Urbanisation

Dynamics 2022: The Economic Power of Africa’s
Cities. West African Studies. OECD Publishing, Paris.
3. Ibid.
4. Ibid.
SURVIVING
THE COVID-19
PANDEMIC –
INSIGHTS FROM
AFRICA’S URBAN
AREAS
Prof. Alfred Omenya
The COVID-19 pandemic had a significant Africa will need at least $432 billion to address
negative impact on African countries the effects of COVID-19 on its economies and
and their urban areas. According to the the lives of its people4 This global public health
World Bank, the pandemic is estimated crisis was a huge setback towards attaining the
to have pushed up to 40 million people 17 Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) by
on the continent into extreme poverty. 2030, including building sustainable cities and
The continent’s economy suffered a communities, eradicating poverty, providing
pandemic-induced contraction of 1.6 per access to clean water and sanitation, promoting
cent in 2020. Job losses in the formal and good health and well-being and achieving
informal sectors and business closures due gender equality.
lockdowns and curfews led to a rise in the
number of people living in poverty. One However, Africa’s resilience against the disease
survey found that more than a third of small was notable. Response measures were robust in
businesses in Kenya that were operational many countries. A plethora of innovations dealt
before the pandemic had closed down by with the disease's health aspects and bolstered
mid-2020. The businesses that survived the economic recovery. This led to a post-COVID-19
pandemic reported earning two-thirds of domestic product growth of an estimated 6.9
their pre-COVID revenues.1 per cent in 2021.
Containment measures issued by African There were various innovations from the
governments to curb the spread of the continent in various areas, ranging from public
virus, such as curfews, had a huge negative heath to governance, planning, housing and
impact on the urban poor, most of whom education, that contributed to the continent’s
rely on casual, informal work for their resilience and robust response measures.
daily earnings. The population group Countries and urban areas need to take stock
most affected by COVID-19 restrictions of these successes and use them as the building
in terms of food security were the urban blocks for future resilient urban development.
poor, who could not afford to buy or
store food in bulk.2 About 90 per cent
of households in slums and informal
settlements across Africa reported dire
food insecurity situations due to reduced
household incomes and increased food
INNOVATIVE
prices resulting from lower supply.3 COLLABORATIONS AND
TECHNOLOGIES IN PUBLIC
HEALTH
In response to the COVID-19 pandemic, most
African governments implemented various
stringent public health measures, partly
because they were acutely aware of the need
to put in place protocols that would prevent
communicable diseases in an environment
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where health systems are weak or ill-equipped.

This is why they embraced COVID-19 vaccines
as soon as these were available in the global
market, despite steep financial challenges in
many countries.
In response to Most African cities, including Sousse, N'Djamena, Nairobi and Rabat, sterilised
the COVID-19 public spaces to help curb the spread of the disease. In Nairobi, Kinshasa and
pandemic, most Niamey, the national authorities, in coordination with local authorities, opted to
isolate some of their epidemic epicentre cities from the remainder of the country
African governments to avoid becoming a national contamination vector.5 South Africa mobilised field
implemented various health workers and conducted extensive mobile testing. This plan was to reduce
stringent public health the movement of potentially infected people6 For those who tested positive and
faced difficulties in self-isolating at home, some cities set up isolation centres in
measures, partly because
schools, football stadiums and parks.
they were acutely
aware of the need to Africa witnessed many innovations and direct interventions in a bid to create
put in place protocols awareness about COVID-19. In Rwanda and Ghana, technological interventions
in primary healthcare included the use of drones to spread messages and to
that would prevent deliver medicines.7 Rwanda also adapted drones for deployment to identify areas
communicable diseases where law enforcement for COVID-19 restrictions was not being followed. This
in an environment where enabled local authorities, health officials and the police to identify areas that
health systems are weak required interventions and to address them accordingly.8
or ill-equipped. There was cooperation among different levels of government and sectoral
institutions as they responded to emergencies in cities. Several African
governments established institutional structures to coordinate actions vertically
and horizontally between sectoral institutions and ministries. These structures
included task forces, such as Equatorial Guinea’s National Coronavirus
Surveillance Technical Committee, Ethiopia’s National COVID-19 Ministerial
Committee, Uganda’s Presidential Scientific and Strategic Advisory Committee
and Kenya’s COVID-19 Presidential Task Force.9
Partnerships between the public and private sectors were initiated to create
In Rwanda and
innovative solutions to the COVID-19 pandemic. For example, just after
Ghana, technological COVID-19 hit in 2020, Kenya launched the Wheels for Life service for pregnant
interventions in primary women to access free transport to health facilities during curfew hours, when
healthcare included the no transport was available. A single-purpose intervention with multiple benefits,
the Kenyan government’s initiative, Nyumba Kumi – the ten-households
use of drones to spread
initiative, a form of community policing – provided young people in Nairobi
messages and to deliver with opportunities to get involved in community-level decision-making about
medicines. COVID-19 responses.10 In Somalia, the Youth Peer Education Network, with
support from the United Nations Population Fund (UNFPA), sought to raise
awareness about COVID-19 in Mogadishu using social media and local radio
stations on the disease. 11
THE PANDEMIC PUSHED

AFRICAN COUNTRIES TO
PRODUCE VACCINES LOCALLY
The COVID-19 pandemic was a wake-up call for many African countries that
had to deal with extremely low vaccination rates due to insufficient supply of
COVID-19 vaccines and “vaccine hoarding” by rich countries. This forced many
African countries to look at not just how to produce COVID-19 vaccines locally
but other vaccines as well.
Africa currently imports 99% of the vaccines it uses. Only a handful of countries
in Africa, including Egypt, Morocco, Senegal, Tunisia and South Africa, have
manufacturing plants that have the capacity to produce vaccines, the largest
of which is the Biovac Institute in Cape Town, South Africa. In April 2021, the
African Union and the Africa Centres for Disease Control and Prevention (Africa
CDC) set a target of producing 60 per cent of vaccines locally by 2040. Local
vaccine production will not only help resolve vaccine inequities, it will also ensure
that African countries are not reliant on donations or expensive imports.
The announcement that the German biotechnology company BioNTech will be

building COVID-19 vaccine manufacturing plants in Rwanda and Senegal has,
therefore, been met with a lot of anticipation in several African countries, where
mass vaccination efforts have been hampered by insufficient and unpredictable
vaccine supplies, poor distribution networks, as well as infrastructure challenges.
Proponents of vaccine technology transfer to African countries view this
development as a positive step towards improving vaccination roll-outs across
the continent.
The mRNA technology, which is relatively easy to replicate, has also given hope
to African countries such as South Africa, which plans to establish the continent’s
first mRNA vaccination hub, an initiative that is being led by the World Health
Organisation (WHO). As more such hubs are created across the continent, we
are likely to see several African countries become more self-reliant not just in
COVID-19 vaccines, but in other pharmaceuticals as well. This will help them
deal more effectively with future public health emergencies.
Source: https://www.one.org/africa/blog/africa-produce-covid19-vaccines-locally/
Africa’s technology industry got to flex its muscle during the COVID-19 pandemic by
developing dozens of digital applications that are helping to cement new ways of doing
things. Initial digital solutions that emerged helped to understand and cope with the
disease itself. Following are some examples:
South Africa’s Coronapp is a centralised repository for accurate information

regarding the COVID-19 virus in the country. The app makes reliable
information from government and health authorities accessible to South
Africans to help people understand the disease and to prevent panic.
In Morocco, the application Wiqaytna is designed to be downloaded onto

mobile phones and uses GPS and Bluetooth technology for contact tracing.
Once a case is found, the application cross-checks the person’s movements
over the previous 14 days.
Using a simple SMS system, the government of Morocco was able to identify
vulnerable populations and informal workers and distribute financial aid to
them.
Containment measures Djibouti's Ministry of Trade used a real-time COVID-19 commodities

issued by African dashboard to visualise and monitor the stock levels of critical food imports
governments to curb during the COVID-19 lockdown periods to meet national food consumption
needs, monitor market prices and support its policy decisions.
the spread of the virus,
such as curfews, had a Saved by Tech, an Ivoirian foundation, develops drones for specific uses,
huge negative impact including spreading COVID-19 prevention messages, measuring body
on the urban poor, temperature using a thermic camera and transporting sanitiser for public
spaces.
most of whom rely on
casual, informal work Zipline's high-speed drones are used to deliver vital medical packages to
for their daily earnings. clinics and hospitals in Ghana and Rwanda, in about one-third the time it
would take by car.
INSIGHTS FROM THE URBAN HOUSING AND

EDUCATION SECTORS
There is now greater Low-income housing came into sharp focus during the COVID-19 pandemic
period. This is because whereas physical distancing and hand washing are
recognition that housing
essential precautions against the spread of the coronavirus, it is almost impossible
strategies should be a to adhere to these measures in urban slums where physical space is constrained,
key part of COVID-19 where rooms are often shared and poorly ventilated, and where water and
recovery plans and sanitation services are inadequate or absent. Governments across the continent
implemented stringent lockdown regulations to minimise the spread of the virus.
should be created
Residents of informal settlements found themselves faced with the threat of the
with the meaningful rapid spread of the virus given that a majority of residents lack access to proper
engagement of all sanitation and live in overcrowded houses.
groups, including the
The “new normal” also brought into focus the role of the home as a space
most marginalised, for work and study, with increased deployment of technology. School children
such as residents of were compelled to learn from home since schools were closed. However, there
informal settlements and were many innovations across the continent that enabled children to bounce
homeless people. back and recover lost learning time. For instance, when COVID-19 hit Algeria,
the government availed its e-learning education platform BeeForm to students
through the Ministry of Education on YouTube.
E-LEARNING: THE NEW NORMAL
In Kenya, there were many innovative collaborations both for remote 4G

internet access and access to educational content. In ensuring internet access
and continued learning, the Kenya Civil Aviation Authority (KCAA) partnered
with Alphabet Inc. and Telkom Kenya to float Google’s Loon Balloons carrying
4G base stations over Kenyan airspace. In another collaboration, Kenya’s premier
internet provider, Safaricom, Eneza Education, Longhorn Publishers and Viusasa
teamed up to support primary and secondary school students with free access
to educational e-content. Eneza Education waived the daily subscription fee
to its Shupavu291 platform for 60 days. As a result, learners could access up
to 250MB of educational content from Viusasa e-learning and the Longhorn
e-learning portal through the Safaricom network.
LESSONS LEARNED
The innovations seen in the realms of health, planning, urban markets, housing
and education should not be lost as the most intense phase of the COVID-19
pandemic ends; rather, lessons learned should be incorporated into long-term
policies that would guarantee African cities’ resilience to future shocks, including
pandemics. Two key areas where lessons need to be incorporated are urban
planning and the informal economy.
The pandemic prompted African cities to revisit their urban

planning approaches.
The COVID-19 pandemic brought about interventions by African

governments to improve the planning and implementation of urbanisation
The innovations seen in the policies to make their cities more resilient economically and socially to
realms of health, planning, future shocks and crises. Resource allocation in development planning and
urban markets, housing management was prioritised. Cities that were able to set their priorities right
and reallocate resources to the areas of most relevance for minimising the
and education should not negative economic impact of the pandemic fared much better than cities
be lost as the most intense that didn’t. 12
phase of the COVID-19
There is also more awareness of the need to consider public health in urban
pandemic ends; rather, planning by integrating grey (such as treatment facilities and sewers), green
lessons learned should be (such as trees, lawns and parks), and blue (such as rivers, wetlands and
incorporated into long- flood plains) infrastructure.13 Further, urban planning in Africa is moving
towards ensuring that city-regions are more resilient via a more integrated
term policies that would city-regional planning around health, economies, transport networks and
guarantee African cities’ food production so that these systems can become pillars of resilience. Such
an urban planning strategy can create a stronger coalition for change. 14
resilience to future shocks.
There is now greater recognition that housing strategies should be

a key part of COVID-19 recovery plans.
Lack of adequate and affordable housing came into sharp focus during the pandemic
as those who lived in poor quality housing were not able to self-isolate and did not have
access to sufficient sanitation facilities. There is now greater recognition that housing
strategies should be created with the meaningful engagement of all groups, including
the most marginalised, such as residents of informal settlements.15
Experts have also noted that urban development research should revisit housing and
urban planning standards, sustainable livelihoods, community interaction and social
space in an inclusive manner.16 Research should mainly focus on issues that emerged
during COVID-19, such as air quality, and local water supply and sanitation systems.17
There is more awareness of the importance of open green spaces

and recreational areas and their role in city planning.
In urban areas all over the continent, COVID-19 interventions underscored the need
for larger, more accessible open spaces that are an integral part of the urban fabric to
improve local residents’ air quality and mental and physical health. In some cities, there
have been efforts to restore and reclaim urban green spaces and recreational areas
in order to help maintain residents’ mental and physical health and provide space for
social interaction and recreation. Urban planners across the continent are now more
aware of the importance of open green spaces and why they need to be integrated
into how African cities are planned. Integrating larger open spaces within the urban
fabric allows cities to implement emergency services and evacuation protocols during
health crises with considerable ease.
RECLAIMING NAIROBI’S OPEN GREEN SPACES
In Nairobi, Kenya’s capital, there have been attempts to restore and reclaim green
spaces following cases of privatisation and grabbing of green spaces and urban
forests, and neglect of riparian land and open spaces. Approximately 2,000 acres
of the Nairobi National Park have recently been reclaimed while the government is
contemplating similar exercises to reclaim grabbed land in the Ngong Forest and
City Park.
There are also efforts to rehabilitate public parks. There has been an ongoing
rehabilitation of the city’s Michuki Park, which involves the establishment of tree
nurseries and solid waste management by the Nairobi Metropolitan Services (NMS).
Nairobi’s iconic Uhuru Park has also witnessed a face-lift, with new walking and
jogging paths and artistic design features, such as sculptures.
In addition, the NMS has invested in building bicycle lanes and pavements across
the city to allow for non-motorised transport to cater for the majority of the city’s
population that walks or cycles to work. These interventions should hopefully
continue in the post-COVID-19 period.
Source: Elizabeth, A.O & Israel, N.N (2021) Urban green spaces in the wake of COVID-19 pandemic:
reflections from Nairobi, Kenya. Retrieved from https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s10708-
021-10540-0
COVID-19 laid bare the significance of informal economies in Africa’s

urban areas.
Like in many parts of the world, the informal economy in Africa was particularly
affected by the pandemic; millions of informal sector workers in urban areas across
the continent lost their jobs or had to endure significant reductions in income because
they were the most vulnerable to governments’ initial response measures that included
lockdowns of whole or parts of cities and closure of informal markets.
The pandemic highlighted the importance of the informal sector in driving African
economies. International Labour Organization data shows that 76% of employment
in Africa’s urban areas is informal, compared to 51% in Asia and the Pacific and 19%
in Europe and Central Asia.18 With the largest share of informal employment, Africa’s
cities need to pay more attention to this sector.
Percentage of informal employment in selected African cities
Niamey 76%
Abidjan 79%
Dakar 80%
Bamako 82%
Kampala 86%
Source: World Resources Institute, 2018
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There have been efforts to invest in informal livelihoods to create employment opportunities
for people, especially the urban poor, and to help them sustain themselves. Governments
in Africa developed various initiatives to help the most affected groups of people, especially
the poor urban youth. In Kenya, the government came up with The Kazi Mtaani initiative,
also known as the National Hygiene Programme (NHP) that kicked off in April 2020. The
programme was designed to improve hygiene in informal settlements all over the country,
but also to create employment for the youth who could have been rendered jobless during
the pandemic. The youth were able to work on improvement of hygiene and earn a weekly
wage that ensured them an income. The key question is how such programmes can be
mainstreamed.
SOMALIA’S THRIVING
INFORMAL ECONOMY
Development agencies and governments that focus on economic reconstruction

for formal businesses often miss the local economic potential of the many smaller
informal enterprises that flourish in post-conflict cities, despite unsupportive
regulatory frameworks or hostile local government actions. Yet, the informal
economy plays a vital role in sustaining livelihoods in countries ravaged by war
and conflict.
In Somalia, for instance, informal enterprises and workers have found ways to
thrive in a hostile business environment where there is little regulation and few
financial institutions to manage and support both the formal and informal economy.
Transport operators, skilled construction workers and service providers are among
many businesses and workers that have found ways to make a living and provide
essential services, often with the support of diaspora remittances, and within an
environment where weak central and federal governments are unable to adequately
provide services or collect taxes.
There is now greater understanding of the need to integrate the urban informal economy
into the formal economy’s planning strategies and processes to improve the former’s
resilience.19 Many countries are looking into formalising informal economies so that they
benefit from formal planning processes, financial products and services and marketing
strategies. This should help improve the overall resilience of urban economies across the
continent. With a large proportion of the urban economy in Africa being informal, it is vital
that governments focus their energies on supporting this sector that has played a crucial
role in sustaining African cities.
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HARNESSING THE
DIGITALISATION
DIVIDEND IN
AFRICAN CITIES
Rose Lukalo-Owino
FAST-TRACKING DIGITALISATION
The potential of digital technologies to improve citizens’ access to goods and

services, to reduce the cost of government, to stem corruption, and to improve
public service management and delivery has been amplified as cities and citizens
struggle to cope with the COVID-19 pandemic and its aftermath. Africa’s
technology industry got to flex its muscles during the pandemic, giving rise to
a proliferation of local digital solutions that enable citizens to cope; many of
these solutions responded directly to COVID-19 mobility and contact restrictions
Africa's internet and challenges.
economy will contribute New ways of marketing, shopping, learning, collaborating, working, socialising,
$180 billion to the entertaining, fundraising, political organising, participation in celebrations,
continent’s economy funerals and worship, along with new revenue and business models, are now
by 2025, rising to $712 normalised and have strengthened interest in what more is possible with these
technologies. Digital technologies have helped to plug the emerging human,
billion by 2050. The social and economic challenges posed by COVID-19 disruptions, triggering an
fact that more than unparalleled push for their adoption in more areas of social, cultural, economic
half a billion Africans and political life.
already use the internet
As more countries in Africa become predominantly urban over the next few
augurs positively decades, digital technologies will play a key role in harnessing the economic
for the possibility potential of cities. The economic opportunities of cities, in turn, rely on a
of profound social, broad range of utilitarian relationships, such as neighbourhood associations,
recreational clubs and professional societies, that result in high levels of social
political, and economic and economic interdependence that have been shown to lend themselves to
transformation on the technological interventions.1
continent.
Technology is now propelling urban economies in new directions towards
recovery. The International Financial Cooperation and Google estimate that
Africa's internet economy will contribute $180 billion to the continent’s economy
by 2025, rising to $712 billion by 2050.2 However, because there are significant
variations in internet usage across Africa, it is likely that countries with the least
internet penetration will lag behind in benefiting from the digitalisation dividend.
Morocco (84 per cent), Seychelles (79 per cent), Egypt (72 per cent) and South
Africa (68 per cent) have the highest rates of internet usage compared to the
Central African Republic, Eritrea and the Comoros, which have less than 10
per cent each.3 At 109 million internet users, Nigeria has the largest number of
people who are online, followed by Egypt (76 million), South Africa (41 million),
Morocco (32 million) and Ethiopia (30 million). More than 500 million people
across the continent were using the internet in 2022.4
Morocco 84.4%
Seychelles 79%
Egypt 71.9%
South Africa 68.2%
Tunisia 66.7%
Mauritius 64.9%
Gabon 62%
Cape Verde 61.9%
Western Sahara 61.3%
Botswana 61%
Algeria 60.6%
Djibouti 59%
Ghana 53%
Lesotho 51.9%
Nigeria 51%
Namibia 51%
Gambia 51%
Libya 49.6%
Eswatini 47%
Senegal 46%
Kenya 42%
Reunion (FR) 41.3%
Saint Helena (UK) 37.6%
Cameroon 36.5%
Cote d’Ivoire 36.3% SHARE OF INTERNET USERS IN AFRICA,
Angola 36% AS OF JANUARY 2022, BY COUNTRY
Mauritius 35.8%
Sierra Leone 32.4%
Sao Tome & Principe 32%
Sudan 30.9%
Zimbabwe 30.6%
Mali 29.9%
Uganda 29.1%
Benin 29%
Zambia 28.5%
Guinea-Bissau 28%
Burkina Faso 27.3%
Rwanda 26.3%
Equatorial Guinea 26.2%
Togo 25.9%
Congo 25.4%
Tanzania 25%
Ethiopia 25%
Mayotte (FR) 23.2%
Mozambique 23.1%
Guinea 23%
Madascar 22.3%
Liberia 22%
Malawi 20.2%
Chad 19%
Congo Democratic Republic 17.6%
Burundi 14.6%
Niger 14.5%
Somalia 13.7%
South Sudan 10.9%
Comoros 8.5%
Eritrea 8% Source: statistica.com
Central African Republic 7.1%
The fact that more than half a billion Africans already use the internet augurs
positively for the possibility of profound social, political, and economic
transformation on the continent. Internet usage is a pointer to this potential
as is the persistent spread of networks, uptake of digital technologies such as
CCTV, sensors, artificial intelligence, virtual reality, drones, the use of robots and
automation, the accelerating pace of innovation and digitalisation that have
already rapidly altered urban landscapes and expectations.5
The growing use of mobile phone technology is also reaping significant benefits
in many African countries. In 2019, mobile technologies and services generated
9 per cent of GDP in sub-Saharan Africa, amounting to $155 billion of economic
value added. In addition, the mobile ecosystem in the region has supported
3.8 million jobs (directly or indirectly) and has raised almost $17 billion through
taxation.6
By 2025, 615 million people in sub-Saharan Africa will have subscribed to

mobile services, up from 495 million in 2020.7 GSMA Intelligence estimates
that smartphone connections in sub-Saharan Africa will rise from half a billion
in 2021 to 1 billion in 2024. This progress, however, hides a significant lag of 30
per cent in women’s ownership of smartphones, with data suggesting that the
COVID-19 pandemic stalled the previous shrinkage in that gap.
With the positive also come concerns and risks of the negative use of the
technologies, including the growth of increasingly sophisticated misinformation
By 2025, 615 million campaigns and cybersecurity threats. There are also privacy and mass surveillance
people in sub- concerns that are currently not being addressed through sufficient legislation or
regulatory frameworks. Nonetheless, the potential for digital technologies to
Saharan Africa will
improve the lives of millions of Africans has been demonstrated amply across
have subscribed to the continent. These technologies are already helping many African cities to
mobile services, up leapfrog into a more prosperous and sustainable future.
from 495 million in
As cities take steps to rebuild their economies and recover from the impacts of
2020. the COVID-19 pandemic, digitalisation offers once-in-a-lifetime opportunities
to re-imagine what Africa’s cities and urban areas will look like and how they
will function for residents.
And since the future of Africa is urban, the decisions taken by cities today will
determine what Africa looks like in future.
CITIES EMBRACING TECHNOLOGY

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RUNNING ON MOBILE MONEY
African cities were already moving firmly in the direction of digitalisation before
the big nudge from the COVID-19 pandemic. The sector that best illustrates
the digital transformation of Africa is mobile banking and financial inclusion.
First introduced with the launch of M-Pesa in Kenya in 2007 by Safaricom (a

subsidiary of the British telecommunications group Vodafone), mobile banking
is now used in 89 countries around the world, many of them in Africa. M-Pesa
often features as an example of the most developed mobile payment system in
the world. Partly due to M-Pesa’s huge success and widespread usage, mobile
phone penetration in Kenya stands at 133.3 percent,8 (measured by the number
Today Africa of active SIM cards and ignoring ownership of multiple SIMs) – the highest in
sub-Saharan Africa.9
has more digital
financial services Today Africa has more digital financial services deployments than any other
deployments than region in the world.10 Mobile money solutions and agent banking services are a
any other region in common feature of every city neighbourhood. It is hard to imagine that less than
two decades ago, the majority of Africans – especially those in lower-income
the world. brackets – had no access to telephony and financial services.11
BEYOND E-GOVERNMENT AND E-SERVICES
Across Africa, national governments, rather than urban authorities, appear to be

playing a dominant role in delivering the digitalisation dividend to citizens. This
is rooted in the history of urban planning and development in African countries
that has, to a large extent, remained under the centralised control of ministries.
Even where legislative decentralisation or devolution has taken place, this has
not been accompanied by delegated power and resources to drive development
plans, resulting in weakly formed urban governance structures.12
Africa’s urban governments are still in their infancy of e-governance and digital
development and have not fully embraced the full spectre of all that digital
technologies offer. However, many large cities, for example Johannesburg
(https://www.joburg.org.za/) is, Casablanca (https://www.casablancacity.ma/
ar), Tunis (http://www.commune-tunis.gov.tn), Accra (https://ama.gov.gh/),
Maputo (https://www.cmaputo.gov.mz/), and Kampala (https://www.kcca.
go.ug/) have web-based portals delivering community news and updates as well
as varying access to data and e-services. These portals also have downloadable
apps from which city residents can apply for and access personal records, bills and
other e-services, such as parking, health building licences and business licences,
property rates/rents and a host of others using a mobile phone.
CITYTAPS: IMPROVING ACCESS TO WATER IN NIAMEY

In Niamey, Niger’s capital, the CityTaps water company is offering a unique solution
to improving people’s access to water through a combination of prepaid smart water
metering and an integrated software management system that processes PAYG (pay-as-
you-go) payments through mobile money. The PAYG business model used by CityTaps
allows customers to make incremental payments for water services. They can access
running water at home by paying for any amount of water at any time by using mobile
money, thereby gaining control of their bill. Previously disconnected users can also make
micropayments towards their accrued bill. About 43 per cent of customers became new
mobile money users as a result of the service.
Source: GSMA, January and April 2020.

Increased use of the internet and social media across the continent have also
led to more urban residents demanding services denied to them by their city
More than 35 African governments and making leaders more accountable. An increasing number
countries have set up of Africans are expressing their frustrations over poor service delivery and
national e-government mismanagement of public funds on social media. City dwellers are becoming
more aware of their “right to the city” and demanding action from city
service delivery governments on a variety of issues, including environmental protection and
structures with some, women’s safety. For instance, in 2019, environmental organisations and
such as Ghana, community-led groups in Kenya designed a highly successful social media
campaign under the banner deCOALonize.org to halt the building of a highly
Mauritius, South
polluting electricity-generating coal-fired plant in Lamu, which is designated as
Africa and Tunisia, a World Heritage Site. In Kenya’s capital Nairobi, social media has also played a
already ranking high part in exposing cases of sexual harassment and gender-based violence on public
on the e-government transport and public spaces. Such citizen-led campaigns have in some instances
led to changes in policy or government in some African countries. For instance,
development index for widespread use of social media by ordinary citizens was instrumental in toppling
the advanced state of authoritarian regimes in North Africa during the Arab Spring of 2010 and 2011.
their structures.
While African cities offer many stand-alone services, they rely heavily on services
provided by the national government, such as citizen identification, vehicle
registration, building codes and standards, education and certification of
professionals, among many others. At the national level, more than 35 African
countries have set up national e-government service delivery structures with
some, such as Ghana, Mauritius, South Africa and Tunisia, already ranking
high on the e-government development index for the advanced state of their
structures.13
The African Union High-Level Panel on Emerging Technologies (APET) is

supporting the implementation of e-government services in Africa. APET reports
that e-government is decreasing the cost of government spending on services
and replacing inefficient paper-based filing systems. APET, however, laments
that these services, including e-taxation, e-payment and e-billing, only reach
the middle classes and the rich.
IREMBO: RWANDA’S DOORWAY PORTAL

Irembo – which loosely translates as “the great doorway” – is the e-government platform
of the Rwandan government through which citizens can access government services. Built
with local technology, Irembo hosts over 100 e-services provided by different government
agencies and attracts more than 260,000 users a month. The services are available online,
through USSD14 and offline through a network of select agents.
The government of Rwanda has also harnessed the existing network of telcos, government
offices, contracted agents and payment gateways to increase the number of access
points and payment channels available to users of Irembo and to encourage usage of the
platform. The service is geared at making government services easier, faster and cheaper
to access for citizens. The end game of Irembo is to re-engineer government services for
accessibility, efficiency and effectiveness and to move towards a paperless and cashless
economy that Rwanda is aiming for.
Rwanda’s Digital Ambassador Programme (DAP) is a national programme led by the Ministry
of ICT and Innovation that complements the e-government platform. DAP aims to increase
the digital literacy of five million of Rwanda’s 13.6 million citizens to enable their access
and use of online systems and services, such as Irembo. DAP is a component of the Smart
Rwanda Master Plan and is modelled around the recruitment of young women and men
to provide digital literacy training in communities throughout the country.
Source: GSMA, January and April 2020.
DIGITALISATION ASPIRATIONS OF AFRICAN

CITIES AND CITIZENS
DIFFERENT APPROACHES TOWARDS SMART CITIES
African governments understand the capabilities of digital technologies, as

evidenced by the aspirational master plans for a growing number of digital hubs
and “smart cities” that are being established across the continent. These hubs
and cities aim to use information and communication technology to improve
operational efficiency, share information with the public, and provide a better
African governments quality of service to citizens. As with other smart cities around the world, their
ultimate goal is to optimise city functions and promote economic growth while
understand the improving the quality of life of citizens.15
capabilities of digital
technologies, as Egypt plans multiple smart cities, including a new administrative capital
currently being built 35 kilometres east of Cairo, the first phase of which is
evidenced by the
complete. Egypt’s smart cities take advantage of digital technologies to improve
aspirational master sustainability, efficiency and services on many fronts, including basic orientation
plans for a growing and building design. Data centres comprise the memory and brain of these cities.
number of digital hubs A tailored platform for city-wide management is being developed to include data
analytics, a city-wide management dashboard and a citizen engagement portal.
and “smart cities” that
It will also have mobile application capabilities. The operational and informational
are being established technology systems will be fully integrated to provide a detailed overview of the
across the continent. city and to allow for constant optimisation for efficiency and sustainability. West
Qena in Upper Egypt is the first of these smart cities to be completed.16
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THE PITFALLS OF TECHNOLOGICALLY-

MEDIATED CITIES
Smart city technology promises to generate economic, social and environmental value
through a connection of urban services and infrastructure. While the possibility of
realising this value exists, there is limited evidence so far that smart technologies in and
of themselves are enhancing social well-being, building just and equitable communities
and reducing environmental degradation.
An emerging question is how does “smart” technology investment contribute to

sustainable development rather than take away from it? Creating completely new “smart
cities” instead of investing in the upgrading of infrastructure in existing cities drains the
capacity of local governments and competes with resources from the rest of the city.
Konza Techno City outside of Nairobi and Hope City in the Greater Accra Region, for
example, take away from investments in existing urban areas. Critically, smart cities are
often developed through the parallel governance of newly established corporations and
often lack accountability to the public the way an elected government is. There is also
the tendency for the design of online services and infrastructure to be guided by the
technologies available rather than by residents’ needs.
The application of information and communication technologies in cities should not

serve corporate interests and further exclude those already marginalised by prevailing
technocratic and entrepreneurial approaches to urban governance. Technology
development and use that is fit for purpose, inclusive, transparent and accountable can
lead to sustainable and resilient urban futures.
Another smart city is Kigali Innovation City in the Rwandan capital – a much younger and less
densely populated city than many African cities. Smart infrastructure is being built in progressively
and includes deployment of sensors around the city to measure air quality, monitor the safety of
the electricity grid and detect water leaks. Deployed in September 2021, the air quality system
provides access to real-time information through a new website and mobile application for 23
sites and also indicates the dominant air pollutant responsible for air quality degradation at
each station.17
Purpose-built smart cities can benchmark best practices and allow for piloting of new learnings
and innovation in ideal conditions, lessons that can be particularly valuable for Africa’s smaller
secondary or intermediary cities that are home to almost 200 million people but carry less
infrastructural baggage. The reverse is also true; successful stand-alone smart initiatives can find
themselves adopted by purpose-built smart cities. Few smart cities will be built from scratch or
without the encumbrances of legacy issues. The thinking that creates each innovative initiative
should inform the planning and development of all cities, especially smaller urban settlements,
to allow for integration of smart provisions as they grow. More importantly, these technology-
driven innovations should not benefit corporate interests at the expense of citizens who may
feel disempowered by a form of urban governance driven purely through technology, and not
through human interaction and participation.
INNOVATION AND ENTREPRENEURSHIP: TECH START-UPS
It’s not just governments that are taking action; start-ups in Africa are playing
a major role in the development of the continent’s urban societies, economies
and culture.18 Innovation and entrepreneurship have been key drivers of the
uptake of digital technologies across the continent, most dramatically in the
space of mobile technologies. GSMA (formerly Groupe Spécial Mobile), a global
organisation that brings together operators in the mobile economy, projects that
$155 billion of economic value added will be generated by mobile technologies
and services in sub-Saharan Africa by 2025. In 2020, transactions on mobile
money platforms reached $490 billion.19
The online “gig” economy is giving visibility to African talents, thereby

uncoupling the geographic binary that previously tied workers to jobs in their
immediate location. With jobs no longer tied to location, African professionals
are finding opportunity both on the continent and abroad with global entities
setting up service centres and hiring expertise virtually. Digital technologies
have shown themselves to be more efficient at matching labour supply and
demand and subdividing jobs into tasks to be performed in a more flexible way
or by different individuals located in different locations. However, while the gig
economy is expanding opportunities for some, there are concerns that it does
not provide the security that more permanent jobs provide.
The amazing array of digital applications coming out of private sector start-ups
has caught the attention of venture capital that is fuelling their growth and
expansion. For example, international collaboration and cooperation allowed
the emergence of Pan-African partnerships, such as the payment gateway
Cellulant created by two young entrepreneurs living on opposite sides of the
continent – one in Nigeria and the other in Kenya. Fresh from a 2021 relaunch,
after almost 17 years testing different digital products, the mobile payments
gateway, Cellulant, has built a huge Pan-African footprint. By 2014, it had a
450-member workforce split into 18 country teams serving 35 countries in
Africa is the only Africa, had partnered with 35 financial institutions, served 200 businesses and
had 13 million active consumers.20
region in the world
to record three-digit The COVID-19 pandemic turned many start-up ideas into profitable businesses,
growth in venture generating great interest around the world around innovations geared toward
addressing Africa-specific problems and contexts. It is notable that while funding
capital funding in the
from global venture capital organisations has shrunk in recent years, Africa is
first six months of the only region to record three-digit growth in venture capital funding in the
2022. Funding hit a first six months of 2022. Funding hit a record $2.275 billion, according to the
record $2.275 billion, start-up portal Disrupt Africa, compared to $2.15 billion in the whole of 2021.
Kenya alone attracted more venture funding in the first three months of 2022
compared to $2.15 ($482 million) than it did in all of 2021 ($412 million).21
billion in the whole of
2021.
ABIDJAN’S MOJO RIDE

The Abidjan-based digital transport start-up Moja Ride provides a reservation and cashless
payment system for multiple transport services, including over 1,200 taxis and buses.22
It offers similar services to Data Integrated, a Kenyan ICT company that provides matatu
(minibus) cooperatives with bus management and digital ticketing systems to make public
transport systems in Kenya more efficient.23 Both Moja Ride and Data Integrated have
raised investment funding from the Toyota Tsusho Corporation. However, their connection
with their respective urban governments appears weak.
Source: https://disrupt-africa.com/ & https://dataintegrated.co.ke/
INNOVATION HUBS
Innovation hubs are where many new smart city innovations were conceived and
built and they continue to incubate a stream of both small and large start-ups.
Today Africa has more than 600 digital innovation hubs across the continent.
These hubs have evolved to be more than the simple co-working spaces that they
were initially offering basic infrastructure, such as electricity, internet connectivity,
and physical space. Today they offer business advisory and legal services and
access to mentorship and investors, and are driving policy development towards
a supportive ecosystem for creativity and innovation.
The Abuja-based AfriLabs, a Pan-African network of technology hubs, plays

a central place in tech on the continent, with 320 hub members based in 51
countries. Afrilabs is currently developing an Africa-focused hub management
curriculum in partnership with Strathmore University in Kenya. The biggest hubs
are city-based. Home to about 20 hubs each, Casablanca and Tunis have been
Home to about 20 fuelling the growth of North Africa’s entrepreneurship and are helping to build
hubs each, Casablanca favourable environments for start-ups along with several sites in Egypt. Nigeria
and Tunis have been and South Africa remain the most advanced ecosystems, boasting 85 and 80
active tech hubs, respectively, followed by Egypt, Ghana and Kenya.
fuelling the growth
of North Africa’s
entrepreneurship
and are helping to THE RISE OF E-COMMERCE AND E-TRADE
build favourable A key shift noted during the COVID-19 pandemic has been the rise of digital
environments for start- enterprises that offer solutions to challenges faced by city residents and
ups along with several businesses. This has seen the emergence and multiplication of Pan-African
sites in Egypt. e-commerce platforms and payment gateways. In the early days of the pandemic,
global platforms such as Jumia (Germany), Uber (United States) and Bolt (Estonia)
quickly responded to the market needs by offering dedicated brands for the
delivery of food, medicines and parcels. We have also witnessed the meteoric
rise of lesser-known African equivalents, such as Nigeria’s Jiji, and the explosive
growth of platforms offering logistics for both local and regional haulage and
delivery services, such as Sendy, TradeDepot, Trucker, Senga, Kobo360 and
Amitruck, among others.
MAXIMISING THE POTENTIAL OF

DIGITALISATION IN AFRICAN CITIES
KEY RECOMMENDATIONS
Ensuring that African cities benefit further from digital technology requires certain
fundamentals to be in place. The priorities among these include better data
management and enabling ecosystems for innovation and creative enterprises
that empower rather than disempower citizens while recognising their right to
privacy. Innovations should also take into consideration the needs and rights of
all urban residents, not just those who have access to the technology, and should
ensure that the technology used doesn’t further marginalise certain groups.
Improve data management

In Africa’s emerging technology ecosystem, data is basic to everything.
Harnessing multiple sources of data will sharpen institutional capacity
to predict, project and plan. Urban governments, by their very nature,
are collectors and repositories of massive datasets, including health and
demographic data, asset ownership and transfers, trade, transport and
internal migration, education, professional certification, crime, revenue
collection and expenditure, and policy research. The challenge is that cities
and governments on the continent continue to handle data in institution-,
region- and sector-specific silos. The consolidation and aggregation of all
government datasets so as to make them available for analysis, extraction,
and customisation for policy-making is a perquisite, as is providing end-to-
end data management. This must include inter-phasing/inter-communication
between urban and national government datasets and the even digitisation
of every institution and sector.
e-infrastructure and e-government depend on the growing use of big

data, automation and management tools that allow for real-time response
to situations and for a diversity of more complex services, such as smart
The African Union metering, pay-as-you-go (PAYG), geographic information system (GIS)
recognises the digital mapping, Blockchain, artificial intelligence and other emergent digital
ID as a foundational technologies. Effective data management is critical to advancing the use of
digital technologies by cities.
infrastructure for the
digital age and is With the ascendence of data as the basis of service response, it is important
working to make digital to disaggregate data to ensure appropriate service delivery and consideration
for women and girls and other historically marginalised groups.
IDs recognisable across
borders and a powerful Expand use of secure digital identities
driver of regional
economic integration An important sub-set of data is digital identities. e-government, along with
digital economies and digital societies, are premised on digital identities.
and safe and orderly Secure digital identities are crucial for digital citizenship and will enable
migration. secure log-in and legally binding digital signature24 for use in e-government
portals and in digital transactions across the world.
The World Bank confirms that the opportunities of the digital era are driving
the need for digital IDs and that many governments around the world are
moving swiftly to issue e-IDs and anchoring them in law. Urban governments
in Africa must embrace and encourage this shift and intensify the provision
of identity credentials to the 40 per cent of Africans that the World Bank’s
Identification for Development (ID4D) programme’s database found to be
without IDs.25
The African Union recognises the digital ID as a foundational infrastructure

for the digital age and is working to make digital IDs recognisable across
borders and a powerful driver of regional economic integration and safe
and orderly migration.
Enforce laws and regulations to protect citizens’ data and

privacy
Universal use of digital IDs may not be possible in the near future in many
African countries, as there is still deep resistance to them among ordinary
citizens who are distrustful of how governments will use their personal
data. This is especially true in authoritarian states or countries where there
is insufficient legislation or poor enforcement of regulations to protect data.
There is also widespread suspicion that governments will use the data that
they collect to deny citizens their rights to the city. For example, people
living in urban informal settlements that are not legally recognised by the
authorities or those working in the informal sector may feel that their data
will be used to deny them services or to impose unfair taxation on them.
Concerns about privacy and protection of personal data have increased

with the increasing use of the internet for service delivery. With the growing
Data protection must use of technology in an ever-increasing number of settings, citizens must
be a key priority for make daily choices and weigh the decision to cede their personal data to
national and city governments or organisations in exchange for goods and services. This has
given rise to privacy concerns and a growing resistance to sharing such data,
governments who need as evidenced in the case of Kenya’s Huduma Number.
to convince citizens of
the benefits of digital Citizens’ perception of a loss of control over their personal information and
increased exposure to manipulation and exploitation of this data by others
IDs and e-services.
can hinder service delivery processes and negatively affect user trust and
Laws and regulations respect for institutions. Data privacy laws and enforcement of regulations on
to protect citizens’ data how personal data may be used is of paramount concern in this emerging
must be enacted and new market. Data protection must, therefore, be a key priority for national
and city governments who need to convince citizens of the benefits of
enforced to ensure that digital IDs and e-services. Laws and regulations to protect citizens’ data
all citizens are on board must be enacted and enforced to ensure that all citizens are on board for
for a digitised future. a digitised future.
KENYA’S CONTROVERSIAL
HUDUMA NUMBER
In 2019, the Government of Kenya initiated the fresh registration of persons in the country
using what it describes as “a harmonised approach” to address duplication. This started
with consolidation of data from primary population registration agencies. The National
Integrated Identity Management System (NIIMS) programme, popularly known as Huduma
Number, aims to create and manage a central master population database – a muster roll
for personal identity containing a variety of information on all Kenyan citizens and foreign
nationals residing in Kenya that will serve as a reference point for service delivery to the
people of Kenya. (“Huduma” means “service” in Kiswahili.)
However, the project has been slowed by heated resistance based on mistrust of
government intentions, including fears of government surveillance, data insecurity and
invasion of privacy concerns that have fed multiple court challenges. There is fear that
this form of identification could be used to deny people services or to profile or victimise
people or groups in other ways. There are also concerns that the data will not be secure
and could be prone to hacking and misuse.
In October 2021, a High Court in Kenya issued a landmark ruling that the roll-out of the
new Huduma ID system was illegal because the government had not undertaken a data
protection impact assessment before issuing the Huduma cards, and that many of the
system’s features contravened Kenya’s 2019 Data Protection Act.
Source: Centre for International Governance Innovation; Huduma Namba website;
https://www.hudumanamba.go.ke/; https://privacyinternational.org/news-analysis/3350/why-huduma-
namba-ruling-matters-future-digital-id-and-not-just-kenya
Improve online safety and cybersecurity
The latest ranking on national global cybersecurity efforts published by the

International Telecommunication Union's (ITU) states: “Africa’s levels of
commitment to cybersecurity – as well as capacity for response to threats –
remain low compared to other continents.” A 2021 study by Deloitte found
that 40 per cent of African companies have recorded a rising number of cyber
incidents, with the biggest cyber threats ranging from online scams (such as
Cybercrime cost Africa phishing), to digital extortion, business email compromise, ransomware and
an estimated $4.12 botnets. In this widening cybersecurity threat landscape, it was noted that:
“Cybercrime cost Africa an estimated $4.12 billion in 2021 and reduced the
billion in 2021 and continent’s GDP by more than 10 per cent.” Growing concerns about cyber
reduced the continent’s security must be addressed in tandem with the expansion of digitalisation.
GDP by more than 10 Africa's 7,000 security experts are outnumbered and ill-prepared to handle
per cent. these attacks.”26
Deliberate disruption Moreover, only 29 African countries have national laws to address
of the internet denies cybercrime and a further 14 have a national strategy on cybersecurity while
people their right to 4 are currently developing draft legislation. In the interim, the fall-back
has been to rely on global cooperation while capacity grows. National
access information and governments are establishing computer incident response teams that
can be used to suppress plug into a global network and the 195-member INTERPOL (International
freedom of speech and Criminal Police Organization) has launched an initiative to fight cybercrime
in Africa, including boosting the capacity of local experts to fight cybercrime
expression, which are
themselves.
inimical to democracy.
The US-based Africa Center for Strategic Studies reports that there is
also great concern around espionage linked to governments of more
technologically advanced countries and vulnerability due to Africa’s
total dependence on them for infrastructure. China’s role in developing
telecommunications infrastructure on the continent is provided as a case
in point; up to 80 percent of all existing telecommunications networks and
government networks in over 20 African countries are provided by Chinese
companies.
There is also the fact that several African governments are resorting to
shutting down the internet during times of political crisis, which presents a
security threat of another kind, as happened in Ethiopia’s Tigray region in
2020 at the start of the conflict there and during Burkina Faso and Uganda’s
general elections in 2021. Deliberate disruption of the internet denies people
their right to access information and can be used to suppress freedom of
speech and expression, which are inimical to democracy. Such realities
perpetuate fears of loss of sovereignty, and the growth of surveillance and
“Big Brother” states. Alleviating such fears would require stringent local,
national, regional and global frameworks to calm concerns and facilitate
growth.
Moreover, the disruptive expansion of disinformation and misinformation

and growing incidence of digital violence – notably online gender-based
violence, including cyberstalking, cyber harassment, sexist hate speech –
must be viewed as threats to the universal transition to digitalisation and
should be stemmed. Cybersecurity and online safety must, therefore, be
key priorities of African governments and cities moving towards digitalising
their social, economic and political ecosystems.
Encourage innovation and invest in research and

development
A White Paper published by the World Economic Forum in January 2022

reports that Africa as a whole still trails in developing a knowledge-based
digital economy, noting that a survey of 188 government incentives for
business across 32 African countries found fewer than three facilitated
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investments in digital and other new technologies. There is, however,

opportunity for growth and peer learning. For example, in Côte d’Ivoire,
a research and development tax incentive has been created to direct
investment away from commodities and into innovation. In South Africa,
the Automotive Investment Transformation Fund created by the largest
manufacturers in the country is facilitating the development of a diverse
supplier base to realise the 60 per cent local content target set by the
Automotive Production and Development Programme (APDP). In Tunisia,

the government offers state salaries for up to three founders of a start-up
company during the first year of operations, with a right to return to their
old jobs if the venture fails.27
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If African governments are to continue to reap the benefits of digital
technologies, accelerate the digital transformation of their economies
and remain competitive in such a dynamic environment, they must invest
in research and development and encourage innovation. Beyond direct
investment in creativity and innovation, this must include research and
development to stay ahead of emerging challenges and optimise the
environment for digital innovation, entrepreneurship, including legal
and policy frameworks that expand growth and protect human rights
as digitisation embraces more and more sectors of life. Action research is
important too and as one of its functions, it should close the gap between
stakeholders in the city, including residents, city managers, lawmakers and
other policymakers and private sector actors.
Narrow the digital divide and expand digital literacy

Digital literacy is a key concern in the digital sphere just as it is offline.
Digital literacy is defined as: “The ability to access, manage, understand,
integrate, communicate, evaluate and create information safely and
appropriately through digital technologies for employment, decent jobs and
entrepreneurship. It includes competences that are variously referred to as
computer literacy, ICT literacy, information literacy and media literacy.”28This
also means that digitally literate members of the city must be able to
establish and manage their digital presence in the world. Global targets
are that by 2025, 60 per cent of youth and adults should have achieved at
least a minimum level of proficiency in sustainable digital skills.29
Universal digital literacy is critical. City dwellers must know how to access,
understand and use the technology available in a rapidly digitalising society
where access to information and services are increasingly being mediated by
internet and digital technologies. The very first barrier to digital literacy in
Africa has always been poverty. The inability to afford digital infrastructure,
including internet access and the lack of adequate information technology
The digital divide must support, result in a digital divide. And there is a danger that the gender gaps
be closed if Africa is that exist offline will follow Africa online unless targeted interventions are
implemented.
to unlock structural
transformation that it The socio-economic divide in Africa feeds the digital divide and the digital
seeks for all sections of divide perpetuates the socio-economic divide. The digital divide must be
closed if Africa is to unlock structural transformation that it seeks for all
the urban populace.
sections of the urban populace. It is important to note that the digital divide
has many facets and is not just about access to the internet. It embraces
poverty, different abilities, geographical location, access to infrastructure
and many forms of cultural biases that limit the equitable growth and
development of all citizens.
To achieve universal digital literacy and to narrow the digital divide, cities
cannot rely on organic growth as has typified the process to date. Strategic
interventions are required.
NAKURU’S APPLICATION
OF AN INNOVATIVE SOCIAL
PLANNING TOOL
Nakuru City is the capital of Nakuru County that lies in Kenya’s Great Rift Valley region.
With a population of around 400,000, the city is the fourth largest in Kenya, after
Nairobi, Mombasa and Kisumu. One of the most innovative projects that Nakuru City
has undertaken is applying the U_CODE social planning tool within the Kenya Meat
Commission (KMC) settlement that allowed the community to design their settlement to
meet their local development aspirations. This settlement, located 5 kilometres from the
city centre, comprises about 150 households.
U_CODE is an innovative co-design platform designed by the Technical University in

Dresden, Germany, that enables communication between large numbers of people and
professional experts. It is designed to use the public’s creativity, to gauge public opinion
and to derive urban design and planning ideas from the communities participating in the
process. Members of the community and city planning staff were trained in how to use
the application. The process saw 85 per cent of the settlement’s residents participate in
the process. This is the first time the U_CODE application has been used in Africa.
In collaboration with the Technical University, the community has been using the social
planning tool to collect data on their settlement, which has helped it to identify its priorities,
which include access to clean water, housing improvement and proper healthcare. The
project has allowed the residents to translate their vision for their settlement into a 3-D
design that will be used to lobby the Nakuru City and development partners to implement
“just” interventions within the settlement.
Through this and other initiatives, Nakuru City hopes to capture more public views on
how the city can be transformed so that it can be a model city for other Kenyan cities and
towns that are struggling to deliver services to residents.
Source: Freidrich-Ebert-Stiftung Kenya Office
Make internet infrastructure and technology more accessible
Access to high-speed internet cannot be treated as a luxury if the digital dividend is to be

realised for economic and human development in African cities. It must be addressed as a
basic necessity. Much of Africa still has the most expensive internet in the world. The Alliance
for Affordable Internet (A4AI) reports that the average cost of 1GB of data in Africa is nearly
four times the level that A4AI considers affordable.
Chad, Zimbabwe, Equatorial Guinea, Djibouti and the Central African Republic are identified
as countries where the cost of 1GB of data is around ten times what A4AI considers
affordable. Egypt, Mauritius, Rwanda and Sudan, on the other hand, have internet prices
below the A4AI benchmark.309999999 Countries with affordable internet services are likely to
benefit the most from the digital dividend. Lowering the cost of internet services must be
a priority of African governments and service providers.
Do not leave women and girls behind
Legacy issues around the marginalisation of women and girls and minority
groups continue to play out in the new digital arena. These must be
addressed urgently to ensure that no groups are left behind.
Importantly, these legacy concerns also raise fresh dilemmas for internet
governance that must be addressed if the digital dividend is to accrue to all
city residents. For example, the absence of women from historical financial
Not using gender- records, such as formal sector employment, asset ownership and banking,
disaggregated data as a means that they do not have a conventional credit history and such data
basis for e-governance and would penalise them if used to assess credit worthiness.
service provision infringes Likewise, the lack of gender-disaggregated data on housing, health or
on digital and human access to the internet may hinder effective delivery of urban services. Such
rights and returns society disaggregated data is crucial for urban planning and cities because it does
not re-victimise the already marginalised. Not using such data as a basis for
to the same gender-based
e-governance and service provision infringes on digital and human rights
challenges that it faced in and returns society to the same gender-based challenges that it faced in
the analog dispensation. the analog dispensation.
To achieve universal digital literacy and to narrow the digital divide, cities
cannot rely on organic growth as has typified the process to date. Strategic
interventions are required.
REFERENCES
1. Eagle, Nathan & Montjoye, Yves- phone-devices-connected-to-mobile- 16. HardHat, Why the Gov’t is Moving
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Economy Future. November 2020. Digital-Access_The-Future-of-
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in Africa as of January 2022, by contemporaine1-2019-1-page-87.
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com/statistics/1124283/internet- Planning in Africa, 2010. https://
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statistics/505883/number-of-internet- in%20Africa%20%2C%20An%20 20. https://www.cellulant.io/our-story/
users-in-african-countries/ Overview%20.pdf
21. https://disrupt-africa.
5. Nathan Allen, The Promise and Perils 13. African Union Development Agency- com/2022/07/14/african-tech-
of Africa’s Digital Revolution, March NEPAD, Improving Africa’s Service startups-surpass-2021-funding-total-
11, 2022. https://www.brookings. Delivery Through E-Governance. in-h1-of-2022-2-3bn-raised/
edu/techstream/the-promises-and- https://www.nepad.org/blog/
perils-of-africas-digital-revolution/ improving-africas-service-delivery- 22. Ivory Coast transport startup Moja
through-e-governance#_ftn3 Ride raises funding from Toyota
6. GSM Association 2020, The Mobile Tsusho, by Tom Jackson. March 8,
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Data (USSD) is the Global System
7. The Mobile Economy Sub-Saharan for Mobile Communications (GSM) 23. Matatu scheduling solution is
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handle/10986/28310 License: CC BY tech-start-ups-key-to-africa-s-digital- 30. https://www.tralac.org/blog/
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how-rethink-cybersecurity-africa- 28. UNESCO
strengthen-digital-economy
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CLIMATE
CHANGE AND
THE AFRICAN
CITY
Rose Lukalo-Owino
Climate change is impacting Africa more than any other region in the world. The
State of Climate in Africa Report 2020 says the continent is warming more and
at a faster rate than the global average; most regions in Africa will experience
longer warm seasons, shorter cold periods and increased heatwaves. Even if
global warming is capped at 1.5°C, parts of North and Southern Africa are
expected to be 3°C warmer.1 While African cities could lament the fact that the
continent has made negligible contribution to climate change – accounting for
only 3 per cent of the world’s carbon dioxide emissions – the increasing incidence
of climate-induced disasters demands urgent solutions.
Share of CO2 emissions by region
Region Share of global Share of Share of consumption-based

population production-based CO2 emissions
CO2 emissions
AFRICA 16% 4% 3%
ASIA 60% 56% 52%
LATIN AMERICA 9% 6% 6%
AND THE CARIB-
BEAN
EUROPE 10% 16% 18%
NORTH AMERICA 5% 17% 19%
Source: ourworldindata.org/co2-emissions
The most widespread manifestation of climate change in African cities often

relates to this rise in temperatures and unpredictable rainfall. Cities also
record extensive damage and loss of life as a result of floods and droughts,
the resurgence of infectious diseases and the incidence of new diseases, pest
outbreaks, rising sea levels and a reduction in biodiversity, all of which pose direct
threats to human health and safety, food supplies, water services and safety, and
socio-economic development. In Tanzania, for instance, a survey of 800 firms
across the country found that flooding is increasingly the main hazard affecting
businesses in major cities across the country. Despite low on-site damage from
flooding, transport and power disruptions cause over $250 million in losses to
firms each year. Power outages follow a pattern and tend to increase from an
average of 18 hours per month in the dry season to 57 hours each month in the
Africa is warming more rainy season, with more than 40 per cent of businesses reporting that workers
and at a faster rate than are often unable to go to work due to flood-related transport disruptions leading
the global average; most to direct impacts on product delivery and business productivity.2
regions in Africa will

experience longer warm
seasons, shorter cold
periods and increased
heatwaves.
In January 2018, the eyes of the world watched Cape Town, South Africa, in the
countdown to “Day Zero” – the day the water level of the major dam supplying
water to the city was expected to fall below 13.5 per cent. There were reports
that guards had to be deployed to water collection points following a fight
between residents lining up to collect water in the Newlands Spring suburb.3
The region received some rainfall shortly afterwards and heavy rainfall in 2020
eventually broke the drought, with water levels in the dam reaching 95 per cent
and ending the water shortage.
Cities and towns in Ghana, Mozambique, Ivory Coast and Zimbabwe also face
water shortages due to drought and population growth. These countries are
witnessing an increasing number of internal migrants moving to urban areas and
putting pressure on already strained services.4 While most internal migrants in
A survey of 800 Africa are fleeing conflict-affected regions, a growing number are impacted by
firms across Tanzania climate-induced disasters, according to the Geneva-based Internal Displacement
Monitoring Centre and the Red Cross/Red Crescent.5,6 The World Bank estimates
found that flooding that the number of internal climate migrants in sub-Saharan Africa could reach
is increasingly the 86 million people by 2050, and predicts that many of these people will end up
main hazard affecting settling in the nearest urban centre.7 Up to 32 million of these migrants will be
in West Africa, while models for the Lake Victoria Basin of East Africa suggest
businesses in major
that the region will see 38.5 million internally-incuded climate migrants.8
cities across the
country. Within cities, climate-induced damage to infrastructure continues to undo efforts
made to improve the lives of city residents. The impact of Tropical Cyclone Idai,
one of the worst tropical cyclones to affect Africa, was felt in four countries –
Madagascar, Mozambique, Malawi, and Zimbabwe. It destroyed infrastructure in
the Mozambican city of Beira, including the main road into the city, and left over
1,300 people dead. Another 3 million people in the city and its hinterland were
impacted in the aftermath of the strong winds and flooding that swept through
the region. This underlines the need for investments in resilient infrastructure.
While not as devastating as the consequences of Idai, African cities are reporting
a growing number of urban disasters, most commonly flooding and landslides,
according to the continental report for Disaster Risk Reduction.9 The report
highlights the fact that the number of technological disasters resulting from
technical failure, system breakdown, human error, industrial accidents, fires,
building collapse and transport accidents is becoming more frequent and severe,
and that this requires a new commitment by city authorities to take city-wide
approaches and to include climate and disaster resilience in all urban planning
and implementation processes.10
Scientific studies are beginning to associate climate-induced changes to shifts in

the ecological balance, resulting in renewed disease and pest outbreaks. Warmer
temperatures are causing malaria to spread to higher altitudes where it was
previously unheard of and increasing the incidence of this disease.11 In addition
to malaria, climate change amplifies conditions known to be associated with
increased risks of other vector-borne diseases, such as dengue, leishmaniasis and
Rift Valley fever – probably by providing ideal conditions for mosquito breeding.12
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Another study found linkages between rising temperatures resulting in dry

hot weather and outbreaks of cholera in Southern Africa.13 Although cholera
epidemics are unpredictable and sporadic, they are known to be associated with
high air temperatures and higher than average rainfall, the exact conditions
associated with climate change.
Beginning in 2019, extraordinarily heavy rains in East Africa contributed to the worst
desert locust outbreak to hit the region in 25 years. In Kenya, the outbreak was the
worst in 70 years, and while not directly related to the concerns of African cities, it
Although cholera may be a harbinger of future pest infestations.
epidemics are
unpredictable and The vulnerabilities outlined above are likely to trigger secondary risks, such as civil
unrest, political instability, food insecurity, mass migration and worsening human
sporadic, they rights, according to research by the global risk consulting firm Verisk Maplecroft.
are known to be The risk firm has found that the cities likely to be worst affected are the low-lying,
associated with high populous coastal cities of Lagos, Luanda and Dar es Salaam, where flooding, erosion
and storm surges are already a great problem, and Addis Ababa, where drought and
air temperatures and
water shortages are recurring often. And the conflicts that dot the Sahel region will
higher than average only be exacerbated by climate change.14
rainfall, the exact
conditions associated Events outside cities will also have implications for the functioning of the city. For
instance, the World Meteorological Organization forecasts that East Africa’s largest
with climate change. glaciers on the Mount Kenya massif, the Rwenzori Mountains, and Mount Kilimanjaro
will vanish by 2040. This will not only impact the region’s environment and ecosystem,
but also the tourism industry of cities in the region.
WHAT CITIES ARE DOING

ADOPTING NATIONAL LAWS, POLICIES AND ADAPTATION PLANS
Nearly all African countries have developed and adopted climate change adaptation
strategies and action plans. Until recently, these strategies have not been city-focused;
they have targeted sectors, such as food security, agriculture and livestock, water,
forests and other natural resources, and energy – all of which impact how cities run
but do not necessarily address the additional coping needs of urban areas in the face
of climate change.
Cities must accelerate the expansion of basic services and development of affordable
housing, build and climate-proof well-connected transport systems and other
infrastructure, and create jobs and safety nets for their ballooning populations. This
will also necessitate a reassessment of urban land-use and planning to ensure that
cities and towns remain liveable and to avoid urban sprawl that can end up being
locked in for generations because, once a city goes up, its physical form tends to
remain that way for many decades.15
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GREENING THE SAHEL

The Great Green Wall initiative exemplifies proactive climate action in Africa. Spanning the
8,000-kilometre width of the continent, this wall of trees hopes to re-green the Sahel and
stop the further spread of the Sahara Desert. It runs through 11 countries and, with about
15 per cent already planted, it will be the largest natural wonder of the world, covering
an area bigger than the Great Barrier Reef.
The wall is a unique example of cooperation and collaboration. It is referred to as a global

symbol for humanity overcoming the threat of a rapidly degrading environment. Interest
in the wall extends far beyond the countries where trees are being planted. More than
20 African countries are involved through the African Union and a growing movement is
bringing in partners from across the world.
The impact of the Great Green Wall tree planting is unmistakable. A BBC report found
that, where the trees have taken root, previously dry wells have begun to fill up. In Senegal,
where 11 million trees have so far been planted, communities are growing vegetables
in these once barren areas, thus improving food security. There is also less soil erosion
caused by wind, more compost provided by falling leaves, and the increase in shade and
humidity from the tree canopy means that there is less need for watering the trees and
crops. Increasing income opportunities are emerging along the line of trees and this is
stemming migration away from villages and improving livelihoods. Launched in 2007, the
Great Green Wall is expected to cost $8 billion when complete.
Source: https://www.greatgreenwall.org/press; Why is Africa building a Great Green Wall? BBC News
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=4xls7K_xFBQ
LEVERAGING CLIMATE FUNDS
Climate change is increasingy being factored into African countries’ development plans.
National climate change mitigation and adaptation programmes and projects, based on
countries’ climate change policies, and aligned with the UN Framework Convention on
Climate Change’s commitments, are being funded through national budgets and donor
grants. Increasingy, climate change is also being factored into development investments
to climate-proof the same.
African urban areas are also starting to engage directly in climate-smart investments. Recent
examples include the proposed electric vehicle-sharing that is to be piloted in Nairobi;
a solar rooftop project in Ethikweni; green bonds to finance low carbon transport and
biogas projects in Cape Town and Durban; and Addis Ababa’s comprehensive transport
development plans.
AFRICAN CITIES ATTRACTING

CLIMATE FUNDS
Development partners are playing a significant role in making climate investments in

Africa’s urban areas. The United Nations Development Programme (UNDP), for instance, is
helping Liberia deal with coastal erosion resulting from climate-induced rises in sea levels.
Nine out of Liberia’s fifteen counties are suffering from the effects of coastal erosion that
is undermining individual and private investments.
In 2021, Liberia received a Global Climate Fund (GCF) grant of $25.6 million to construct
coastal defence revetments in Monrovia’s West Point township to stave off coastal erosion
that has eaten up 30 metres of the city’s shoreline in the past decade. The Monrovia
Metropolitan Climate Resilience Project is being undertaken with support from UNDP,
and funding from GCF. The project will protect the lives, homes and livelihoods of
hundreds of families in the township, and the lives of a quarter of a million people living
in neighbouring coastal areas. The project will also protect critical infrastructure, such as
schools and fish landing beaches.
Many African governments are dedicating budgets to dealing with climate change. South
Africa does not have a dedicated climate fund. However, the government has committed
to investing 10 per cent of GDP ($35 billion based on 2020 GDP) into three key sectors—
transport, energy and water—over the next ten years. The Development Bank of South
Africa has also launched an innovative climate finance facility, committing $56 million to
drive investment into climate mitigation.
Cities in South Africa have also been working to increase climate finance through the
issuance of municipal green bonds, with one in Cape Town worth $76 million funding
water and low-carbon transport projects and another one in Johannesburg worth $143
million supporting biogas energy and low-carbon transport projects.
Source: Green Climate Fund Liberia (2022) https://www.greenclimate.fund/countries/liberia; Coalition of

Urban Transformations, FSD Africa, UK-Aid (Undated) Financing Africa’s Urban opportunity: The Why,
What and How of Financing Africa’s Green Cities.
INVESTING IN CLIMATE-RESILIENT INFRASTRUCTURE

The priority for African cities in addressing climate response appears to be job creation, trade
and (re)building their economies. With 10 to 12 million young people coming of age and joining
the labour force every year,16 this seems appropriate. Research shows that, in general, investors
favour countries with large urban populations, trade openness, mobile-phone subscriptions,
internet bandwidth and a regular supply of water and electricity.
The response of cities across the continent is expressed in a massive infrastructure boom in cities
stretching from Djibouti, Luanda and Lubumbashi to Tunis and Johannesburg. This includes
repair, expansion and development of 46 ports and 34 airports and more than 13,000 miles of
railroads, highways and bridges that have been built or renovated largely with financing from
China.17 There has also been massive investment in power supply infrastructure.
These infrastructure developments are increasingly being built with climate resilience
in mind. Changes in climate are forcing cities to adjust their infrastructure standards to
withstand higher temperatures and increased precipitation and flooding, and to embrace
new building codes and materials and higher maintenance and rehabilitation, while
factoring in the possibility of climate-related damage and building these costs into the life
of the infrastructure.
BUILDING RESILIENCE IN
TANZANIAN CITIES
In 2020, an estimated 2 million people in Tanzania’s commercial capital, Dar es Salaam,

were affected by flooding as a result of intense rainfall. Many of these people live in the
unplanned settlements of the Msimbazi River valley region of the city, which between
2017 and 2020 was hit by seven major incidents of flooding, causing major disruptions to
the bus transit routes and communication in the city, and interrupting businesses. At least
15 people died in the April 2018 floods and 2,000 families were displaced. Household
losses were estimated to be over $100 million.
The Government of Tanzania has taken a bird’s-eye view to building the climate resilience
of cities across the country to set them up as centres for growth and jobs. With the
assistance of the World Bank, Tanzania has implemented projects worth close to $1 billion.
The major focus is on Dar es Salaam, one of the fastest growing cities in the world, with
an estimated 1,000 new residents arriving every day. The city also happens to lie on the
Indian Ocean and so is threatened by sea-level rise.
A collaborative drainage design process was initiated in 2019, with widespread

participation from the community with the goal of finding a solution to the flood problem.
Issues needing to be addressed included silting of the river with sediment from settlements
along its route and solid waste dumped into the river. More than 65 kilometres of storm
drains have now been constructed in and around these flood-prone areas and over $100
million is being used to upgrade community infrastructure in the poorest neighbourhoods,
including roads, drains, public toilets, water kiosks and quality recreational spaces.
Over 200 kilometres of local roads connected to the mass transit network are being
constructed in the city. Along its beaches, Dar es Salaam has built seawalls to stop the
ocean eroding the coastline. Vast areas of mangrove forest are also being restored to offer
protection against storm surges.
Similar improvements are being made in 30 other urban centres across Tanzania. The aim is
to strengthen solid waste management with the construction of eight new sanitary landfills
and more than 500 solid waste collection points. To enhance mobility and connectivity,
the country aims construct over 400 kilometres of roads with streetlights, 30 footbridges,
20 bus terminals, and 150 kilomto etres of drainage.
Source; The Global Facility for Disaster Reduction and Recovery (GFDRR)/ World Bank. Video: Doing
drainage differently: Tackling urban flooding in Dar es Salaam, Tanzania.June 28, 2021
Egyptian cities are also encouraging climate action for construction of new
buildings at the residential level under the Green Pyramid Rating System (GPRS)
certification. GPRS involves examining site selection, designs, use of sustainable
materials and plumbing and power-saving tools with a goal of seeing 25,000
social housing units certified across Egypt by December 2024. GPRS will also
take into consideration thermal insulation and natural ventilation, adaptation
to heat waves, grey water reuse and aerators in taps, an adaptation measure
for houses with less access to fresh water.
More than 90 per

cent of solid waste CLEANING UP THE URBAN ENVIRONMENT
generated in Africa is
The United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) notes that more than 90
disposed at unregulated per cent of solid waste generated in Africa is disposed at unregulated dumpsites
dumpsites and landfills, and landfills, often with associated open burning. The African Union has set an
often with associated ambitious target: African cities will be recycling at least 50 per cent of the waste
open burning. The they generate by 2023.18 This should significantly improve the environment in
these cities, and ensure that waste is put to good use and does not pollute the
African Union has set urban environment.
an ambitious target:
African cities will be Many African cities are already taking steps to improve air quality. Some are
promoting car-free days and preparing for the eventual global transition to
recycling at least 50 per
electric cars. Car-free days are gaining popularity in cities such as the Ugandan
cent of the waste they capital Kampala, and the Ethiopian cities of Addis Ababa, Jimma, Bahir Dar,
generate by 2023. and Mekele. This is a step towards fighting air pollution and promoting healthy
living by encouraging the use of non-motorised transport. Kampala Capital City
Authority has also deployed 24 low-cost sensors around the city since 2020 to
make available data to support monitoring of its clean air targets and provide
data-driven and evidence-based information in support of strategies and action
plans.
HARVESTING THE SUN
Africa has plenty of intense sunshine all year due to its geography; many of the
world’s sunniest countries are on the continent. This offers a unique additional
energy pathway that cities on the continent are beginning to wake up to. Energy
production from the sun in Africa has grown more than twentyfold, from 0.4
terawatt hours in 2010 to 8.4 terawatt hours in 2020. This exceeds the total
annual electricity consumption for Ivory Coast, which is 6.25 terawatt-hour
(TWh) or 6.25 billion kWh according to Statista.
President Cyril Ramaphosa is now urging South Africans to install solar panels
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on their rooftops and sell the excess to the national grid for use by others.
Diverse examples show the potential uses of solar energy in cities. A solar carport
installation at Garden City Mall in Nairobi provides 1.2M kWh of electricity to
serve the mall’s shops, grocery stores, offices and movie theatre, generating the
equivalent of what it would take to power over 550 urban homes in Nairobi
each year.
Energy production The suburb of Cocody in Abidjan plans to install 5,000 solar lamp posts, 1,600
from the sun in Africa solar traffic lights and to supply 200,000 solar PV power kits to low-income
has grown more than households. Benin has introduced an exemption from Value Added Tax on
imports of equipment for solar power generation with the goal of increasing
twentyfold, from 0.4 access to off-grid power solutions for urban and peri-urban settlements while
terawatt hours in Dakar and Cape Town are moving to convert their diesel-fuelled public transport
2010 to 8.4 terawatt systems to electric.19
hours in 2020.
GREENING THE PRIVATE SECTOR
Many aspects of climate change have been attributed to industrial pollution and
wasteful consumption. Emerging initiatives are working to change that narrative
in multiple ways, including creating valuable products from waste, and making
waste valuable at the household level. A few initiatives are:
OkwuEco (https://okwueco.com/) is a Nigerian start-up that has developed a

mobile app using image recognition to educate households about different types
of waste that is suitable for recycling. The app also links households with traders,
enabling them to trade their waste for cash credits or mobile data delivered
through a secure online platform. It incorporates GPS to help the buyers find
their way around neighbourhoods in different cities from where they collect
separated household waste and then sell it for recycling.
Another start-up, Coliba (coliba.com.gh), which serves markets in Côte d’Ivoire

and Ghana, is also making waste valuableby collecting plastic bottles that it
washes and turns into pellets and granules for recycling into tables and chairs
or for sale to buyers in markets such as Ireland and China.
Gjenge Makers Limited, (https://www.gjenge.co.ke) a Kenyan manufacturer,

recycles plastic waste to produce heavy-duty construction materials for building
pavements and roads.
The Kenya Association of Manufacturers (https://kam.co.ke) has established

the Centre for Green Growth and Climate Change to promote a circular economy
and climate change action among other goals. KAM provides capacity building
and conducts energy, water, and wastewater audits, with the aim of improving
the overall profitability of manufacturing companies.
Ecotourism Kenya (https://ecotourismkenya.org/) promotes ecotourism and

has established a voluntary certification program for tourism sector players. It
recently certified Serena Hotels, a leading luxury hotel brand in Kenya, as the
first fully solar-powered hotel chain in East Africa.
The non-profit Green Africa Foundation has developed the Greenmark

Standard for Green Buildings.20
WHAT NEEDS TO BE DONE

Align urban policy and management for climate resilience
The African Union’s Green Recovery Action Plan calls on all 55 African member states to
take bold action in five priority areas, one of which is the building of green and resilient
cities that are able to absorb and quickly recover from economic, environmental, social
and institutional shocks brought on by climate change. (Other priority areas are improving
climate finance, supporting the just transition to renewable energy, nature-based solutions
and a focus on biodiversity and resilient agriculture all of which affect cities.)
In-depth analysis of seven countries – Gabon, Kenya, Morocco, Mozambique, Rwanda,

Senegal, and Tunisia – found that while African leaders are championing the UN Sustainable
Development Goals and actively working to deliver on their nationally-determined
commitments, climate change action on the ground is limited. Areas needing the most
improvement are:
• Breaking down global climate change targets to make them relevant to local sectoral
concerns;
• Revising national legal and regulatory frameworks to serve a green economy;
• Increasing government financial flows and budget allocations to make the green
economy a reality; and
• Changing business models and structures for effective monitoring and reporting of
climate change.21
Although these can be applied at the national level, they can also be used to provide clear
guidelines for the work that must be done at municipal/city level where outdated by-laws
remain in force. Cities’ budgets need to be aligned to new climate-resilient directions. This
will set cities on the path to respond to climate change as a priority consideration in planning
and implementation.
Prepare for accelerated internal migration and population growth

The Institute for Security Studies describes urbanisation as a key climate change outcome
as people seek refuge and work in cities. African cities must prepare for accelerated internal
migration and population growth as a result of climate change. The fact that climate change
is taking place at a faster rate and that the impacts are likely to be more intense in Africa
than in other regions of the world portends more frequent and violent shocks. If cities are
well prepared for this movement of people, urbanisation can present infrastructure and
economic development opportunities.22
Generate more finance for NDCs

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African countries need investments of over $3 trillion by 2030 to implement their Nationally-
Determined Contributions (NDCs), the five-year climate action plans to cut emissions and
adapt to climate impacts. According to the United Nations, another $1.3 trillion per year
is needed to implement the Sustainable Development Goals. However, many of these
commitments remain conditional on receiving adequate financial, technical and capacity
building support.
African countries More than a decade ago, wealthy nations committed to provide support
need investments by pledging $100 billion annually by 2020 to address climate change, a
of over $3 trillion by situation that Africa had little to do with creating. All the plans that have
been developed to date will mean nothing if this funding is not available.
2030 to implement Knowing that urban areas will bear the weight of climate change, city
their Nationally managers must pressure their own governments to lobby for the immediate
Determined delivery of this promise and use their umbrella body to give a voice and
visibility to the urgency of the matter.
Contributions (NDCs),
the five-year climate City managers can also advocate for the introduction of climate finance
action plans to cut policy instruments and offer incentives that will encourage green investment
emissions and adapt and industry and create sustainable jobs.
to climate impacts.
Build capacity
Acquiring sector-specific capacity to address climate change is crucial if
African cities are to respond effectively. This includes both technical and
institutional capacity. It will also entail the retraining of city managers and
staff to orient them to incorporate climate change in every city plan, project
or activity.
UNEP defines a six-sector roadmap to a carbon-free future: buildings and

cities; transport; energy; industry; nature-based solutions and agriculture;
and food and waste. In-house expertise in these areas will support city
responses. It must also be remembered that climate change is still unfolding
and will require cities to be able to engage with continuous learning
and adaptation. Integrating climate change into city activities must be a
continuous process.
Change behaviour
The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) Special Report
While stringent on 1.5 degrees Celsius (°C) underlines that behaviour change is what
legislation and will save humanity and stop climate change. While stringent legislation
progressive policy and progressive policy changes make a great difference and serve as a
deterrent, ultimately it is the environmental consciousness and actions
changes make a great of city residents and city managers that will help reduce the impact of
difference and serve as climate change in urban areas. Kenya’s ground-breaking ban on single-use
a deterrent, ultimately plastics is an example. It came into law on February 28, 2017, making it
illegal to use, manufacture or import single-use polythene bags in Kenya.
it is the environmental
Anyone found manufacturing, importing or selling a plastic carrier bag
consciousness and could be fined up to $40,000 or face a prison sentence of up to four years.
actions of city residents (However, polypropylene bags that have replaced them are rapidly becoming
and city managers an environmental menace too.)
that will help reduce Behaviour change must target all sections of the population with clear
the impact of climate and accurate messaging if climate change consciousness and actions are
change in urban areas. to prevail. Proactive communication campaigns should be put in place by
municipalities to achieve this. Citizen participation in these efforts is key.
FROM WATER SCARCITY TO

WATER SUFFICIENCY
A 2006 study compiled by the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) and the
World Agroforestry Center (ICRAF) suggests that Africa is not water scarce; rather, the
problem is a failure to invest in water resource management. The report cites the example
of Kenya as one of the countries which would not be categorised as “water stressed” if
rainwater harvesting was considered. The study also found that the capital Nairobi could
potentially support the water needs of a population of between 6 and 10 million with 60
litres per person per day if rainwater was efficiently and effectively harvested.
Source; UN News. Rainwater harvesting could end much of Africa’s water shortage, UN reports. 13
November 2006 https://news.un.org/en/story/2006/11/199382-rainwater-harvesting-could-end-much-
africas-water-shortage-un-reports)
Put people first

With climate change everything is urgent and climate disasters often interrupt plans. However,
water wars emerging across the continent are a pointer to the real priorities, such as addressing
the basic needs of city residents, and ensuring continuity must take precedence, especially in this
post-COVID-19 pandemic environment that has devastated livelihoods, challenged economies
and deepened inequalities in urban areas. Food supply chains, housing and fuel also fall in this
category.
Enforce regulations
African cities will need to stand firmly by the decisions they take and allow their enforcement
officers to ensure that they are implemented. Many positive decisions often falter in the face of
push-back from both local and global commercial interests, both local and global. A decision by
the six-nation East African Community – Kenya, Uganda, Rwanda, Burundi, Tanzania and South
Sudan – to fully ban imported second-hand clothes, shoes and used cars by 2019, which would
have addressed some climate concerns, has not been fully implemented, allegedly following
a complaint by the United States and local business interests insisting that East Africa must
continue to import used clothing.23 UNEP indicates that more than 80 percent of cars brought
into Nigeria and Kenya are used cars, many of which are considered end-of-life vehicles by the
European Union and which add to air pollution with their emissions24.
African city managers must work with national governments and enforce what is best for Africa.
REFERENCES
1. African Climate Change Policy 8. Climate Change Could Further Impact 18. https://wedocs.unep.org/bitstream/
Centre, UNECA. Economic growth, Africa’s Recovery, Pushing 86 Million handle/20.500.11822/25515/
development and climate change in Africans to Migrate Within Their Own Africa_WMO_Summary.
Africa. https://archive.uneca.org/sites/ Countries by 2050. World Bank Press pdf?sequence=1&isAllowed=y
default/files/uploaded-documents/ Release. October 27, 2021
ACPC/annex_21b_-_climate_change_ 19. https://www.weforum.org/
impacts_on_africas_economic_ 9. https://www.undrr.org/publication/ agenda/2021/04/africa-cities-
growth_-_report.pdf africa-regional-assessment-report- renewables-ren21/
disaster-risk-reduction(2015-2018)
2. Rentschler, Jun; Kim, Ella; Thies, 20. Green Africa Foundation http://
Stephan; De Vries Robbe, Sophie; 10. https://www.urbanet.info/africas- www.green africa foundation.
Erman, Alvina; Hallegatte, Stéphane. green-cities-low-carbon-climate- org/media/downloads/Zero-Draft-
2021. Floods and Their Impacts on resilient-future/ GreenMark-Standard-for-Green-
Firms : Evidence from Tanzania. Policy Buildings-20182908.pdf
Research Working Paper;No. 9774. 11. Climate link to African malaria,
World Bank, Washington, DC. © Richard Black, March 20, 2006 21. AfDB and GGGI (2021). Africa Green
World Bank. https://openknowledge. http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/ Growth Readiness Assessment. African
worldbank.org/handle/10986/36282 nature/4827362.stm Development Bank Group: Abidjan,
License: CC BY 3.0 IGO. and Global Green Growth Institute:
12. https://www.un.org/en/chronicle/ Seoul.
3. https://mg.co.za/article/2020-01-10- article/climate-change-and-malaria-
00-water-wars-wash-over-the-world/ complex-relationship 22. African cities must prepare for climate
migration, BY AIMÉE-NOËL MBIYOZO,
4. Africa’s Booming Cities Are Running 13. Plataforma SINC. “Climate Change January 15, 2021. https://issafrica.org/
Out of Water, By Ekow Dontoh and Increases Cholera Cases In Africa, iss-today/african-cities-must-prepare-
Michael Cohen, March 19, 2019 Study Suggests.” ScienceDaily. for-climate-migration
https://www.bloomberg.com/ ScienceDaily, April 27, 2009.
23. How the US and Rwanda have fallen
5. Internal Displacement Monitoring 14. https://newafricanmagazine. out over second-hand clothes, By Tara
Centre website. https://www.internal- com/28060/ John, BBC News. https://www.bbc.
displacement.org/global-report/ com/news/world-africa-44252655
15. https://www.worldbank.org/en/topic/
6. Displacement in a Changing Climate: urbandevelopment/overview 24. How to stop used cars from
Localized humanitarian action at being dumped in Africa, By Kyra
the forefront of the climate crisis. 16. https://www.afdb.org/fileadmin/ Dupont. October 29, 2020. https://
2021. https://www.ifrc.org/sites/ uploads/afdb/Images/high_5s/Job_ genevasolutions.news/climate/
default/files/2021-11/2021-Climate- youth_Africa_Job_youth_Africa.pdf un-sets-standards-on-used-vehicles-
Displacement-Report-Final.pdf shipped-to-developing-world?utm_
17. Africa’s Rising Cities: How Africa will medium=partage-social&utm_
7. https://www.citiesalliance.org/ become the center of the world’s urban source=copylink
newsroom/news/results/horn-africa- future, by Max Bearak, Dylan Moriarty
climate-induced-displacement-rise and Júlia Ledur. November 19, 2021
https://www.washingtonpost.com/
world/interactive/2021/africa-cities/
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MAXIMISING
AFRICA’S
URBANISATION
DIVIDEND
Prof. Alfred Omenya,
DRIVERS OF INVESTMENTS IN AFRICAN

CITIES
The African Urban investments are key to driving Africa’s economies. The African
Development Bank estimates that up to $25 billion would need to be invested
Development Bank
in basic urban infrastructure in Africa each year. Another $20 billion is needed
estimates that up to $25 each year for housing development if Africa is to respond to its rapid urban
billion would need to be population growth.1
invested in basic urban
The increasing concentration of populations in Africa’s urban areas in recent
infrastructure in Africa
decades has strengthened interest in these zones. Cities have become attractive
each year. Another from investors’ point of view because of the wide array of opportunities and
$20 billion is needed growing need for investment. Awareness of the importance of urban investment
each year for housing has been growing due to its positive social and economic impacts at different
levels. These effects have macro-level repercussions as investments affect
development if Africa not only the urban areas in which the venture capital is invested, but also the
is to respond to its surrounding region and country.2
rapid urban population
growth. For effective urban investments, it is critical to understand the nature of
urbanisation in Africa. Although Africa remains a predominantly rural region,
with about 55 per cent of its population living in rural areas, many African
countries have maintained good rural-urban linkages, especially through
secondary and tertiary towns. These linkages are key for strong agribusiness
value chains that emanate from rural areas and culminate in processing plants
in urban areas before linking with national and global consumer markets.
Most urban growth in Africa is happening in secondary towns. Well planned,

governed and resourced secondary towns provide a good platform for future
economic growth, job creation and economic prosperity. Equitable economic
development and growth require strategic urban investments. Urban
investments need to be equitable so that no one is left behind. This requires
strategic collaborations between national and local governments, the private
sector and civil society. It also underscores the importance of urban governance
and proactive policies at national and subnational levels to create conducive
environments for urban investments. Additionally, it shows the positive move
of African countries to shift towards resilient investments, especially to cushion
them from the vagaries of disasters such as climate change and economic
recessions. Resilient investments are already starting to leverage local and global
funds, notably for climate change mitigation, at both national and city levels
The future of Africa’s For African urban areas, including secondary and tertiary towns, to attract
economies will be in investments, there is a need for policies at the national and subnational
levels. Urban areas need to be well planned, with designated areas for urban
urban areas. African
investments. They also need to have strategic infrastructure and services.
countries are already
starting to put in place The business climate also needs to be improved through conducive legislative
mechanisms to attract and policy regimes and frameworks. The creation of an investor-friendly climate
is critical. Investor-friendly policies should support and leverage the potential of
urban investments, local investors while attracting direct foreign investments. They should also be
especially in secondary cushioned from the vagaries of climate change.
towns.
The future of Africa’s economies will be in urban areas. African countries are
already starting to put in place mechanisms to attract urban investments,
especially in secondary towns. This is key given that secondary towns are the
main centres of urban growth across the continent.
KEY AREAS OF TARGETED URBAN

INVESTMENTS
Invest in transport networks to strengthen rural-urban value
chains and inter-city trade
Cities and towns in Africa drive rural economies – they serve as gateways
to domestic and international markets for agricultural and other goods.
Rural areas closely connected to urban areas through transport networks
tend to perform better economically than remote rural areas. Many towns
have grown and prospered due to their strong linkages and dependence on
rural agricultural communities. Investments in transport networks linking
cities and towns to rural areas is, therefore, critical for both rural and urban
productivity and prosperity.
Equitable and responsive urban investments can be achieved, especially in

secondary towns, targeting the major demographic there – the youth – and
leveraging Africa’s agricultural sector through rural-urban value chains.
Rural-urban value chains and linkages need to be strengthened. Investing
in agribusiness is one way of improving these agri value chains.
When implemented, Not only do rural economies benefit from proximity to cities and towns, but
so do regions that are part of a cluster of cities, such as the Nairobi-Kisumu-
AfCFTA will lift 30 Kampala cluster that links 36 million urban inhabitants in East Africa, and
million Africans out of the Kumasi-Kano-Port Harcourt cluster that links 15 West African cities with
extreme poverty and populations of over one million3 Cross-border trade between these cities
boost Africa’s income by has benefitted both rural and urban economies in these regions. Increasing
intra-Africa trade between such clusters of cities is essential.
$450 billion by 2035.
Not only do rural economies The Africa Continental Free Trade Agreement (AfCFTA) advances this
benefit from proximity to cities concept and should go a long way in increasing intra-Africa trade as it
and towns, but so do regions will create a huge market for goods and services across the continent and
reduce tariffs among member states. The World Bank estimates that when
that are part of a cluster of implemented, AfCFTA will lift 30 million Africans out of extreme poverty
cities, such as the Nairobi- and boost Africa’s income by $450 billion by 2035.4
Kisumu-Kampala cluster
Intra-regional trade currently accounts for only 17 per cent of Africa’s exports
that links 36 million urban
compared to 59 per cent in Asia and 69 per cent in Europe.5 Cross-border
inhabitants in East Africa, and inter-city trade across the continent are hindered by poor transport
and the Kumasi-Kano-Port networks. Africa has the lowest density of roads in the world, both in terms
Harcourt cluster that links 15 of kilometres per area and kilometres per capita.6i Efficient road and rail
transport networks linking African cities and countries will yield significantly
West African cities. better economic results.
Although Africa still lags behind in infrastructure, the annual investment

in infrastructure has doubled to around US $80 billion a year since the
Africa has the lowest density beginning of this century. This represents a big opportunity for investors
of roads in the world, both in and entrepreneurs with the imagination to help solve Africa’s infrastructure
terms of kilometres per area challenges. 7
and kilometres per capita.
EAST AFRICAN CITIES ARE BUILDING

BRIDGES AND ROADS
The skyline in major East African cities is changing. In Nairobi, Kenya’s capital, a
27-kilometre expressway has been built, giving hope to commuters who had to spend
hours on the road going from one end of the city to the other. The Nairobi Expressway
from Mlolongo in Machakos County through the Jomo Kenyatta International Airport
to the city’s Westlands suburb has eased congestion and significantly reduced the city’s
notorious traffic jams.
Similarly, in the coastal city of Dar es Salaam, new flyovers and bridges are being launched,
linking various parts of the city that were hard to reach before. Tanzania’s commercial
capital also plans to develop five satellite cities, thereby bringing jobs and services closer
to the people and easing congestion.
However, these projects have come at a heavy financial cost and there are concerns that
both countries’ rising debt to fund these infrastructure projects may not be sustainable.
Source: The East African, 17 May 2022

The push towards Make investments more equitable through decentralisation

decentralisation is
All urban areas benefit from support from national governments. The role
often seen in emerging
of national governments in reducing the risks and realising the benefits of
economies where there urbanisation is more critical in African urban areas.8 This is partly because of
is uneven development the scale of the urban challenge: population growth is rapid, infrastructure
between regions. deficits are large, and humanitarian crises are common.
Additionally, governance capacities are sometimes notably weak or absent

at the local/city level.9 Political rivalries and competition between national
and local governments, local governments and traditional authorities,
and governments and civil society groups may further complicate urban
governance.10 Weak or ineffective urban governance not only affects
provision of basic infrastructure and services to urban dwellers but also
repels potential investments.
It is often the case that top-down approaches for public policy decisions by
the central government for local development do not satisfy local needs
because of differences in local preferences and endowment, combined
with the limited knowledge of central planners about local needs.11 It is,
therefore, natural for residents to demand more decentralised or devolved
systems of governance that bring decision-making and funds for public
services closer to the people. The push towards decentralisation is often
seen in emerging economies where there is uneven development between
regions. As the population gets more enlightened and participation in
decision making increases, they start raising their voices to demand better
services. Residents and firms start demanding improvement of public
services more aggressively12. All these forces and movements lead to more
accountable systems of urban governance, thereby leading to better
outcomes in cities and towns.
Effective decentralised governance structures are essential when attracting

urban investments in a country/community. In general, governance
infrastructure represents attributes of legislation, regulation, and legal
systems that affect the security of property rights, transparency of
government, and legal processes. Governance infrastructure, including the
nature of the legal system, is an important determinant of the level of private
investments into the urban economy. Good institutions establish a conducive
climate for investments both by local and multinational companies13 .
Functional multilevel governance is a precondition to realising the

“urbanisation dividend” so that rapid urban population growth drives
Weak or ineffective economic productivity and a better quality of life within a healthier local
urban governance not environment. National governments across Africa can enhance the
only affects provision effectiveness and accountability of multilevel governance by legally clarifying
the roles and responsibilities of different international, national, and local
of basic infrastructure
actors. National governments are typically best placed to oversee matters,
and services to urban such as the coordination of policy and regulatory frameworks, the efficiency
dwellers but also repels and appropriateness of municipal boundaries, water basins, regional power
potential investments. grids, and intercity transport routes.
They also play key roles in provision of trunk infrastructure and services,
such as electricity, water and regional transport, which are key drivers of
urban investments.
However, effective local governance is needed in the provision of services

such as housing, education, sanitation, waste management, and urban
transport.14
Decentralisation and devolution have brought tangible benefits to

subregions and urban areas, as has been demonstrated in the case of
Kenya, where counties are taking the lead in bringing about local and
subregional development. Efforts towards decentralisation and devolution
must, therefore, be encouraged to bring people closer to their governments
and policy makers and also to make cities more accountable to their citizens.
DEVOLUTION: THE CASE OF KENYA
In 2010, a new constitutional order came into force in Kenya under which 175 local
authorities in Kenya were abolished to pave way for a devolved system of governance
and the establishment of 47 county governments. Devolution gave more financial and
administrative clout and independence to subnational units of government, the activities
of which are substantially outside the direct control of the central government.
Devolution in Kenya is a concept that was adopted to address, question, and correct the
political economy of the past, where a small group of elites at the centre often hoarded
public resources and denied Kenyans access to government services. Since devolution
came into effect in 2013, various counties have appreciated the subsequent positive
transformations, and have lauded devolution as a game changer.
Under devolution, local government units are autonomous and independent of the central
government, and their legal status makes them separate and distinct from the central
government. The central government may exercise only indirect supervisory control over
such units through development of relevant national level policies, regulations, and
standards. Subnational governments have corporate or statutory authority to raise revenue
and use resources but county governments also recieve about 25% of the previous year’s
national budget based on a constitutionally determined formula by the Commission of
Revenue Allocation. In 2022, these subnational units recieved about $3 billion from the
central government.
Devolution aimed to increase citizen participation, foster inclusiveness, improve service

delivery and enhance democracy. True to its purpose, the change has been experienced:
paved roads, hospitals, and schools that did not exist before have been constructed and,
most importantly, brought citizens closer to their government.
The devolved units have been actively courting investors through investor conferences
and via establishment of urban management boards. The World Bank has also committed
to supporting devolution through its Kenya Urban Support Programme. A number of
public-private partnerships have materialised out of these initiatives, notably in the housing
sector, where about 10,000 housing units have been built between 2018 and 2022 in
many parts of the country
Source: Republic of Kenya, Commission for Revenue Allocation (2022): Allocation to County Governemnts;
Council of Governors, Kenya (2019): Report on the Future of Devolution in Kenya; Omenya, A (2022),
Republic of Kenya, State of Housing Report Volume 3. Nairobi: Centre for Economic and Social Rights;
Friedrich Ebert Stiftung (2020): Towards the Just City in Kenya.
Africa’s youth Invest in young people

population is expected
to double to over 830 Youth are Africa’s greatest asset. Africa’s youth population is rapidly growing,
and is expected to double to over 830 million by 2050.15 Africa’s urban areas are
million by 2050. home to youthful populations, the majority of whom are below the age of 35,
with most having tertiary education and skills. In Kenya, for example, children
Governments must do and youth constitute more than 76 per cent of the country’s urban population.16
more to ensure that This demographic dividend in Africa’s urban areas needs to be harnessed through
youth have the required investments in education, training and skills development. If properly harnessed,
this increase in the working-age population could support increased productivity
skills for an urban- and stronger, more inclusive economic growth across the continent.
based economy and are
gainfully employed so The vision of the Jobs for Youth in Africa Strategy 2016- 2025 is to create 25
million jobs and reach over 50 million Africans by driving inclusive growth across
that the opportunities
the continent and equipping the youth to realise their full economic potential.
presented by the urban This strategy is anchored in the vision of improving the quality of life for all
advantage are not lost. Africans. The desired long-term outcome is expanded economic opportunity
for both male and female African youth, which would lead to improvements in
other aspects of their lives.
Young people who are in the most productive period of their lives can leverage
the “urban advantage” – a concept relating to the abundance of goods,
services, such as health, recreation and education, amenities, and of economic
opportunities found in cities. But this can only happen when the youth are
adequately engaged in employment. Governments must do more to ensure that
youth have the required skills for an urban-based economy and are gainfully
employed so that the opportunities presented by the urban advantage are not
lost.
REFERENCES
1. AfDB. 2019. ‘Paving the Way for Urbanisation Dynamics 2022: The 12. Bahl RW, Ichimura S (2008)
Climate-Resilient Infrastructure: Economic Power of Africa’s Cities, West Decentralization policies in Asian
Building Sustainable Cities and African Studies, OECD Publishing, development. World Scientific,
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PATHWAYS TO JUST,
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PATHWAYS TO JUST,

RESILIENT AND LIVEABLE

A POSITIVE URBANISATION NARRATIVE

© Friedrich-Ebert-Stiftung Kenya Ofﬁce, 2022

All rights reserved. No part of this publication should be

Photo credits: Shutterstock

Friedrich Ebert Stiftung, Kenya Ofﬁce

05 | Part 1: Surviving the COVID-19 Pandemic:

16 | Part 2: Harnessing the Digitalisation

36 | Part 3: Climate Change and the African

50 | Part 4: Maximising Africa’s Urbanisation

AFRICA’S FUTURE IS URBAN

Africa’s Urban Population (2015-2035)

Year 2015 2020 2025 2030 2035

INVESTING IN AFRICA’S URBAN FUTURE

PART 2 provides several examples of how digitalisation is impacting African

1. UN-Habitat. 2022. World Cities Report 2022:

2. OECD/UN ECA/AfDB (2022), Africa Urbanisation

where health systems are weak or ill-equipped.

THE PANDEMIC PUSHED

The announcement that the German biotechnology company BioNTech will be

South Africa’s Coronapp is a centralised repository for accurate information

In Morocco, the application Wiqaytna is designed to be downloaded onto

Containment measures Djibouti's Ministry of Trade used a real-time COVID-19 commodities

INSIGHTS FROM THE URBAN HOUSING AND

E-LEARNING: THE NEW NORMAL

In Kenya, there were many innovative collaborations both for remote 4G

The pandemic prompted African cities to revisit their urban

The COVID-19 pandemic brought about interventions by African

There is now greater recognition that housing strategies should be

There is more awareness of the importance of open green spaces

RECLAIMING NAIROBI’S OPEN GREEN SPACES

COVID-19 laid bare the signiﬁcance of informal economies in Africa’s

Percentage of informal employment in selected African cities

Development agencies and governments that focus on economic reconstruction

Source: UN-Habitat, World Cities Report 2022

The potential of digital technologies to improve citizens’ access to goods and

By 2025, 615 million people in sub-Saharan Africa will have subscribed to

CITIES EMBRACING TECHNOLOGY

RUNNING ON MOBILE MONEY

First introduced with the launch of M-Pesa in Kenya in 2007 by Safaricom (a

BEYOND E-GOVERNMENT AND E-SERVICES

Across Africa, national governments, rather than urban authorities, appear to be

CITYTAPS: IMPROVING ACCESS TO WATER IN NIAMEY

Source: GSMA, January and April 2020.

The African Union High-Level Panel on Emerging Technologies (APET) is

IREMBO: RWANDA’S DOORWAY PORTAL

Source: GSMA, January and April 2020.

DIGITALISATION ASPIRATIONS OF AFRICAN

DIFFERENT APPROACHES TOWARDS SMART CITIES

African governments understand the capabilities of digital technologies, as

THE PITFALLS OF TECHNOLOGICALLY-

An emerging question is how does “smart” technology investment contribute to

The application of information and communication technologies in cities should not

Source: UN-Habitat, World Cities Report 2022

INNOVATION AND ENTREPRENEURSHIP: TECH START-UPS

The online “gig” economy is giving visibility to African talents, thereby

ABIDJAN’S MOJO RIDE

Source: https://disrupt-africa.com/ & https://dataintegrated.co.ke/

The Abuja-based AfriLabs, a Pan-African network of technology hubs, plays

MAXIMISING THE POTENTIAL OF

Improve data management

e-infrastructure and e-government depend on the growing use of big