PICO Cae ee Lt ES Volume 2C GEOLOGICAL & eS BS 2015 Republic of the Philippines : Department of Public Works and Highways BUREAU OF DESIGNFOREWORD ‘The Department of Public Works and Highways (DPWH), as the engineering arm of the Government of the Republic of the Philippines, is responsible for the formulation of design standards for the purpose of ensuring the safety and cost effectiveness of public infrastructure and the development of high quality detailed design for public engineering projects. ‘The Design Guidelines, Criteria and Standards (DGCS) has been prepared to update the previous guidelines published in 1984. The DGCS presents a significant revision to the previous guidelines, introducing industry's best practice in design for public infrastructure adaptable to local requirements such as climatological, geological, geotechnical and seismological conditions. ‘The DGCS covers all classes of infrastructure and comprises of: Volume 1 Introduction and Overview. Defines the scope, purpose and overview of the six volumes and considers design for emergency response, safety, resiliency, environment, gender and provisions for accessibility for Persons with Disability (PWD). Volume 2A GeoHazard Assessment. Describes the nature of gechazards in the Philippines, the information required to assess their likelihood at a site, and a procedure for preparing a preliminary assessment. Volume 2B Engineering Surveys. Provides the knowledge on the basic survey requirements and uniform approach in the conduct of engineering surveys using state-of-the-art surveying technologies, digital processing and cutting-edge survey data gathering. Volume 2C Geological and Geotechnical Investigations. Provides uniform approach in the conduct of geological and geotechnical investigations as design input, monitoring and damage assessment of infrastructure projects. Volume 3 Water Engineering Projects. Provides basic requirements and essential tools in the design preparation of water engineering projects, specifically for flood control, water supply, coastal facilities and urban drainage infrastructures. Volume 4 Highway Design. Covers design of all types of highways, including geometry, intersections, pavement, highway drainage, facilities and lighting. Volume 5 Bridge Design. Covers the General Requirement and the Load ‘and Resistance Factor Design (LRFD) approach in design for construction, alteration, repair and retrofitting of highway bridges and other related highway structures. Volume 6 Public Buildings and Other Related Structures. Covers design of public buildings and related structures in a range of different disciplines in site planning, architectural and engineering design services. ‘The use of the DGCS by DPWH and its consultants will lead to an efficient, economical and improved quality of design of public infrastructure, thus giving safer and more efficient public infrastructure to the Filipino people. rev Pubes an Hwa Deen ced he Seo 0 0 ELI IGSON : WIN5RO1120 SecretaryDesign Guide, Criteria and Standards: Volume 2C - Geological and Geotechnical Investigation Contents ABBREVIATIONS. GLOssaRy... 1 GENERAL PROVISIONS... 2 SCOPE AND OBJECTIVES vil 2.1 FRAMEWORK. 24 2.2 GENERAL PROCEDURES (FLOWCHART) orn 3 METHODOLOGY 3.1 RECONNAISSANCE. eee : = : 31.1 Office Reconnaissance (or Desk Study) 31 3.12 Field Reconnaissance. 3.13 Site Inspection. _ 3.2 Review oF History oF PREVious LAND Use 3.21 New Construction on. 3.22 Rehabilitation Projects... 323 Contaminated Sites.. 3.3 REVIEW OF GEOLOGY (INCLUDING GEOMORPHOLOGY AND SEISMICITY) 4 DESIGN OF INVESTIGATION PROGRAM 4.1. SUBSURFACE EXPLORATION PLANNING. 411 Typesof Investigations nnn 412 Frequency and Depth of Borings 413. Boring Locations sur: 414 Equipment nooo 415 Personnel, ocr 4.1.6 Plans and Specifications. 42 Roas . 421 Requirements... 422 Data to be Obtained... 43 BRIDGES cannon 43.1 Requirements 432 Data to be Obtained... 44 SLope PROTECTION WoRKS.... 441 Requirements: 442 Datato be Obtained. 4.5 _ STRUCTURES... 45.1 Requirements. 452 Datato be Obtained. 4.6 FORENSIC ANALYSIS. 461 Subsurface Soil 462° Structure... 463 Plans and Specifications. 5 DRILLING AND SAMPLING 5.1 SHALLOW SOIL EXPLORATION.. 5.2 BOREHOLE DRILLING... 5.3. SAMPLING 6 6.1 _ STANDARD PENETRATION TEST. 6.2 CONE PENETRATION Test, 621 Mechanical CPT. 622 Electric Piezocone,Design Guide, Criteria and Standards: Volume 2C - Geological ané Geotechnical Investigation 63. FieupVaNe SHEAR TEST... 64 PLateLoap Test... 6.5. DYNAMICCONE PENETRATION TEST 6.6 OTHER IN-SITU Tests, 661 Probe Tests. 662 Field Density Tests 7 LABORATORY TESTS FOR SOILS ...snemnnsnnsnnnesnnnisnnn 7.1 SELECTION oF APPLICABLE / APPROPRIATE TESTS. 7.2 _ VISUAL IDENTIFICATION OF SolLS 7.3. INDEX PROPERTIES. 7.4 MOISTURE-DENSITY RELATION. 7.5. CALIFORNIA BEARING RATIO. 7.6 STRENGTH TesTS.. 7.7 CONSOLIDATION TEST. 78 PeRweaaiuty TEST... 7.9. Spsciau Tests 7.9.1 Swell-Shrinkage 792 Mineralogy’. 793 X-Ray Diffraction . 740 OTHER TESTS.. 7.10.1 — Minerals Present. 7102 Acidity Test. 8 LABORATORY TESTS FOR ROCKS a4 BAL STRENGTH TESTS. 82 DuRaBILITY.. 83 STRENGTH-DEFORMATION CHARACTERISTICS. 9 GEOPHYSICAL METHODS.. 9.1 SeisMic SURVEY (UPHOLE, DOWNHOLE, CROssHOLE). 9.2 GROUND PENETRATING RADAR. 93. OTHER GeopusicaL MeTHioDs 10 GROUNDWATER INVESTIGATIONS.. 10.1 GROUNDWATER LEVEL. MEASUREMENTS, 10.1.1 Information on Existing Wells. 10.1.2 Open Borings. 10.13 Observation Wells. 10.1.4 Water Level Measurements... 11 FIELD PERMEABILITY TESTS 11 SEEPAGETESTS.... 11.2 PACKER TEST eon 113 PUMPINGTESTS... 114 Siu Tests. 12 GEOTECHNICAL INSTRUMENTATION AND MONITORING. 12.1 INCLINOMETER no 12.2. EXTENSOMETER .. 123. PIEZOMBTER 124 SETTLEMENT PLATES. 125 OTHER MONITORING EQUIPMENT AND TOOIS. 13 SITE INVESTIGATION OF GEOTECHNICAL FAILURES 6. 13.1 GEOTECHNICAL FaILuRes 13.1.1 Retaining Wall Failures... 13.12 Excessive Settlement. Design Guide, Critena and Standards: Volume 2C - Geological and Geotechnical Investigation 131.3 Bearing Capacity Failures. 13.14 — Excavation Bracing Failures. 13.1.5 Slope Stability Failures... 13.16 Other Types of Geotechnical Failures. 13.2. PROCEDURE ON INVESTIGATION OF GEOTECHNICAL FAILURES 132.1 Settlement. 1322 Subsidence... 13.23 Expansive Soil and Rock. 1324 Slope Stability... 14 GEOLOGIC AND GEOTECHNICAL REPORTS. 141 CONTENTS AND STRUCTURE 14.2 DATA PRESENTATION 142.1 Test Location Plan... 142.2 — Subsurface Profiles. 1423 Borehole Logs 1424 Summary of Results of Feld and Laboratory Tests 14.3. GEOTECHNICAL ANALYSIS. senn 143.1 General Analysis Requirements. 144 FOUNDATION RECOMMENDATION 15 QUALITY ASSURANCE FOR FIELD AND LABORATORY TESTING 15.1 LOGGING AND STORAGE... 415.2 HANDLING OF SAMPLESIN THE LABORATORY’ 15.2.1 Specimen Selection . 152.2 Equipment Calibration 16 DOCUMENT MANAGEMENT AND STORAGE. 17 REFERENCES & BIBLIOGRAPHY.Design Guide, Criteria and Standards: Volume 2C - Geological ané Geotechnical Investigation Volumes Volume 1 Introduction and Overview Volume 2A GeoHazard Assessment Volume 2B Engineering Surveys Volume 2C —_ Geological and Geotechnical Investigation Volume 3 Water Engineering Projects Volume 4 Highway Design Volume 5 Bridge Design Volume 6 Public Buildings and Other Related Structures Annexes A Geotechnical Assessment Checklist B ‘Test Procedures c Sample Geotechnical Investigation Program D Borehole Logging E Geotechnical Report Outline F Ready Checklist for Geological /Geotechnical Investigation G Geotechnical Formulas Design Guide, Criteria and Standards: Volume 2C - Geological and Geotechnical Investigation Tables and Figures Table 3-1 Table 3-2 Table 4-1 Table 4-2 Table 4-3 Table 4-4 Table 8-1 Table 9-1 Table 13-1 Table 13-2 Table 14-1 Table 14-2 Table 15-1 Figure 2-1 Figure 5-1 Figure 6-1 Figure 6-2 Figure 7-1 Figure 13-1 Figure 13-2 Field Reconnaissance Checklist... List of Information Required by Drill Crew (field reconnaissance) num sn List of Equipment for Field Exploration. Minimum Requirements for Boring Depths. 4-6 Guidelines for Boring Layout for Retai 1g Walls, Slope Protection Works and Culverts4-7 Minimum Requirements for Boring Depths for Retaining Walls, Slope Protection Works and Culverts. Standards and Procedures for Laboratory Testing of Intact Rock. Advantages and Disadvantages of Geophysical Methods... ‘Summary of Type of Bearing Capacity Failure Versus Soil Parameters... see 3-5 Common Examples of Slope Failures... Sample Field Data Summary nnn Sample Laboratory Data Summary. Sample Laboratory Data SuMMATY see-oennennnnn ~ ~ see SL Flowchart of General Procedure wssnsnewinnnsnnnnn : : send ‘Auger Hole Drilling Set-up Standard Penetration Test Set-up. Cone Penetration Test Set-Up vn Unconfined Compression Test evwnnewennnn . . eee Retaining Wall Failure. Categories of Bearing Capacity Failures nnn = = se 31nd Standards: Volume 2C - Geological and Geotechnical Investigation Abbreviations ‘Acronym em AASHTO “American Association of State Highway and Transporation Oils AST ‘American Socily fr Testing and Materials eM Benchmark 8RS ‘Bureau of Research and Standards aR Califomia Bearing Rabo opt ‘Cone Penetration Test cot Direct Curent Diterential Transformer ees Design Guidlines, Criteria and Standards post Department of Science and Technology oP WH Department of Pubic Works an Highways GPR (Ground Penetrating Radar cs, Mines and Geosciences Bureau NAMRIA ‘Natonal Mapping and Resource Information Authority PAGASA Philippine Atmospheric, Geophysical and Astronomic Services Administration Puivoies Philippine Instiste of Voleanoiogy and Seismology sol Slake Durability Index SPT ‘Standard Penetration Test Tan “Temporary Benchmark uses Unified Sol Ciassifeation System Glossary ‘Acronym Design Guide, Criteria and Standards: Volume 2C - Geological and Geotechnical Investigation ery ‘American Associaton of ‘State Highway and “Transportation Officials (AASHTO) Soll Classification ‘Acoustic Tomography Active Earth Pressure ‘Allowable Bearing Capacity ‘Angle of Internal Friction Anisotropic Aquifers Astesian Aterberg Limits ‘Auger Borings ‘Axial Stain Axial Stress Bearing Capacity Bedrock Borrow Site Borrow Materials Boulder Buk Density Calfonia Bearing Ratio Coarse-grained Soils Cohesiontess Sols Cohesive Soils ‘Cone Penetration Test crn) creep Density Differential Settlement Direct Shear Test Drawdown Dredging Dynamic Compaction fective Sess ‘A aystem of sll classification based on gain size, quid limit and plastic of sols and is usually used for highway design and construction ‘A geophysical technique for imaging sub-surface structures from electrical resistivity measurements ‘made at the surface, or by electrodes in one or more boreholes, “The horizontal stress exerted by a mass of sol ona retaining wall asthe wall moves away from the sail “The bearing pressure that can be alowed on a foundation gol, usually to limit settlements, “The angle on the graph ofthe shear stress and normal effective stresses at which shear failure occurs fora given soll ‘A mass of sol having diferent properties in diferent directions, Primarly refers to permeability or stress- ‘sain characterstes. {A stratum of sol with relatively high permeability, a water-bearing stratum of rock or sol ‘A condition that exists when the water table piezometrc surface lies above the ground level “The water content of a soll mass corresponding tothe transition between a solid, semi-solid, plastic sols corligu ‘A technique for forming @ bore hole through the ground, from a drve shaft to reception shaf, by means (of rotating cuting head, Direct stain measured along an axis ofa taal test sample. “Toll or effective stress (both confining and vertical stresses combined) acting along an axis ofa triaxial test sample “The abit of the undesying soil to suppor the foundation loads without shear failure ‘Strong tock underlying surtace deposits of soil and weathered rock ‘An excavation source ouside the project area that Ie used to supply coli for eartwork construction (Le. ‘gravel pit) Filing materiats acquired from a Borrow Site, ‘A ock fragment, usually Bounded by weather or abrasion, with an average dimension of 25.6 em or “The total mass of water and soll patcles contained in a unit volume of sol ‘A laboratory test that i used to determine the sutabty of a sol for use a a subbase in @ pavement ‘section ‘Soils with more than 50% by weight of grains retained on the number 200 sieve (0.075 mm) ‘Granular soils (sane and gravel type) with values of cohesion close to zero, ‘Cay type sols with angles of intemal trction close to ze. ‘A penetration test n which a cone that has 2 60° pont fs pushed into the groun at a continuous rate. Resistance is measured by correlating the depth penetrated withthe force applied AA slow or gradual movement, applied to sol and superficial accumulations moving under gravity: “The ratio ofthe total mass to the total volume of material “The vertical displacement due to settlement of one point ina foundation with respect to anather point of the foundation. Laboratory test used to determine the relationship of shear strength to consolidation stress. “The magnitude of the lowering of a water table, usually n 1 2 wel being pumped. Removal rom beneath water and rasing through water of sol rock and debi “The use of high-energy impacto density loose granular sol “The portion ofthe total tess that is supported through grainto-grain contacto he soDesign Guide, Crier 1nd Standards: Volume 2C - Geological and Geotechnical Investigation Elastic Deformation Embankment Escarpment Factor of Safety Fellure Envelope Fine-graines Soils Fissures Feoting Foundation Free Water {alias Phreatc Water, ‘Geavitatonal Water) Grain Size Distibution curve Gravity Walls ‘Ground Penetrating Radar ‘Groundwater ‘Groundwater Table Inotnometer Index Propesies In-situ Isolated Footing Isotropic Liquefaction Ligue Limit Mat Foundation Maximum Dry Density Modulus of Subgrage Reaction (alias Subgrede Moculis) Natural Moisture Content {alias Water Content) Normally Consolidated Sol N-Value(Alias, ‘Standard Penetration Resistance’) Optimum Moisture Content Organic Sols Deformation caused in soll due to a change in oading, and the soll recovers completely when the load is removed: ‘A alsed structure of sol aggregate, rock or @ combination of the tree, {A steep slope or long cif that occurs from felting and resulting erosion and separates two relatively level areas of sifering elevation. ‘The ratio of a limiting value of a quantity or quality to the design value ofthat quantity or qually. Fore given sol the graph ofthe shear stress and normal effecve stresses at which shear failure Si and clay sols. Sols containing partcles smaller than number 200 sieve or 0.075 mm in size according tothe Unified Soll Cassifieation System. ‘Small cracks ‘An enlargement at the base ofa foundation thats designed to transmit forces to the soll ‘A component of an engineered structure thal transmits the structure's forces into the soll or rock that supports it ‘Water that is fee to move underground through a soll mass under the influence of gravy. ‘A curve drawn on a log scale to represent the istributlon of particle sizes ina sol Retaining walls which depend upon ther seltweight to provide stailty against overturning and siding: usually made of a high buk structure ‘A geophysical method that uses radar pulses to image the subsurface. ‘Water that exists below the water table Inthe zone of saturation. ‘Depth at which sol pore spaces or fractures and voids in rock become completely saturated wth water, ‘A cevice used to messure a casing’ incintion from the vertical, Lateral deformations are measured ‘against depth ‘Atbutes ofa soll such as moisture content, vod ratio, specifi gravily, Atterberg mis and grain size istribution Undisturbed, existing field conditions. ‘A footing designed to support a structural load rom a single column, Usually @ shallow foundation, and ‘square or exeularin shape ‘A soll mass having essentially the same properties inal directions. ‘The sudden, large decrease of shear strength of cohesionless soll caused by collapse of the soi ‘tucture, produced by small shear strains associated with sudden but temporary Merease of pore water pressure ‘The water content above which the sol wil flow lke a qui, but below which it wil have aplastic consistency, {A structural slab uiized as a footing, which usualy encompasses the entire buldin footprint {A soll property obtained inthe laboratory ftom a Proctor test. Densiy of sol t 100% compaction ‘The ratio between the bearing pressure of foundation andthe corresponding setiement at a given Point The stope ofthe line in the loading range encountered by the soln 8 plate bearing value test, “The ratio between the mass of water and the mass of soil solids, ‘Soll having a curent state which les onthe normal compression in. ‘The number of blows required to dive a spi-spoon sampler during a standard penetration test 2 distance of 12 Inches (0.305 m) after the inital penetration of 6 inches (0.15 m), ‘The water content at which the maximum dry densiy ofa sols obtained using a specific effort of compaction. Optinum moisture ofa specie sol fs determined through a Proctor test. Earth comprised of organic material, peat, and muskeg Design Guide, Criteria and Standards: Volume 2C - Geological and Geotechnical Investigation ‘Overburden Soll ‘Overconsolidated Soll Particle Se Distnibution Passive Earth Pressure Permeabiity Pier Piezometers Pile Plastic Limit Plastioty Index Pore Pressure Poce Pressure Coefficient Pore Pressure Ratio Porosity (las, "Pore Space’) Pressure Head Proctor Test Rankine Earth Pressure ‘Theory Relative Densty {alias Density Index) Residual Sols Retaining Wall ‘Sand ‘Seepage Settement ‘Shear Strength Shrinkage Limit ‘Specie Gravity ‘Spread Footings sttiness Tension Cracks Tota stress Utimate Bearing Capacity Unit weight Void Ratio Volume of Solids ‘Overtying soil ofa desirable soll stratum, ‘A clayey sol carrying a higher load inthe past. Soll having a curent state which lies inside the normal ‘compression ine ‘Sol paticle sizes that are determined from a representative sample of sol thats passed through a set of sieves of consecutively smaller openings. ‘The maximum horizontal stress exerted by a mass of sol ona retaining surface asthe surtace moves toward the so ‘A measure of continuous voids in a sol. The property which allows the flow of water through @ sil A structure usually of concrete or stone masonry, which is used to transmit loads rom the bridge ‘superstructure tothe foundation sol and provide intermediate supports between the abutments ‘An instrument used to measure In-situ pore water pressures A slender member thats driven (nammered),driled or jetted into the ground. Piles are usually ‘constructed of timber, steal or prestressed reinforced concrete “The moisture content in which a soll wil have a plastic consistency. ‘The dference between the liquid mit and plastic imi of a soll mass. ‘Also, hycrostatic pressure. The pressure exerted by the fud within the pores or ois ina porous material n saturated sol the pore pressure isthe pore water pressure. “The rato ofthe change in pore pressure tothe change in isotopic stress in undrained loading. ‘Ata aiven desth of sol the ratio ofthe porewater pressure tothe vertical overburden pressure “The rato ofthe volume of vols tothe total volume, ‘The height of a column of water required to develop a glven pressure ata given pont. Laboratory test used to determine maximum dry density and optimum moisture content of sols. Earth pressure analysis that disregards friction between the wall and sol, and assumes that failure ‘occurs along a lt plane behind the retaining structure at an angle thats derved from the angle of internal freton. “The density of granular sol relative tothe minimum and maximum densities achieved for that partcular soil ‘Sols that have been formed in piace {A structure usualy made of stone masonry, concrete oF reinforced concrete tat provides lateral support fora mass of so. Particles that pass through a number 4 sieve (4.75 mm), and retained on a number 200 sieve (0.075 mm) “The flow of water trough so. “The downward movement of sol or the downward movement of a foundation “The maximum shear stress which a sol can sustain under a given set of conditions “The water content corresponding o the transition between a brite sli and a semi-solid. The water ‘content below which futher reduction in walter content eauses no further reduction in volume. “The rato ofthe density f @ body ora substance to the mass of an equal volume of water. ‘Also, isolated footing, A footing designed to support a structural load fom a single column. Usually @ ‘sallow foundation, and square or circular in shape. Susceptibility to distortion or volume change under an applied loa. ‘Cracks appearing atthe surface ofa soil mass, often acjacent toa retaining wall orto of fang slope “The stress acting on or within a soll mass due to surcharges, overying weight, ete. “The bearing sess which would cause shear failure i the sol below a foundation “The rato ofthe total weight of sito the total volume ofa unt of so “The rato ofthe volume of vest the volume of solids (sil grin). Volume of soll rains ina total sol volume,Design Guide, Crier 1nd Standards: Volume 2C - Geological and Geotechnical Investigation ‘Acronym En Volume of Voids Volume of ar space in total sol volume. Water Table ‘The level ina body of sl at which the hydrostatic water pressure is Zero Yield Pont ‘The point a which the sol loading behavior changes trom elatc to inelastic. Yiet Stress “The stress at which the swing recompression ne joins the normal compression ne Zero Air Voids Curve _The cuve creates by plating cry densities of sis corresponcing to saturation at each vater content. Design Guidelines, Criteria and Standards: Volume 2C - Geological and Geotechnical Investigation General Provisions ‘The purpose of this guide is to provide uniformity of approach for geological and geotechnical investigations in design preparation and review for infrastructure projects, in accordance with the following criteria: + Primary considerations shall be given to safeguarding life, health, property, and public welfare. * Subsurface investigations shall be designed to address relevant issues on site. + Zoning and land use requirements shall be observed and, as far as practicable, adverse effects on the ecological and environmental balance shall be minimized. + The use of indigenous materials, manpower, and other resources shall be optimized. ‘The design guide shall be governed by applicable provisions of existing laws, codes, and department orders. 4Design Guidelines, Criteria and Standards: Volume 2C - Geological and Geotechnical Investigation 24 22 2a Scope and Objectives 3 34 es of geological and geotechnical investigation are: * Characterization of subsurface soil conditions. + Evaluation of geotechnical parameters necessary for analysis and design. + Identification of geotechnical concerns, and foundation construction considerations. 344 = Generation of ground models for analysis and design. General Procedures (Flowchart) A flowchart of a typical geotechnical investig: ion is shown on Figure 2-1. Figure 24 Flowchart of General Procedure fice Reconnaissance Field Reconnaissance ‘Survey (Desk Study) Survey (Ste) ‘Sampling and Testing Other Tests (as appicabie) q t t Review of information prior to demooiiztion to ensure all apecs ofthe proposed program have ‘been achieved 4 Laboratory Testing —— Collation of Resuits —t Reporting Test Pits Borcholes ‘Site Investigation Evaluations, Conclusions, Information ‘and Recommendations Design Guidelines, Criteria and Standards: Volume 2C - Geological and Geotechnical Investigation Methodology Reconnaissance In order to achieve a relevant and cost-effective investigation program, essential that a review of available information be undertaken by a Civil Engineer who at least underwent training with the DPWH on Volume 2. This review can be divided into two (2) phases: office reconnaissance (or desk study) and field reconnaissance (or site reconnaissance). Office Reconnaissance (or Desk Study) In this phase, the following steps and sources of information are required: + Review of the Preliminary GeoHazard Assessment Report and attachments (see DGCS Volume 2A GeoHazard Assessment): Items in that report which are identified as a hazard at the site shall be taken into account in designing the geotechnical investigation. If no Preliminary GeoHazard Assessment report exists, then the procedures for the Preliminary GeoHazard Assessment contained in Volume 2A shall be followed and a report shall be prepared in accordance with those procedures prior to any field investigation work. The absence of a Preliminary GeoHazard Assessment report shall be identified in the Geotechnical Report as a non-conformance, and the Preliminary GeoHazard Assessment Report prepared at this stage shall be included as an Appendix in the Geotechnical Report. * Study of Existing Structures: A review of plans of other existing structures in the area, along with a review of the construction records of these existing structures will generally provide very valuable information at minimum expense. + Study of Project Description and Concept Development Plans: Often, preliminary sketches and plans depend upon available data, but where the Concept Development plans are prepared, the engineer-in-charge of the site investigation should become completely familiar with the proposed structure by studying these plans and designs. He should discuss with the design engineers and determine the approximate measurements and/or relevant information. If no plans are available, the Engineer should obtain a briefing from the planning division as to the extent of the proposed development. If no Project Description document is available, the Engineer should require one from the planning division and ifnot available, report it as a Non Conformance in the geotechnical report. * Consultation with Others: Many organizations, public agencies, ete. have a backlog of information already compiled on certain areas. This information should be consulted first. Experience gained by other engineers as well as contracting firms who may have completed work on similar structures in the same general area shall also be determined and utilized. These sources could be invaluable in obtaining general information on soil and rock types and 3aDesign Guide, Criteria and Standards: Volume 2C - Geological ané Geotechnical Investigation 32 foundation and groundwater conditions which could be expected in the latter phase of field exploration. The District or Region should aim to develop its own, database of existing development sites and the geological and geotechnical information obtained from those developments. Review of other Information: Other information pertaining to the project site could be obtained from the following sources: - Topographic Map: The topographic map is valuable in the design and construction of most structures. The locations and elevations of exploratory holes, outcrops, and erosional features can be placed on the map. The land forms portrayed by the contours indicate to some degree the type of geological conditions. - Geological Maps: On these maps, rock and soil masses are identified by name and geologic age. The most important detail to be obtained from a geologic map is the particular formation on which a structure is to be located. With experience, certain subsurface characteristics may be deduced from and associated with various formations. Refer to Volume 2A GeoHazard Assessment for further interpretation of geological maps. Geological maps are available at Mines and Geosciences Bureau (MGB) and Philip Institute of Volcanology and Seismology (PHIVOLCS). Soil/Agricultural Maps: Knowledge on the pedagogical system of soil classification is a potentially useful tool for field explorations; these soil ‘maps including soil reports can be used as a general guide in planning and conducting a soil survey, and they may be of limited value in some applications such as in foundation work due to the shallow depth explored. However, they can identify for example: the presence of near surface limestone bedrock, the presence of recent soft clays which may be further identified as deep from topographic data, and the presence of a water table near the surface. ~ Aerial photographs can provide an overall view of the site. Aerial photos can reveal general information on topography, vegetation, access, etc. of an area; they also allow identification of landslides and other geohazards as described in Volume 2A GeoHazard Assessment. Well-drilling Logs: When available data from local drilling contractors or other sources, well-drilling logs can be useful indicators as to the nature of the materials on site; also well records will provide robust information on ground water levels and their seasonal variation. This is particularly critical information in regions of expansive soils (see Volume 2A GeoHazard Assessment). Formulation of Subsurface/Soil Exploration Plan: During the latter part of office reconnaissance, an exploratory hole plan shall be made for review during the field reconnaissance. An exploratory hole plan should include the types, spacing, location, and depths of exploratory hole and sampling intervals, including borings, cone penetration testing, in-situ vane testing, For details, please see Section 4. 342 Design Guidelines, Criteria and Standards: Volume 2C - Geological and Geotechnical Investigation Field Reconnaissance After the office phase of reconnaissance had been completed, the field phase shall commence with a visit to the project site. It shall always be made by an engineer, most preferably the engineer who will complete the geotechnical report Whenever available, i or the drill foreman, is desirable that this engineer be accompanied by the driller The field reconnaissance has two purposes: to allow an experienced observer to view the site and record any facts which will affect either the foundation design or the boring plan; and to gather information needed by the drill crew. Items to Observe: Valuable information can be obtained by viewing the surface indications of subsurface conditions as outlined in Table 3-1. Table 3-4 Field Reconnaissance Checklist ‘Location of Bents and Pers ‘Surface Sols Gules, Excavation, ‘Siopes, or Stream Barks ‘Surface and Subsurface Water (springs and seepages) ‘Study of Existing Structures ‘Topography Vegetation ‘The designers proposed location ofthe bents and pies should be observed, Later troubies may be prevented by recommending a shit of the substructure Unis a this early date. Examples of this are bents whose proposed locations fare on river banks of questionable stablty or bents which may be moved Slightly ane placed upon rock Surface soils are easily revealed through the use of a shovel or post hole ‘igge's,orin exposure. These sails ay sometimes be identified as belonging tosome paricular formation, and usualy they indicate the underiying material Rock exposures near the project ste should be stucled. Extending a rack outcrop in accordance with its tke and dip may tell whether or not a bent is to be founded on rock ‘Any cut or hole in the ground near the project site is @ subsurface window, and forts depth, til provide more information than a borehole since I may be examined in deta. Soll type and distribution as well as rock existence and type are often quickly and easly avaiable from these sources. All surface fos should be noted, and all opportunities should be taken to ‘observe the groundwater level Wells and deep holes or excavations are good Sources for locating the groundwater table A very close examination of existing structures with regard to type of support, ‘apparent setiement, load, location, and age will yield a wealth of data. Te feundation plan and boring logs for these structures may be available, Topography to some extent is indicate of subsurface conditions. For ‘example, in anarrou, steep stream bed, rocks are likely to be near the surface with Witie overying stream-deposiled soll Topography notes are also of importance to the cil crews preparation fo the site, They can be advised as to where the use of truck-mounted drils is possible and where portable or winched equipment willbe necessary. To some extent, vegetation is indicative of subsurface sol and water Conaitions. However, the proper consideration of vegetation in the prediction fof subsurface concitons requires considerable experience on the par of the ‘observer, which ean be gained by viewing many sites and comparing ther wth the boring results, and aiso by understanding fypes of vegetation ana their required ecosystem, Information required by the Drill Crew: The information needed by the drill crew should be more definite and detailed. They need to know how to get to the site, where to drill, what equipment to take, and what difficulties to expect. Generally, the type of information needed are listed in Table 3-2. 33Design Guide, Criteria and Standards: Volume 2C - Geological ané Geotechnical Investigation 343 32 324 34 Table 32 List of Information Required by Drill Crew (field reconnaissance) Verification of Boring The proposed locations of borings should be checked for accessiilly. Plan Desirable deletions, addlions, and relocations should be made as are necessary to better suit the crews capabilities and to add completeness to the subsurface information, Type of Equipment Notes should be made 2s to which type of exploration is suited to the ste Needed (rotary, auger boring, cone penetration tes, etc) Al sites shouldbe explored by the method most applicable to the fd conditions, and accessibily of the site is an Important consideration in determining the type of equipment needed Reference Points and The reconnaissance should determine if reference points and bench marks Bench Marke ae in place adjacent tothe sile and propery referenced on the plans. The boring locations may be laid out by the reconnaissance party, by the dill crew, or by others. The exploratory hole locations shall be surveyed into the local Std and bench marks if this fs not feasible then the borehole locations shal be located and recorded using a portable GPS, and the elevation of the borehole estimated trom the topographic map. Permission of Property Ifthe diling is to be done on property belonging to others or it access is Owners {through property belonging to others, permission to do the work orto get to the work should be oDlained in advance by the reconnaissance party, # possible or by others, i necessary tites Underground or overhead utltes ocated at the site should be accurately shown on the plans or their locations should be staked on the ground. (Otherwise, the names of agencies or people to call before work starts should be shown on the cil foreman work plane. General Notes General notes should be made conceming the best route tothe ste and any ‘ther information which could be of value to the cil crew. If exploration methods other than dling are applicable to te ste the locations and types of tests should be decided upon during the reconnaissance. Site Inspection The geotechnical site inspection is conducted to acquire first-hand knowledge of the soil and geologic condition of the project area as a basis for review of the geotechnical investigation program and the data included in the geotechnical investigation report. The site inspection is ideally conducted before or during the conduct of soil exploration of a project (road, bridge, slope protection and structure projects). The output of this activity is the inspection report signed by the inspection team containing among others the description of the site, observations, expected site geology and soil type, topography, vegetation, findings, comments and recommendations. The reason for any significant deviation from the geotechnical program must be addressed in writing to the head of the design office. Review of History of Previous Land Use New Construction, For new construction, a detailed investigation to be performed for the purpose of detailed site characterization to be used for design is necessary. The design phase investigation is performed in one, two or more stages. = Preliminary Investigation: The initial or preliminary investigation is typically performed early in the design process during the Concept Development prior to defining the proposed structure elements or the specific locations of foundations, embankments or earth retaining structures. 3.22 323 Design Guidelines, Criteria and Standards: Volume 2C - Geological and Geotechnical Investigation Accordingly, the preliminary design investigation typically includes a limited number of borings and testing sufficient for defining the general stratigraphy, soil and rock characteristics, groundwater conditions, and other existing features of importance to foundation design. Such investigation is required where the ground conditions, or geohazards, could be such as to significantly affect the estimated budget for the project. = Main Investigation: After the location of structure foundations and other design elements have been determined, an investigation is performed during Design Development to obtain site specific subsurface information at the final substructure locations for design purposes and to reduce the risk of unanticipated ground conditions during construction. + Supplementary Investigation: Further investigation stages can be considered if there are significant design changes or if local subsurface anomalies or complexity warrant further study. Rehabilitation Projects Many geotechnical investigations involve rehabilitation and remediation of highway projects, including landslides or slope failures, embankment stability, slope stabilization, subgrade and pavement settlement, and replacement of old foundation systems. The detail required for the subsurface investigation of rehabilitation projects depends ona number of variables, including: + The condition of the facility to be rehabilitated. + The nature of distress such as pavement failure, deep seated failures, structure settlement, landslides, drainage and water flow, or imminent collapse. + Whether the facility will be returned to its original and as-built condition or will be upgraded. + The proposed geometry, location, loadings and structure changes for upgrade. + The required design life of the rehabilitated facility. The above information should be obtained to aid in planning an appropriate investigation program. As a minimum, the Project Description, which should identify the key elements of the upgrading work, should be available. Contaminated Sites ‘The geotechnical engineer occasionally must perform subsurface investigations at sites with contaminated soils or groundwater. Contamination may be of a non- hazardous or hazardous nature. Sampling and handling of contaminated samples is a complicated topic which is beyond the scope of this guide. However, it is necessary for all involved in geotechnical investigations to be aware of the salient points of these procedures. When an investigation is to be performed, acquisition records for newly obtained right-of-way will indicate the most recent land use for the area. Furthermore, the environmental section of the agency will most probably have developed 35Design Guide, Criteria and Standards: Volume 2C - Geological ané Geotechnical Investigation 33 36 Environmental Impact Statements and will have identified contaminated areas and the type of contamination. Some signs of possible contamination are: + Prior land use (old fil, landfills, gas stations, etc.) + Stained soil or rock + Apparent lack of vegetation or presence of dead vegetation and trees Further details of investigation of contaminated land are included in Volume 2A GeoHazard Assessment. If contaminated land is suspected at the proposed project site then expert advice should be sought before undertaking any subsurface exploration Review of Geology (including Geomorphology and Seismicity) Review of Geology generally consists of three (3) main components namely: study of regional geology, seismic hazard assessment, and seismic design parameters for analysi + Regional Geology: Regional Geology is the geological study of large-scale regions. It is used to assess important geologic formations and features. It is also used to understand site history and geomorphology. It is highly recommended to consult with a Geologist to best characterize formations such as existing faults where explorations are intended, Regional geologic maps are available at Philippine Institute of Volcanology and Seismology (PHIVOLCS), Mines and Geosciences Bureau and Philippine Atmospheric Geophysical and Astronomical Services Administration (PAGASA). + Seismic Hazard Assessment: Seismic Hazard refers to the study of expected earthquake ground motions at the earth's surface, and its likely effects on existing natural conditions and man-made structures for public safety considerations. The results of such studies are published as seismic hazard maps, which identify the relative motion of different areas on a local, regional or national basis. The hazards determined are assessed and included in building codes for standard buildings, designing larger buildings and infrastructure projects. Seismic Hazard Maps are also available at PHIVOLCS or at their website. Seismic hazard assessments included in DGCS Volume 2A GeoHazard Assessment. 44 444 Design Guidelines, Criteria and Standards: Volume 2C - Geological and Geotechnical Investigation Design of Investigation Program Subsurface Exploration Planning The field exploration methods, sampling requirements, and types and frequency of field tests to be performed will be determined based on the existing subsurface information, project design requirements, the availability of equipment, and local practice. The geotechnical engineer should develop the overall investigation plan to enable them to obtain the data needed to define subsurface conditions and perform engineering analyses and design. A geologist can often provide valuable input regarding the type, age and depositional environment of the geologic formations present at the site for use in planning and interpreting the site conditions. Types of Investigations Generally, the following investigation methods can be conducted. Interpretation of Aerial Photographs andlor Satelite Imagery Aerial photographs and satellite images can effectively be used to identify terrain conditions, geologic formations, escarpments and surface reflection of faults, buried stream beds, site access conditions and general soil and rock formations. The geotechnical engineer needs to be familiar with these techniques, as well as their limitations and capabilities. Geophysical Investigations Some of the more commonly-used geophysical tests are surface resistivity (SR), ground penetrating radar (GPR), and electromagnetic conductivity that are effective in establishing ground stratigraphy, detecting sudden changes in subsurface formations, locating underground cavities in karst formations, or identifying underground utilities and/or obstructions. Detailed discussion for each method can be found in Chapter 9. Disturbed Sampling Disturbed samples are obtained to determine the soil type, gradation, classification, consistency, density, presence of contaminants, stratification, etc. Disturbed samples may be obtained by hand excavating methods by picks and shovels, or by truck-mounted augers and other rotary drilling techniques. These samples are considered ‘disturbed’ since the sampling process modifies their natural structure. In-situ Testing In-situ methods can be particularly effective when they are used in conjunction with conventional sampling to reduce the cost and the time for field work and improve the quality of measured geotechnical parameters. These tests provide subsurface information in addition to developing more refined correlations “1Design Guide, Criteria and Standards: Volume 2C - Geological ané Geotechnical Investigation 442 42 between conventional sampling, testing and in-situ soil parameters. Options for routine subsurface investigation will be cone penetration testing, preferably with pore pressure measurement, and in-situ vane testing Undisturbed Sampling Undisturbed samples are used to determine the in-place strength, compressibility (Settlement), natural moisture content, unit weight, permeability, discontinui fractures and fissures of subsurface formations. Even though such samples are designated as ‘undisturbed’ in reality they are disturbed to varying degrees. Routine ‘undisturbed’ sampling is carried out using a Shelby tube. Higher quality, samples can be obtained using a stationary piston sampler for soft soils, or a Mazier sampler for more competent deposits. Frequency and Depth of Borings Frequency or Spacing: The frequency and spacing of borings will depend on the variability of subsurface conditions, type of facility to be designed, and the investigative phase being performed. For conceptual design or route selection studies, very wide boring spacing (up to 300 m, or more) may be acceptable particularly in areas of generally uniform or simple subsurface conditions; However for smaller and less complex projects, no subsurface survey is undertaken at this stage. For more complex projects with challenging geotechnical issues, such a survey may be needed, and even a closer spacing may be necessary at Concept Design stage, but the number of borings would be limited to that necessary for making basic design decisions. For the Main Investigation undertaken during Design Development, however, relatively close spacing of borings may be required depending on the geotechnical application. Minimum requirements for spacing of exploratory locations are given in Section 4.2 to 4.6. Depth: The location and frequency of sampling depends on the type and critical nature of the structure, the soil and rock formations, the known variability in stratification, and the foundation loads. While the rehabilitation of an existing pavement may require 4 m deep borings only at locations showing signs of distress, the design and construction of a major bridge may require borings often in excess of 30 m. For different geotechnical features, different spacing and depths need to be assessed. Frequently, it may be necessary or desirable to extend borings beyond the minimum depths, or the depths initially specified in the soil exploration plan, to better define the geologic setting at a project site, to determine the depth and engineering characteristics of soft underlying soil strata, or to assure that sufficient information is obtained for cases when the structure requirements are not clearly defined at the time of drilling, Subsurface investigation programs, regardless on how well they may be planned, must be flexible to adjust on variations in subsurface conditions encountered during drilling. The project’s geotechnical engineer should at all times be available to confer with the field inspector. On critical projects, the geotechnical engineer should be present during the field investigation. He/she should also establish 443 444 Design Guidelines, Criteria and Standards: Volume 2C - Geological and Geotechnical Investigation communication with the design engineer to discuss unusual field observations and changes to be made in the investigation plans. Boring Locations A licensed surveyor should establish all planned drilling locations and elevations. Areference benchmark (BM) should be indicated on the site plans and topographic survey. Ifa BM is not shown, a temporary benchmark (TBM) should be established ona permanent feature (e.g, manhole, intersection of two streets, fire hydrant, or existing building). A TBM should be a feature that will remain intact during future construction operations. Typically, the TBM is set up as an arbitrary elevation (unless the local ground elevation is uniform). Field inspectors should always indicate the BM and/or TBM that was used on the site plan, Refer to Volume 2B: Engineering Surveys. A Total Station Equipment may be used to determine elevations. Elevations should be reported on the logs to the nearest tenth of a meter unless other directions are received from the designers. In all instances, the elevation datum must be identified and recorded. Throughout the boring program, the datum selected should remain unchanged. Where the survey cannot be undertaken to the level of detail described above, the reasons should be identified in the Geotechnical Report. As a minimum, the locations of all exploratory holes shall be located using a handheld GPS and the ground level estimated from the topographic map. The method by which location and elevation were identified shall be described in the Geotechnical Report. Equipment A list of equipment commonly needed for field exploration is presented in Table 41 Table 41 List of Equipment for Field Exploration PaperworkiForms, Project Description Site Plan Technical Specifications Copies of required Permits Field Manuals Satety/Personal Hard hat Equipment Safety boots Safety glasses (when working with hammer or chisel) ‘Rubber Safely boots (where requred) Rain gear (where required) Work gloves Miscellaneous Equipment Clipboard Pencis, felt markers, grease pencils ‘Seale and straight edge Watch Calculator Camera, Compass Portable GPS: Pocket Penetometer andlor Torvane ‘Communication Equipment (two-way racio, celular phone) 43Design Guide, Criteria and Standards: Volume 2C - Geological ané Geotechnical Investigation 415 416 42 424 44 Personnel The field crew is a visible link to the public. The public's perception of the reputation and credibility of the agency represented by the field crew may be determined by the appearance and behavior of the personnel and field equipment. Itis the drilling supervisor's duty to maintain a positive image of field exploration activities, including the appearance of equipment and personnel and the respectful behavior of all personnel. In addition, the drilling supervisor is responsible for maintaining the safety of drilling operations and related work, and for the personal safety of all field personnel and the public. The designated Health and Safety Officer is responsible for verifying compliance of all field personnel with established health and safety procedures related to contaminated soils or groundwater. Plans and Specifications Each subsurface investigation program must include a location plan and technical specifications to define and communicate the work to be performed. A checklist guide of site investigation plan is appended on this report in Annex A: Geotechnical Assessment Checklist. Roads Requirements Spacing: For the Main Investigation on existing earth roads, auger borings and test pits shall be made along the centreline of the road on an average interval of 250 meters where traffic is greater than 300 vehicles per day or every 500 meters where traffic is less. In widening of existing pavements, borings and test pits shall be located in the area of widening usually below the shoulder. On new roads, auger borings shall be made on the proposed alignment at an average interval of 500 meters for homogenous strata, and 250 meters for loose or heterogeneous strata and lesser for soft, marshy portions. Required number of samples for CBR testing shall be one test for each layer for each test pit. Where the ground conditions are believed to be complex, and exploratory locations at these spacing are likely to be inadequate to clearly identify the variability of the ground conditions, then the spacing of exploratory locations shall be reduced, to half these spacing for generally complex sites, and to 50m in areas where specific anomalies such as karst are expected. Ifthe Main Investigation results are inadequate to clearly identify the variability of the ground, or to sufficient depth to enable an adequate design, then the Supplementary Investigation shall be carried out and exploratory holes sited at the areas where specific information is required. Depth: For areas of light cut and fill, not exceeding one metre in height, where there are no special problems, the exploration shall extend to a maximum depth of 1.5 m below the proposed subgrade. Where deeper cuts are to be made the depth shall be to 2 m below the base elevation of the cutting. For larger embankment across the marshland or where subsurface information indicates the presence of 422 43 434 Design Guidelines, Criteria and Standards: Volume 2C - Geological and Geotechnical Investigation weak layers, the depth shall depend on the topography and nature of the subsoil; soft recent clays may extend as deep as 20-25 m and the base of the soft clay must be identified. Cone penetration testing is particularly appropriate in such circumstances. Data to be Obtained Information needed in the design are the following: type of underlying subgrade soils, depth of water level and physical properties of soils. Laboratory tests to be made on samples are: mechanical sieve analysis, hydrometer test, specific gravity, Atterberg limits, moisture density relationships, California Bearing Ratio (CBR), and natural moisture content. Where the road is on embankment then tests on soft underlying materials must include strength and compressibility tests. For rehabilitation projects, thickness of existing pavement, condition and type of materials in the pavement structure should also be obtained. Bridges Requirements Spacing: For piers or abutments over 30 m wide, provide a minimum of two borings. For piers or abutments less than 30 m wide, provide a minimum of one boring per pier or abutment. Additional borings should be provided in areas of complex or variable subsurface conditions, Depth: Table 4-2 gives the minimum requirements for exploratory hole depths for the different types of foundation. If the foundation design has not been identified, then exploratory holes shall be specified to be to 30 m depth in the Main Investigation, or to 3 m into sound rock if rock is encountered above that depth. Location: Borings are to be conducted at the proposed abutment location, or as close as possible if there are obstructions that cannot be removed. The location coordinates shall be recorded to 0.1 m accuracy (xy,7) by global positioning 45Design Guide, Criteria and Standards: Volume 2C - Geological ané Geotechnical Investigation 432 44 444 46 Table 42 ‘Minimum Requirements for Boring Depths a Ce aad Bridge Foundations” Highway Bridges 4. Shallow Foundations Depth of exploration should be: ‘+ Great enough to fully penetrate unsuitable foundation sols, © 9. peat, organic salt, or so fine grained sol, info competent material, of suitable bearing resistance, eg, sti to hard cohesive sol, or ‘compact to dense cohesioniess sal or bedrock; ‘+ Atleast toa depth where stress increase due to estimated foundation load is less that ten percent of the existing effective overbudcen stress at that depth; and ‘+ If bedock is encountered before the depth required by the second criterion above is achieved, exploration depth should be great fenough to penetvate a minimum of 3000 mm ino the bedrock. but, Fock exploration should be sufficient to characterize compressibilty O infil material of near-horizontal to horzontal discontinutes. Note that for highy variable becrock conditions, or in areas where very large Boulders are likely, more than 3000 mm or rock core may be required to verity that adequate re 38 of Investig 2. Deep Foundations In sol, depth of exploration should extend below the anticipated pile or shaft tip elevation a minimum 6000 mm, or a minimum of two ties the ‘maximum ple group dimension, whichever is deeper. All borings should extend through unsuitable stata such as unconsolidated fil, peat, highly brganic materals, soft fine-grained sols, ana loose coarse-grained sols to each hard or dense materials For ples bearing on rock, @ minimum of 3000 mm of rock core shal be obtained at each exploration point location to vey thal the boring has not terminated on a boulder. For shafts supported on or extending into rock, a minimum of 3000 mm of rock core, or length of rock core equal to at least three times the shaft diameter Yor isolated shafts or wo times the maximum shaft group dimension, whichever is greater, shal be extended below the anticipated shaft tip elevation to determine the physical characterises of rock within the zone of foundation influence. Note that for highly variable bedrock conditions, or in areas where very large boulders are likely, more than 3000 mm or rock core may be required to verity that adequate quailty bedrock is present ‘Source: AASHTO 2012 LRFO Bridge Design Specifications, SI Units, 5” Edtion Data to be Obtained The character and bearing capacity of the underlying strata must be obtained. Laboratory tests ‘be made on the samples are: mechanical sieve analysis and hydrometer test, natural moisture content, Atterberg limits, specific gravity, and consolidation test (if soft soils were encountered). While strength parameters can be obtained based on SPT correlations, strength tests (direct shear test or triaxial test) should also be performed. Slope Protection Works Requirements Location: Borings or test pits are to be conducted at the proposed retaining wall, slope protection works or culvert location, or as close as possible if there are obstructions that cannot be removed. The location coordinates shall be recorded to 0.1 m accuracy (x,y,z) by global positioning system (GPS) device. Spacing: the spacing of exploratory holes for various slope protection works is given in Table 4-3. 442 Design Guidelines, Criteria and Standards: Volume 2C - Geological and Geotechnical Investigation Table 43 Guidelines for Boring Layout for Retaining Wal Culverts, ‘Slope Protection Works and ene eo Retaining Walls ‘A minimum of one boring should be performed for each retaining wall. For fetaining walls more than 30 m in length, the spacing between bornge should bbe no greater than 30m Adctional borings inboard and outboard ofthe wall line to fine conditions atthe toe ofthe wall and in the zone behind the wall to estimate lateral loads and anchorage capacities should be considered cuts |A minimum of one bering should be performed for each cut slope. For cuts ‘mote than 60 m in length, the spacing between borings along the ength ofthe cut should generally be between 60 and 120 m {At erica locations and high cuts, provide a minimum of two botings in the transverse direction to define the existing geological conditions for stability analyses. Foran active slide, place atleast one boring upslope ofthe slicing Embankments Use citeria presented above (Le. Cuts. culverts ‘Test pit should be performed for culverts In general. For major culverts (cuiverts on high embankment, very long culverts or cuverts in areas of variable subsurface conditions, the engineer may opto require boring Depth: The depths of exploratory holes for various slope protection works, retaining walls and culverts are given in Table 4-4, Table 4.4 Minimum Requirements for Boring Depths for Retaining Walls, Slope Protection Works and Culverts oe raconmecessomgoonn | Retaining Walls Extend borings to depth below final ground line between 0.75 and 1.5 umes the height ofthe wal. Where stratifeation indiates possible deep stability or settlement problem, borings should extend unti three (3) successive SPT N values 230 are obtained. ‘Areas of Inves For deep foundations, use eitria presented above for bridge foundations. cuts BBorings should extend a minimum of § m below the anticipated depth ofthe cut at the ditch ine. Borings depths should be increased in locations where base stability is a concern due to the presence of sof sols, or in locations were the base of the cutis below groundwater level to determine the depth ofthe underlying pervious strata, Embankments Extend borings minimum depth equal to twice the embankment height Unless a bearing layer (dense sol or rock formation) is encountered above this depth. Where soft layers are encountered which may present stabilty or settlement concerns the borings should extend untl three (3) successive SPT INvalues >30 are obtained. Cuherts Use citria presented above ((e. Embankment. Data to be Obtained Information needed for the design are the following: soil stratification, condition and type of materials of the slope, depth of water level and physical properties of, soils. Laboratory tests to be made on samples are as a minimum: mechanical sieve analysis and hydrometer test, Atterberg limits, strength test such as unconfined compression test, direct shear test or triaxial test. 47Design Guide, Criteria and Standards: Volume 2C - Geological ané Geotechnical Investigation 45 454 452 46 46.4 462 43 Structures. Requirements Spacing: For buildings, generally, borings are made one at each corner of the structure and one at the center. For low load warehouse building of large area, a minimum of four borings at corners plus intermediate borings at interior foundations will be sufficient to define subsoil profile. Depth: For large structures with separate closely spaced footings, borings shall be extended to a depth of 30 meters, or until three successive SPT N-values > 30 are recorded. Data to be Obtained ‘The character and bearing capacity of the underlying strata must be obtained. Laboratory tests to be made on the samples are: mechanical sieve analysis and hydrometer test, natural moisture content, Atterberg limits, specific gravity, and consolidation test (if soft soils were encountered). While strength parameters can be obtained based on SPT correlations, strength tests (direct shear test or triaxial test) should also be performed, Forensic Analysis In its original meaning, forensics referred to the use of science and technology to investigate and establish facts in criminal or civil courts of law. However it has been used more widely, within engineering, to refer to the technical investigation of failed construction works. Forensic Analysis should be undertaken by an Engineering Geologist or Geotechnical Engineer with a minimum of ten years experience and has undertaken at least ten similar projects (forensic investigation). ‘Subsurface Soil Normally, subsurface soil investigation is also conducted in forensic analysis in several key aspects: = Environmental ~ groundwater flow, surface water impacts, wetlands, and land subsidence. + Soil characterization, locating buried objects and verification of existing data. * Accidents ~ excavation /trench collapse, subsurface explosion. The extent of soil investigation will depend on the importance of the structure and the risk involved. The geotechnical investigation program shall be determined by an experienced geotechnical engineer and shall be specific for each investigation. Structure Confirmatory drillings are necessary to verify existing data available. The requirements stated at Section 4.5 are recommended to be adopted whenever applicable. 463 Design Guidelines, Criteria and Standards: Volume 2C - Geological and Geotechnical Investigation Plans and Specifications Each subsurface investigation program must include a location plan and technical specifications to define and communicate the work to be performed. A checklist on geotechnical assessment is provided in Annex A. The location of boreholes should be indicated in the bridge site survey plan. 49Design Guidelines, Criteria and Standards: Volume 2C - Geological and Geotechnical Investigation 5A 52 5A Drilling and Sampling Shallow Soil Exploration ‘Test Pits and Trenches Test pits and trenches are excavated to permit detailed examination of subsurface materials in situ at shallow depth, and also to identify and avoid services when exploratory holes are planned. They also provide a means to obtain large-size undisturbed and disturbed samples of the materials encountered for laboratory testing, The procedure is described in Annex B, Auger Holes, This method of boring can be used for any purpose where disturbed samples are satisfactory for soil classification and sampling, It is used more widely in making linear soil surveys than in foundation investigations, although it is a fast method for advancing a hole and does not usually require the use of water. It is also valuable in advancing holes to depths at which samples can be obtained with thin- wall samplers or split-barrel samplers. Auger holes are of particular value in those locations where the use of drilled shafts is being considered. Auger use is not well suited to sites having granular soils and high groundwater tables. Test procedure is described in Annex B. Figure 5-4 ‘Auger Hole Drilling Set-up Borehole Drilling Rotary Drilling Using this method and equipment, practically all foundations materials can be successfully explored for soil and rock classification and for sampling. Procedure: 1. In this method, the hole is advanced by the rapid rotation of the drill bit and by the eroding action of the drilling fluid, which is pumped through drill rods to the bit. The fluid emits from the bit and returns to the surface, carrying the cuttings with it. Design Guide, Critena and Standards: Volume 2C - Geological and Geotechnical Investigation 2. The drill rods are connected through a series of drives with a rotary drill table ora schuck, through which rotation and thrust or pressure is applied via the rods to the bit. Bits are available for various materials from sand to hard rock. 3. The rotary table on these drills is powered through gears or a drive chain from the power train of the drill. In some drives, a drive quill in the turntable powers a hollow drive rod, usually hexagonal. The drive rod usually hexagonal in turn powers a drill rod or special “Kelly” rod. 4, Ifa regular drill rod is used, clamp the drive quill to the drive rod by a schuck located at the bottom of the drive rod. Ifa “Kelly” is used, it maybe driven in rotation by drive pins located in its slotted surface, and the chuck need not be clamped for rotation. However, in order to apply a thrust having a value greater than the weight of the drill rods, the chuck must be tightened. Diamond Drilling When refusal is encountered with ordinary drilling techniques, diamond coring method can be employed. This shall be used to obtain small diameter of core samples to determine the nature and extent of hard strata Procedure: 1. Replace the drilling bit on the end of the drill rod by a core barrel having a diamond bit. This shall abrade or cut a doughnut-shaped hole in the rock, leaving a solid core that passes up into the core barrel as the hole progresses. 2. After a “run” or after the barrel is full, withdraw the tools and empty the core barrel. Percussion Drilling This method is commonly used in drilling water wells and is also known as cable tool or churn drilling, Its main application is the removal of hard layers encountered by other methods and the drilling of materials which is extremely expensive to penetrate by other means. Procedure: 1. Advance the borehole by alternately raising and dropping a heavy bit which is connected to a drill stem attached to a cable. 2. Then remove the cuttings by lowering a bail or bucket into the hole and removing the slurry formed. Wash Boring This method is commonly used to advance the borehole with a drilling machine. Without sampling equipment (cathead and tripod), the method can be used more or less as a means of sounding Procedure: Procedure for this method is similar to rotary drilling in that the cuttings are removed from the borehole by the drilling fluid, however, except for the hand action, there is no rotation of the drill rods. The advancement of the hole is obtained from the chopping action of the bit and from the jetting action of the drilling fluid. 52Design Guidelines, Criteria and Standards: Volume 2C - Geological and Geotechnical Investigation 53 53 Wash boring maybe done by hand, but the work shall be greatly facilitated by the use of a cathead and tripod. When only hand equipment is used, the method is crude because only wash samples are possible. When a cathead and tripod are used, Standard Penetration Test (SPT) samples can be taken. Sampling Split-Spoon Sampling Split-spoon sampler shall be used in Standard Penetration Test. This sampler is generally used when the soil is cohesionless and granular in nature and in cohesive soils where disturbed samples are satisfactory for basic evaluations. The procedure for split-barrel or split-spoon sampling is part of the Standard Penetration Test (AASHTO, designation T 206). Test procedure is described in Annex B. Push Barrel or Thin-Wall Tube Sampling (Reference is made to AASHTO designation T 207) Shelby Tube Sampling The Shelby type thin-walled tube sampler is generally used in silt and clays and in other cohesive soils free from obstructions and containing little or no granular material in order to obtain undisturbed samples. Test procedure is described in Annex B. Wet Barrel or Double-Wall Tube Sampling This type of sampling is used when undisturbed samples are required, and severe conditions such as very stiff clays, hardpans, or highly-cemented soils are encountered which cannot be penetrated by pressing a thin-walled tube sampler into the soil. Test procedure is described in Annex B. Dry Barrel or Single-Wall Tube Sampling This sampling is practically applicable in all foundation materials except for every soft clays and cohesionless sand, It obtains sample containing all components in the original formation. Test procedure is described in Annex B. Retractable Plug Sampling The retractable plug sampler may also be used in an uncased hole, and itis valuable for determining the vertical sequence of fine-grained soils. Procedure: 1. Advance the sampler by pushing or dri sampling depth is reached. 1g with the plug in the bit until 2, Retract and lock the plug in position. 3. Push or di e the sampler to within the 10.075 to 0.152 m of its length. 4. Withdraw and disassemble the sampler, then remove the liner tubes of the soil. Design Guide, Critena and Standards: Volume 2C - Geological and Geotechnical Investigation 5. Replace the tubes, reassemble the sampler and repeat the operation until the specified depth is reached, or after the hole has been advanced if continuous samples are not taken. 6. Seal the samples taken with caps and tape or wax for classification and test. Rock Sampling /Coring When rock formation is encountered, coring shall be performed using at least NQ core-size barrel. The logger shall conduct visual identification and classification of soil or rock core samples recovered from sampling or diamond drilling. Test procedure is discussed in Annex B. 54Design Guidelines, Criteria and Standards: Volume 2C - Geological and Geotechnical Investigation 61 62 624 6 In-situ Tests Standard Penetration Test SPT indicates that the blow count correlates with the variable density and/or consistency of the material being penetrated thus, probable shear strength and bearing capacity is determined. The result of this test shall be used only to describe granular soil density and clayey soil consistency. When sampling clays, this test can be used in the field in conjunction with the unconfined compression test. Test procedure is described in Annex B. Figure 6-4 ‘Standard Penetration Test Set-up conn tent Seo yn xa sn st Doughnut YD 9 ms ~ 8 Sipe Thy se, Jomo 4 Cone Penetration Test Mechanical CPT This test method supplies data on selected engineering properties of soil intended to help with design and construction of earthworks and the foundations for structures. This test method tests the soil in place and does not obtain soil samples, Engineers usually obtain this soil information from parallel borings and soil sampling methods, but prior information or experience may preclude the need for borings. Engineers often correlate the results of tests by this test method with laboratory or other types of field tests or directly with performance. The accuracy of such correlations will vary with the type of soil involved. Engineers usually rely on local experience to judge this accuracy. Test procedure is described in Annex B, 622 63 64 Design Guide, Criteria and Standards: Volume 2C - Geological and Geotechnical Investigation Electric Piezocone Tests performed using this test method provide a detailed record of cone resistance which is useful for evaluation of site stratigraphy, homogeneity and depth to firm layers, voids or cavities, and other discontinuities. The use of a friction sleeve and pore pressure element can provide an estimate of soil classification, and correlations with engineering properties of soils. When properly performed at suitable sites, the test provides a rapid means for determining subsurface conditions. This test method provides data used for estimating engineering properties of soil intended to help with the design and construction of earthworks, foundation of structures, and the behaviour of soils under static and dynamic loads. This test method tests the soil in situ and soil samples are not obtained. The interpretation of the results from this test method provides estimates of the types of soil penetrated. Engineers may obtain soil samples form parallel borings for correlation purposes but prior information or experience may preclude the need of borings. Test procedure is described in Annex B. Figure 62 Cone Penetration Test Set-up Field Vane Shear Test This is performed to obtain shear strength values in weak fine-grained soils such as cohesive soils in situ. Test procedure is described in Annex B. Plate Load Test ‘This test determines immediate settlements of spread foundations. Results obtained have no relation, however to deep-seated settlement due to volume change under load of entire foundations. Test procedure is described in Annex B. 62Design Guidelines, Criteria and Standards: Volume 2C - Geological and Geotechnical Investigation 65 66 66.4 662 63 Dynamic Cone Penetration Test ‘The Dynamic Cone Penetration Test provides a measure of a material's in-situ resistance to penetration. The test is performed by driving a metal cone into the ground by repeated striking it with an 8kg weight dropped from a distance of 575 mm, The penetration of the cone is measured after each blow and is recorded to providea continuous measure of shearing resistance up to 5 feet below the ground surface, Test results can be correlated to California Bearing Ratios, in-situ density, resilient modulus, and bearing capacity. Test procedure is described in Annex B. Other In-situ Tests Probe Tests = Piezocone Penetrometer Probe: is advanced using the same equipment as a regular CPT probe, but the probe has an additional instrument which measures the groundwater pressure as the probe is advanced. + Seismic Piezocone Penetrometer Probe: is advanced using the same equipment as a CPT or CPTu probe, but the probe is also equipped with either geophones or accelerometers to detect shear waves and/or pressure waves produced by a source at the surface. itis appropriate for use in soils suspected of being susceptible to liquefaction (see Volume 2A: GeoHazard Assessment). Field Density Tests = Sand Cone Method: A sand-cone method is commonly used to determine the density of compacted soils using Ottawa sand as standard soil to replace the excavated portion in determining the unknown density of in-situ soils, Test procedure is described in Annex B. = Rubber Balloon Method: this is in principle similar to the sand cone test except that water is utilized as the displacing material to determine the unknown density of in-situ soils. Test procedure is described in Annex B. + Nuclear Density Test: It consists of a radiation source that emits a directed beam of particles and a sensor that counts the received particles that are either reflected by the test material or pass through it. By calculating the percentage of particles that return to the sensor, the gauge can be calibrated to measure the density and inner structure of the test material. Test procedure is described in Annex B. 7A 72 Design Guidelines, Criteria and Standards: Volume 2C - Geological and Geotechnical Investigation Laboratory Tests for Soils Laboratory testing of soils is a fundamental element of geotechnical engineering. The complexity of testing required for a particular project may range froma simple ‘moisture content determination to specialized strength and stiffness testing. Since testing can be expensive and time consuming, the geotechnical engineer should recognize the project's issues ahead of time so as to optimize the testing program, particularly strength and consolidation testing. Before describing the various soil test methods, soil behaviour under load will be examined and common soil mechanics terms introduced. The following discussion includes only basic concepts of soil behaviour. However, the engineer must grasp these concepts in order to select the appropriate tests to model the in-situ conditions. Basic soil mechanics textbooks should be consulted for further explanation of these and other terms. Selection of Applicable / Appropriate Tests Certain . snsiderations regarding laboratory testing, such as when, how much, and what type, can only be decided by an experienced geotechnical engineer. The following basic criteria should be considered while determining the scope of the laboratory testing program: + Project type (bridge, embankment, rehabilitation, buildings, etc.) * Size of the project * Loads to be imposed on the foundation soils + Types of loads (static, dynamic, etc.) * Critical tolerances for the project (settlement limitations) + Vertical and horizontal variations in the soil profile as determined from boring logs and visual identification of soil types in the laboratory + Known or suspected peculiarities of soils at the project location (i.e, swelling soils, collapsible soils, organics, ete) * Presence of visually observed intrusions, slickensides, fissures, concretions, ete ‘The selection of tests should be considered preliminary until the geotechnical engineer is satisfied that the test results are sufficient to develop reliable soil profiles and provide the soil parameters needed for design. Following this subsection are brief discussions of frequently used soil properties and tests. These discussions assume that the reader will have access to the latest volumes of AASHTO and ASTM standards containing details of test procedures and will refer to them in connection with this document. Visual Identification of Soils Guidelines for visual identification of soils can be used in field as well as laboratory investigations. The procedure is described in Annex B. aDesign Guide, Criteria and Standards: Volume 2C - Geological ané Geotechnical Investigation 73 72 Index Properties Index properties are used to characterize soils and determine their basic properties such as moisture content, specific gravity, particle size distribution, consistency, and moisture-density relationships. Moisture Content Test procedure is described in Annex B. Purpose: To determine the amount of water present in a quantity of soil in terms of its dry weight to be used to provide general correlations with strength, settlement, workability and other properties. Procedure: Oven-dry the soil at a temperature of 105°C to a constant weight (evaporate free water); this is usually achieved in 12-18 hours. Specific Gravity ‘Test procedure is described in Annex B. Purpose: To determine the specific gravity of the soil grains. This can indicate the mineralogy of the material which may have an effect on its engineering properties. Procedure: The specific gravity is determined as the ratio of the weight ofa given volume of soil solids at a given temperature to the weight of an equal volume of distilled water at that temperature, both weights being taken in air. Unit Weight ‘The measurement of unit weight for undisturbed soil samples in the laboratory is simply determined by weighing a portion of a soil sample and dividing by its volume. This is convenient with thin-walled tube (Shelby) samples, as well as piston samples. The water content should be obtained at the same time to allow conversion from total to dry unit weights, as needed. Where undisturbed samples are not available, the unit weight is evaluated from weight-volume relations between the water content and/or void ratio, as well as the assumed or measured degree of saturation, Sieve Analysis Test procedure is described in Annex B. Purpose: To determine the percentage of various grain sizes. The grain size distribution is used to determine the textural classification of soils (Le., gravel, sand, silty clay, etc.) which in turn is useful in evaluating the engineering characteristics such as permeability, strength, swelling potential, and susceptibility to frost action. Procedure: Wash a prepared representative sample through a series of sieves (screens). The amount retained on each sieve is collected, dried and weighed to determine the percentage of material passing that sieve size. 74 Design Guidelines, Criteria and Standards: Volume 2C - Geological and Geotechnical Investigation Hydrometer Analysis Test procedure is described in Annex B. Purpose: To determine distribution (percentage) of particle sizes smaller than No. 200 sieve (< 0.075 mm) and identify the silt, clay, and colloids percentages in the soil, Procedure: Soil passing the No. 200 sieve is mixed with a dispersant and distilled water and placed in a special graduated cylinder in a state of liquid suspension. The specific gravity of the mixture is measured periodically using a calibrated hydrometer to determine the rate of settlement of soil particles. The relative size and percentage of fine particles are determined based on Stoke's law for settlement of idealized spherical particles. Atterberg Limits ‘Test procedure is described in Annex B. Purpose: To describe the relation between consistency and plasticity of fine- grained soils and the moisture content, Procedure: For the portion of the soil passing the No. 40 sieve, the moisture content is varied to identify three stages of soil behavior in terms of consistency. ‘These stages are known as the liquid limit, plastic limit and shrinkage limit of soils. + The liquid limit is defined as the water content at which 25 blows of the liquid limit machine closes a standard groove cut in the soil pat for a distance of 12.7 cm, An alternate procedure used in Europe, parts of Asia and Canada uses a fall, cone device to obtain better repeatability. * The plastic limit is the water content at which a thread of soil, when rolled down to a diameter of 3 mm, will crumble. Soil Classification There are two general classifications used for geotechnical engineering purposes. They are the Unified Soil Classification System (USCS) and the American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials (AASHTO) soil classification. Charts and Tables are described in Annex B. Moisture-Density Relation ‘Test procedure is described in Annex B. Purpose: To determine the maximum dry density attainable under a specified nominal compaction energy for a given soil and the (optimum) moisture content corresponding to this density. Procedure: Compaction tests are performed using disturbed, prepared soils with or without additives. Normally, soil passing the No. 4 sieve (4.75mm) is mixed with water to form samples at various moisture contents ranging from the dry state to wet state. These samples are compacted in layers in a mold by a hammer in accordance with a specified nominal compaction energy. Dry density is determined based on the moisture content and the unit weight of compacted soil. 73Design Guide, Criteria and Standards: Volume 2C - Geological ané Geotechnical Investigation 75 76 74 California Bearing Ratio Test procedure is described in Annex B. Purpose: To determine the bearing capacity of a compacted soil under controlled moisture and density conditions. Procedure: The test results are expressed in terms of a bearing ratio which is commonly knowns the California Bearing Ratio (CBR). The CBR is obtained as the ratio of the unit load required to cause a certain depth of penetration of a piston into a compacted specimen of soil at some water content and density, to the standard unit load required to obtain the same depth of penetration on a standard sample of crushed stone (usually limestone). Typically soaked conditions should be used to simulate anticipated long-term conditions in the field. The CBR test is run on three identically compacted samples. Each series of the CBR test is run for a given relative density and moisture content. The geotechi specify the conditions (dry, at optimum moisture, after soaking, 95% relative density, etc.) and the surcharge loading under which each test should be performed. Strength Tests The design and analysis of shallow and deep foundations, excavations, earth retention structures, and fills and slopes require a thorough understanding of soil strength parameters. The selection of strength parameters needed and the corresponding types of tests to be performed vary depending on the type of. construction, the foundation design, the intensity, type and duration of loads to be imposed, and soil materials existing at the site. The shear strength should be determined by a combination of both field and laboratory tests. Laboratory tests provide reference strengths under controlled boundaries and loading. However samples are obtained from the field are of limited quality, particularly for sandy materials. For clays, commonly used laboratory tests include the unconfined compres and unconsolidated undrained tests. However, these do not attempt to replicate the ambient stress regime in the ground prior to loading and therefore can only be considered as index strengths. Preferably, the consolidated triaxial shear and direct shear box tests can be used in conjunction with consolidation/oedometre tests in a normalized stress history approach (Ladd & Foott, 1974; Jamiolkowski, etal, 1985). Both undisturbed and remoulded or compacted samples are used for strength tests. Where soils are to be disturbed and remoulded, compacted or stabilized specimens are tested for strength determination at specified moisture contents and densities. These may be chosen on the basis of design requirements or the in- situ density and moisture content of soils. Where obtaining undisturbed samples is not practical (ie, sandy and gravelly soils), specimens reconstituted close to their natural moisture content and density are prepared for testing. Unconfined Compressive Strength for Soils ‘Test procedure is described in Annex B. Design Guidelines, Criteria and Standards: Volume 2C - Geological and Geotechnical Investigation Purpose: To determine the undrained shear strength (c,) of clay and silty clay soils. Procedure: The soil specimens are tested without any confinement or lateral support (03=0). Axial load is rapidly applied to the sample to cause failure. At failure, the total minor principal stress is zero (03 = 0) and the total major principal stress is F1 (see Figure 7-1). The maximum measured force over the sample area is qu and referred to as the unconfined compression strength. Since the confining pressure is zero, cu = qu/2. Figure 7-4 Unconfined Compression Test Axial Stress, 6, (kPa) ley = Sy = 51 KN/m® aie AR aSAlay ae ara ea Te Axial Strain, €, (%) Triaxial Strength ‘Test procedure is described in Annex B. Purpose: To determine strength characteristics of soils including detailed information on the effects of lateral confinement, porewater pressure, drainage and consolidation. Triaxial tests provide a reliable means to determine the friction angle of natural clays & silts, as well as reconstituted sands. The stiffness (modulus) at intermediate to large strains can also be evaluated. Procedure: Test samples are typically 35 to 75 mm in diameter and have a height to length ratio between 2 and 2.5. The sample is encased by a thin rubber membrane and placed inside plastic cylindrical chamber that is usually filled with water or glycerine, The sample is subjected to a total confining pressure (a3) by compression of the fluid in the chamber acting on the membrane. A backpressure (uc) is applied directly to the specimen through a port in the bottom pedestal. Thus, the sample is initially consolidated with an effective confining stress: 63-= (03 - Uo). (Note thatair should not be used asa compression medium). To cause shear failure in the sample, axial stress is applied through a vertical loading ram (commonly called deviator stress = 01 - 03). Axial stress may be applied at a constant rate (strain controlled) or by means of a hydraulic press or dead weight increments of hydraulic pressure (stress controlled) until the sample fails. 7sDesign Guide, Criteria and Standards: Volume 2C - Geological ané Geotechnical Investigation 76 The axial load applied by the loading ram corresponding to a given axial deformation is measured by a proving ring or electronic load cell attached to the ram, Connections to measure drainage into or out of the sample, or for porewater pressure are also provided. Deflections are monitored by dial indicators, LVDTS, or DCDTs. Direct Shear Test procedure is described in Annex B. Purpose: To determine the shear strength of soils along a pre-defined (horizontal) planar surface Procedure: The direct shear test is performed by placing a specimen into a cylindrical or square-shaped shear box which is split on a horizontal plane. A vertical (normal) load is applied over the specimen that is allowed to consolidate. While either the upper or lower part of the boxis held stationary, a horizontal load is exerted on the other part of the box in an order to shear the specimen on the predefined horizontal plane. The test is repeated at least three times using different normal stresses (ox,) The results are plotted in the form shear stress (t) vs. horizontal displacement (2), and corresponding t vs. oy. The effective cohesion intercept and angle of internal friction values can be determined from this latter plot. Resonant Column Test procedure is described in Annex B. Purpose: To determine the shear modulus (Gmax or Go) and damping (D) characteristics of soils at small strains for cases where dynamic forces are involved, particularly seismic ground amplification and machinery foundations. Research has shown the results are also applicable to static loading at very small strains (< 10 percent); for example (Burland, 1989). Procedure: Prepared cylindrical specimens are placed in a special triaxial chamber and consolidated to ambient overburden stresses. Very low amplitude torsional vibrations are applied to one end of the specimen by use of a special loading cap with electromagnetics. The resonant frequency, damping, and strain amplitudes are measured by the use of motion transducers (Woods, 1994), Miniature Vane Test procedure is described in Annex B. Purpose: To determine the undrained shear strength (s.) and sensitivity (S.) of saturated Procedure: The test is performed by inserting four-bladed vane into the soil and applying rotation to shear a cylindrical surface. The undrained shear strength is, computed from the measured torque. The miniature vane is similar to the field vane shear device, except that it is smaller (blade diameter 12.7 mm, blade height 25.4 mm), 1 Design Guidelines, Criteria and Standards: Volume 2C - Geological and Geotechnical Investigation Revalue Test Test procedure is appended on Annex B. Purpose: To determine the ability of a soil to resist lateral deformation when a vertical load acts upon it. The resistance is indicated by the R-value. Procedure: Measuring the R-value of a soi done with a stabilometer. A stabilometer is similar to a triaxial device consisting of a metal cylinder in which there is a rubber membrane; the annular space between the two is filled with oil that transmits lateral pressure to the specimen. Compacted, unstabilized or stabilized soils and aggregates can be used in these tests. Samples are compacted using a special kneading compaction device. When the specimen is vertically loaded, a lateral pressure is transmitted to the soil, which can be measured on a pressure gage. From the displacement measured for a specified lateral pressure, the R-value is determined Resilient Modulus ‘Test procedure is described in Annex B. Purpose: To determine the approximate relationships between applied stress and deformation loading of pavement component materials. Procedure: A compacted or undisturbed cylindrical specimen is placed in an oversized triaxial chamber. An axial deviator stress of constant magnitude and duration and frequency is applied at the same time that a lateral stress is maintained in the triaxial chamber. The recoverable or resilient axial strain of the specimen is measured for varying increments of axial stresses. Consolidation Test ‘The one-dimensional consolidation test (or oedometer test) provides one of the most useful and reliable laboratory measurements for soil behavior. The test determines the compressibility parameters (Cc, C., C.), stiffness in terms of constrained modulus (D- = 1/m,), preconsolidation stress (oj), rate of consolidation (c,), creep rate (C’), and approximate value of permeability (X). (One-dimensional Consol ‘Test procedure is described in Annex B. Purpose: Determination of preconsolidation stress, compression characteristics, creep, stiffness, and flow rate properties of soils under loading. Procedure: The test is performed using a 50 mm to 75 mm diameter specimen 25 mm thick taken from an undisturbed sample. Representative samples shall be taken from the middle third of the sample. Prepared samples are placed in a rigid- walled loading device called a consolidometer or oedometer. All loads and recorded deformations are in the vertical direction. ‘The specimen is subjected to incremental loads, which are doubled after each equilibrium phase is reached (after tp corresponding to the end of primary consolidation). Tradition would use a 24 hour increment per load, although this is 7Design Guide, Criteria and Standards: Volume 2C - Geological ané Geotechnical Investigation 78 738 conservative. Alternatively, specimens can be loaded continuously with monitoring by load cells and porewater pressure transducers. Generally, it is desirable to perform an unload-reload cycle during the test, with the unloading initiated at a loading increment along the virgin (post- preconsolidation pressure) portion of the consolidation curve. The unload-reload cycle provides a more reliable estimate of the recompression characteristics of the se ‘Swell Potential of Clays Test procedure is described in Annex B. Purpose: To estimate the swell potential of possibly expansive soils. Procedure: The swell test is typically performed in a consolidation apparatus. The swell potential is determined by observing the swell of a laterally-confined specimen when it is charged and flooded. Alternatively, after the specimen is inundated, the height of the specimen is kept constant by adding loads. The vertical stress necessary to maintain zero volume change is the swelling pressure. Collapse Potential of Soils Test procedure is described in Annex B. Purpose: To estimate the collapse potential of soils. Procedure: The collapse potential of suspected soils is determined by placing an undisturbed, compacted or remolded specimen in the consolidometer ring and in a loading device at its natural moisture content. A load is applied and the soil is then saturated and the magnitude of the vertical displacement is measured. Permeability Test The hydraulic conductivity or permeability is an important flow property of soils. Test procedure is described in Annex B. Purpose: To determine the potential of flow of fluids through soils. Procedure: The ease with which a fluid passes through a porous medium is expressed in terms of coefficient of permeability (k), also known as hydraulic conductivity. There are two basic standard types of test procedures to directly determine permeability: constant-head; and falling-head procedure. In both procedures, undisturbed, remolded, or compacted samples can be used. The permeability of coarse materials is determined by constant head tests. The permeability of clays is normally determined by the use of a falling head permeameter. The difference between the two tests is that in the former, the hydraulic gradient of the specimen is kept constant, while in the latter, the head is allowed to decrease as the water permeates the specimen, 79 794 792 793 7.40 7404 7.402 Design Guidelines, Criteria and Standards: Volume 2C - Geological and Geotechnical Investigation Special Tests ‘Swell-Shrinkage This test is conducted to determine the shrink-swell capacity of a clay sample, The shrink-swell capacity of clay refers to the extent to which a clay will expand when wetted and shrink when dried. This parameter is important to determine if the sample is expansive or not. Test procedure is described in Annex B. ralogy Mineralogy tests are conducted to identify the minerals present in a rock sample, This is normally done by identifying the following: * Colour - a rock guide book will help classify /categorize. + Streaking - Another way to identify a mineral is to examine the colour of the streak when a mineral is rubbed across a flat surface; the unglazed rear of a ceramic tile makes a good streak plate. * Hardness ~ based on Moh's Hardness scale. + Lustre, transparency, cleavage, taste, and odour. X-Ray Diffraction X-ray diffraction is a method used for determining the atomic and molecular structure of acrystal, in which the crystalline atoms cause a beam of X- rays todiffract into many specific directions. By measuring the angles and intensities of these diffracted beams, a crystallographer can produce a three- dimensional picture of the density of electrons within the crystal, and thus identify the mineralogy. Other Tests Minerals Present Carbonate Test: You can test your mineral to see ifitis a carbonate, an important group of minerals that contain carbon and oxygen. The chief carbonate mineral is calcite, from which limestone and marble are made. Limestones are essential to be identified to be addressed properly for geotechnical engineering purposes. Scanning Electron Microscopy: The signals that derive from electron-sample interactions reveal information about the sample including external morphology (texture), chemical composition, and crystalline structure and orientation of materials making up the sample. Acidity Test Litmus Test: Litmus is a water-soluble mixture of different dyes extracted from lichens. It is often absorbed onto filter paper to produce one of the oldest forms of pH indicator, used to test materials for acidity. 79Design Guidelines, Criteria and Standards: Volume 2C - Geological and Geotechnical Investigation Laboratory Tests for Rocks Laboratory rock testing is performed to determine the strength and elastic properties of intact specimens and the potential for degradation and disintegration of the rock material. The derived parameters are used in part for the design of rock fills, cut slopes, shallow and deep foundations, tunnels, and the assessment of shore protection materials (rip-rap). Deformation and strength properties of intact specimens aid in evaluating the larger-scale rock mass that is significantly controlled by joints, fissures, and discontinuity features (spacing, roughness, orientation, infilling), water pressures, and ambient geostatic stress state, Common laboratory tests for intact rocks include measurements of strength (point load index, compressive strength, Brazilian test, direct shear), stiffness (ultrasonics, elastic modulus), and durability (slaking, abrasion). Table 8-1 gives a summary list of laboratory rock tests and procedures by ASTM. Brief sections discuss the common tests (denoted with an asterisk*) useful for a standard highway project involving construction in rock. Table 8-1 ‘Standards and Procedures for Laboratory Testing of Intact Rock Cen coi ooo Point Load Method for determining point loa index (I) Dsr3i" Strength Compressive Compressive strength (qu) of core in unconfined 2938" Strength ‘compression (uniaxial compression test) ‘riaxal compressive strength without pore pressure 1226 2664 Creep Tests ‘Creep-cylincrical hard rock core in uniaxial compression Dasat CCreep-cjlinctical soft rock core in uniaxial compression Daaas Creep-cylintical hardrock core in trianal compression 4408 Tensile Strength _Direct tensile strength of ntact rock core specimens. 3936 Spitting tense strength of ntact core (Brazilian tes!) = Deer Direct Shear Laboratory direct shear strength tests - rock specimens, Dseo7* under constant normal stress Permeability Permeability of rocks by lowing air Dass urabiity Slake curabitty of shales and similar weak rocks D4eae Rock slab testing for iprap soundness, using 8240" sediumymagnesium sulphate FRock-

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