Chapter 1 Redox Equilibrium

1.1 Oxidation and Reduction

Definition of Redox:
• Reaction where reduction and oxidation occur at the same time / simultaneously.

Definition of Oxidizing Agent:

• Substance that oxidizes other substance but itself undergoes reduction.

Definition of Reducing Agent:

• Substance that reduces other substance but itself undergoes oxidation

Task 1: Define redox reaction for the following aspects.

Aspect 1 : Gain or loss of oxygen

Oxidizing agent: ___________________

Reducing agent: ____________________

Definition:

Aspect 2 : Gain or loss of hydrogen

Oxidizing agent:___________________
Reducing agent: ___________________

Definition:
Aspect 3 : Transfer of electrons

Oxidizing agent: __________________

Reducing agent: __________________

Definition:

• Half-equation for oxidation: _______________________________________________________

• Half-equation for reduction: _______________________________________________________

Aspect 4 : Change in oxidation number

Oxidizing agent: __________________

Reducing agent: __________________

Definition:

• Half-equation for oxidation: _______________________________________________________

• Half-equation for reduction: _______________________________________________________
• Ionic equation for redox reaction: __________________________________________________

Aspect Oxidation Reduction

Gain or loss of oxygen
Gain of loss of hydrogen
Transfer of electrons
Change in oxidation number
Summary
Determination of Oxidation Number
Definition
• The charge of an element in a compound when transfer of electrons occurs.
Rules for assigning Oxidation Number (4)

Rule 1 : Oxidation number of a neutral element is 0.

Examples : Zn, Br2, H2, O2, Al, C, He

Rule 2 : Oxidation number of a monoatomic ion = charge of ion.

Examples:
Monoatomic ion H+ Zn+2 Na+ F- Cl- O-2 Al3+
Oxidation number +1 +2 +1 –1 –1 –2 +3

Rule 3 :
a) When 2 electronegative elements are in a compound, the oxidation number of more
electronegative element is remained the same. (F>O>N)
Example:
Cl2O7 Cl+7, oxidation no of Cl is +7 O-2 , oxidation no of O is – 2
NBr3 N , oxidation no of N is – 3
-3
Br+, oxidation no of Br is +1
F2O F-, oxidation no of F is – 1 O2+, oxidation no of O is +2

b) When H combines with a more electropositive element, the oxidation number of more
electropositive element is remained the same.
Example : (Metal hydride)
NaH Na+, oxidation no of Na is +1 H- , oxidation no of H is – 1
MgH2 Mg2+, oxidation no of Mg is +2 H-, oxidation no of H is – 1

c) When O in hydrogen peroxide, the oxidation number of O is – 1.

Example:
H2O2 H+, oxidation no of H is +1 O- , oxidation no of O is – 1

Rule 4 : Sum of oxidation number of all the elements in a compound or a polyatomic ion is
equal to its total charge.
a) A compound
Example :
What is the oxidation number of manganese, Mn in MnO2 ?
Answer : Let Mn be X,
X + (-2)2 = 0
X = +4
b) A polyatomic ion
Example :
Determine the oxidation number of chromium, Cr in Cr2O72- ?
Answer : Let Cr be Y,
Y(2) + (-2)7 = – 2
Y = +6
Examples of Redox Reaction
a) Changing of iron(II) ion, Fe2+ to iron(III) ion, Fe3+ & vice versa
i) Simple method (Test tube)
ii) Transfer of electrons at a distance method (U-tube Cell)
b) Displacement of halogen from its halide solution
c) Displacement of metal from its salt solution

A) Changing of iron(II) ions, Fe2+ to iron(III) ions, Fe3+ & vice versa
• Iron(II) ion, Fe2+ changes to iron(III) ion, Fe3+ is ____________________ , thus this process needs _________________________________.

Oxidizing agent Half Equation for Reduction Half equation for Oxidation Ionic equation
Bromine water Br2 + 2e → 2Br – Fe2+ → Fe3+ + e
Observation Observation :

Chlorine water Cl2 + 2e → 2Cl –

Observation

Acidified potassium MnO4- + 8H+ + 5e → Mn2+ + 4H2O

manganate(VII), KMnO4
Observation

Acidified potassium Cr2O72- + 14H+ + 6e → 2Cr3+ + 7H2O

dichromate(VI), K2Cr2O7
Observation

Acidified hydrogen peroxide H2O2 + 2H+ + 2e → 2H2O

Observation
• Iron(III) ion, Fe3+ change to iron(II) ion, Fe2+ is ___________________________ ,thus this process needs _____________________________________.

Reducing agent Half Equation for Oxidation Half equation for Reduction Ionic equation
A more electropositive Zn → Zn2+ + 2e Fe3+ + e → Fe2+
metal : Mg, Al, Zn
Observation Observation :

Potassium iodide 2I- → I2 + 2e

solution
Observation

Potassium bromide 2Br - → Br2 + 2e

solution
Observation

Sulphur dioxide gas SO2 + 2H2O → SO42- + 4H+ + 2e

Observation

Electrochemical series (ECS)

• Arrangement of metals according to their standard electrode potential, Eø from most negative to most positive.

• The more negative the Eº value, the more electropositive the metal.
• More electropositive metal is easier to be oxidized, thus, easier to donate e.

• The more positive the Eº value, the less electropositive the metal.
• Less electropositive metal ion is easier to be reduced, thus, easier to receive e.
Transfer of electrons at a distance
• A redox reaction takes place at inert electrodes where electrons are transferred from a reducing agent to an
oxidizing agent through external in U-tube Cell.
• Terminals of the U-tube Cell
a) Negative terminal : Electrode in reducing agent (donate e)
b) Positive terminal : Electrode in oxidizing agent (receive e)
• Function of electrolyte
a) All the movement of ions to complete the circuit
b) Separate the reducing agent and oxidizing agent

Example: Redox reaction between Potassium iodide solution & acidified KMnO4solution
Questions:
1. Label the diagram of redox cell with carbon electrodes & dilute sulphuric acid as the electrolyte.
2. Rearrange the procedure of setting up the redox cell in a correct sequence.

Procedure:
• Using a dropper, 2cm3 of 0.5 moldm-3 potassium iodide solution & 2cm3 of 0.2 moldm-3 acidified potassium
manganate(VII) solution are added to the arms of the U-tube respectively.
• Both of the electrodes are connected to a galvanometer with connecting wires.
• 5cm3 of dilute sulphuric acid is measured and poured into the U-tube.
• A carbon electrode is placed in each arm of the U-tube.
• The set-up is left aside for 30 minutes. Observation is recorded in a table
• The U-tube is clamped to a retort stand.

Based on the above redox cell, complete the table below.

Half-equation [O]

Half-equation [H] ions,

Mn2+.
Ionic equation for
redox reaction
Observation

Inference

Role 1. Oxidizing agent :

2. Reducing agent :
Movement of
electron
B) Displacement of Metals from its SALT SOLUTION (Based on the Electropositivity of Metal in ECS)
• In this reaction, a more electropositive metal will displace a less electropositive metal from its salt solutions.
• Based on the Electrochemical series, ECS

More Electropositive Metal

i) More negative Eº value
ii) Metal atom is easier to donate electron
and form metal ion
iii) undergoes oxidation
iv) act as reducing agent

Less Electropositive Metal

i) More positive Eº value
ii) Metal ion is easier to receive electron
and form metal atom
iii) undergoes reduction
iv) act as oxidizing agent

Example 1
Displacement of copper metal from copper(II) nitrate solution by iron nail.

Half-equation [O]

Half-equation [H] ions,

.
Ionic equation for
redox reaction
Observation

Inference

Reason

Role 1. Oxidizing agent :

2. Reducing agent :

Example 2 : Displacement of zinc metal from zinc chloride solution by tin plate.
Observation

Inference

Reason
C) Displacement of halogen from its HALIDE SOLUTION (Based on the Reactivity of Halogen)
• In this reaction, a more reactive halogen displaces a less reactive halogen from its halide solution.
• Based on the reactivity of halogen

More Reactive Halogen

i) At a higher position in Group 17
ii) Halogen molecule receives e to form halide ion
iii) undergoes reduction
iv) act as oxidizing agent

Less Reactive Halogen

i) At a lower position in Group 17
ii) Halide ion donates e to form halogen molecule
iii) undergoes oxidation
iv) act as reducing agent

• Identity of chlorine, bromine & iodine is confirmed by mixing the halogen with 1,1,1-trichloroethane solution.
Halogen Colour of Colour of halogen in
halogen solution 1,1,1-trichloroethane solution
Chlorine Yellow Yellow
Bromine Brown Brown
Iodine Brown Purple

Example 1 : Displacement of iodine from potassium iodide by chlorine solution

Half-equation [O]
Half-equation [H]
Ionic equation for
redox reaction
Observation

Observation in 1,1,1-
trichloroethane layer
Inference

Reason
Role 1. Oxidizing agent :
2. Reducing agent :

Example 2 : Displacement of chlorine from potassium chloride by bromine solution

Observation
Inference

Reason
1.2 Standard Electrode Potential

Definition of Electrode Potential

• Potential difference (different in charge)in an equilibrium between
• metal electrode and its aqueous ion (electrolyte)

Zinc Half Cell Note:

Zn2+aq) + 2e ⇋ Zn(s) Electrode potential of single
half-cell cannot be measured, it
Reason:
can be measured by pairing with
• [H] is forward reaction another half-cell.
• [Θ] is reverse reaction

Standard Electrode Potential

• Potential difference in an equilibrium between metal electrode and its aqueous ion
• relative to standard hydrogen electrode under standard conditions as follow:
a) concentration of ion in solution (electrolyte) is 1 M
b) at 25⁰C or 298K
c) at 1 atm or 101 kPa

S.H.E : reference electrode for all measurement of Eº (IUPAC)

• Reason: Hydrogen is at the middle range of reduction
Half equation of S.H.E : 2H+ + 2e ⇋ H2
S.H.E potential, Eº is fixed at 0.00 V

Function of Pt coated with PtO2 :

• As inert electrode for half-cell (does not have solid electrode)
Function of PtO2 :
• Increase surface area of Pt to absorb hydrogen gas
• Catalyze the equilibrium reaction of 2H+ + 2e ⇋ H2

S.E.P for Copper

Negative terminal Positive terminal
Pt electrode. Cu electrode
Reason : Reason:
H2 is easier to donate e Cu2+ is easier to receive e /
/ oxidized than Cu reduced than H+.
Half equation [Θ] : Half equation [H]:
H2 → 2H+ + 2e Cu2+ + 2e → Cu
Electron flows form Pt to Cu through external circuit
S.E.P of Cu half-cell is written as reduction:
Cu2+ + 2e ⇋ Cu Eº = + 0.34 V

Note
a) If the half-cell is positive terminal when connected to S.H.E, its S.E.P is a positive value.
b) If the half-cell is negative terminal when connected to S.H.E, its S.E.P is a negative value.
Oxidizing Agents and Reducing Agents Based on Standard Electrode Potential Value
Standard Electrode Potential Series
• Arrangement of half-cells in ascending order of standard electrode potential value from the most negative
to the most positive.

Information about S.E.P Series

1. Half-cell reaction is written as reduction, but
the sign of Eø value for [Θ] is reversed.
e.g. Zn2+ + 2e → Zn Eº = – 0.76 V
Zn → Zn2+ + 2e Eº = + 0.76 V

2. Magnitude of S.E.P is independent on the

stoichiometric equation.
e.g Cl2 + 2e ⇋ 2Cl- Eº = + 1.36 V
2Cl2 + 4e ⇋ 4Cl- Eº = + 1.36 V

3. Eø value for [H] agent and [Θ] agent is same.

e.g. Ag+ + e ⇋ Ag Eº = + 0.88 V
Thus,
a) Reducing strength of Ag is + 0.88V
b) Oxidizing strength of Ag+ is + 0.88V

Uses of S.E.P Value

1. Determine the oxidizing agent and reducing agent in a redox reaction
Based on the half-cell equation,
a) Oxidizing agents (left side species)
b) Reducing agents (right side species)

Example 1 : Cl2 + 2e ⇋ 2Cl- Example 2 : Fe3+ + e ⇋ Fe2+

a) Oxidizing agent : Cl2 a) Oxidizing agent : Fe3+
b) Reducing agent : Cl- b) Reducing agent : Fe2+

2. Compare the strength of oxidizing agent and reducing agent

Left side species Right side species

(Ion / Molecule) (Ion / Atom / Molecule)
1. More positive Eº value 1. More negative Eº value
• Easier to be reduced • Easier to be oxidized
• Easier to receive e • Easier to donate e
• Stronger [Θ] agent • Stronger [H] agent

2. More negative Eº value 2. More positive Eº value

• More difficult to be reduced • More difficult to be oxidized
• More difficult to receive e • More difficult to donate e
• Weaker [Θ] agent • Weaker [H] agent
Example 1
Based on the Eº value of iron and copper,
Fe+2+ + 2e ⇋ Fe Eº = – 0.44 V
Cu2+ + 2e ⇋ Cu Eº = + 0.34 V
a) determine the substance to be oxidized and substance to be reduced
b) identify the oxidizing agent and reducing agent
c) write the oxidation and reduction half equations
d) write the ionic equation for the redox reaction
Answer
Eº value of Fe is more negative than Cu but Eº value of Cu2+ is more positive than Fe2+
a) Substance to be oxidized : Fe atom, Substance to be reduced : Cu2+ ion
b) Reducing agent : Fe atom, Oxidizing agent : Cu2+ ion
c) Half equation for oxidation : Fe → Fe2+ + 2e , Half equation for reduction : Cu2+ + 2e → Cu
d) Ionic equation : Fe + Cu2+ → Fe2+ + Cu

Example 2
The Eº value of Zn and Cl2 are given below.
Zn2+ + 2e ⇋ Zn Eº = – 0.76 V
Cl2 + 2e ⇋ 2Cl- Eº = + 1.36 V
Compare and explain
a) Strength of reducing agent between Zn and Cl-
b) Strength of oxidizing agent between Zn2+ and Cl2

Answer
a) 1. Eº value of Zn is more negative and Cl-
2. Zn atom is easier to donate 2 e to form Zn2+ ion
3. Zn atom is easier to be oxidized
4. Zn atom is a stronger reducing agent
b) 1. Eº value of Cl2 is more positive and Zn2+
2. Cl2 molecule is easier to receive 2e to form Cl- ion
3. Cl2 molecule is easier to be reduced
4. Cl2 molecule is a stronger oxidizing agent

Example 3
Below equations shows the standard electrode potential values of 3 ions.
Zn2+ + 2e ⇋ Zn Eº = – 0.76 V
2H+ + 2e ⇋ H2 Eº = 0.00 V
Cu2+ + 2e ⇋ Cu Eº = + 0.34 V
Arrange the
a) strength of oxidizing agent in ascending order
b) strength of reducing agent in descending order

Answer
a) Zn2+, H+, Cu2+
b) Zn, H2, Cu
Example 4
Fe2+(aq) + 2e ⇋ Fe(s) E° = – 0.44V
Ag+(aq) + e ⇋ Ag(s) E° = + 0.80V

Based on the diagram below and the E° values given,

a) predict and explain the feasibility of the reaction
b) identify the [Θ] agent and [H] agent and ex
c) write the ionic equation if reaction occurs
d) state one observation and explain (inference)

Answer
a) Displacement reaction occurs
b) 1. Eº value of Ag+ is more positive than Fe2+
2. Ag+ ion is easier to receive electron to form Ag atom // Ag+ ion is a stronger oxidizing agent
3. Ag+ ion undergoes reduction
4. Eº value of Fe is more negative than Ag
5. Fe atom is easier to donate 2e to form Fe2+ ion // Fe atom a stronger reducing agent
6. Fe atom undergoes oxidation
c) Fe + 2Ag+ → 2Ag + Fe2+
d)
Observation Inference
Iron nail becomes thinner Fe atom oxidized to form Fe2+ by donating 2e
Silvery solid is deposited Ag+ ion reduced to form Ag atom by receiving 1 e
Colourless solution turns green Fe displaces Ag from AgNO3 solution

Example 5
Zn2+(aq) + 2e ⇋ Zn(s) E° = – 0.76V
Cu2+(aq) + 2e ⇋ Cu(s) E° = + 0.34V

Based on the diagram below and the E° values given,

a) predict the feasibility of the reaction and explain
b) identify the [Θ] agent and [H] agent
c) write the ionic equation if reaction occurs
d) state one observation and explain (inference)

Answer
a) 1. No reaction occurs
2. Eº value of Cu is more positive than Zn
3. Cu is difficult to donate 2 electron // Cu atom is a weaker reducing agent
4. Cu atom does not undergo oxidation
5. Eº value of Zn2+ is more negative than Cu2+
6. Zn2+ ion is difficult to receive 2 electron // Zn2+ ion is a weaker oxidizing agent
7. Zn2+ ion does not undergo oxidation

d) No changes (No reaction)

1.4 Electrolytic Cell
Definition of Electrolysis and Electrolyte
Electrolytes
Definition • Substances conduct electricity in
molten state or aqueous solution
• undergo chemical changes.
Type a) Molten / Aqueous ionic compound
b) Acidic solution
c) Alkaline solution
Examples:
Molten lead(II) bromide, NaOH solution,
Aqueous copper(II) sulphate, HCl acid
Reason Presence of free moving ions
Non-electrolytes
• Substances that unable to conduct electricity
in all states.
Most covalent compound.
Example:
Molten naphthalene, glucose solution, oil,
ethanol.
1. No free moving ions presence.
2. Consists of neutral molecules only.

Electrolysis process

Definition
• Process of decomposition of molten or aqueous compound into its constituent elements
• by passing electricity

A) Electrolysis of Molten Compound

Example 1: Electrolysis of molten lead(II) bromide

Ions present in the electrolyte

Anode Electrode Cathode
Movement of ions
Ion to be discharged
Half equation
Observation

Inference

Conversion of energy
Overall equation
B) Electrolysis of Aqueous Solutions
• An aqueous solution is produced by dissolving a compound in water.
• Electrolysis of aqueous solutions consists of 2 sets of cations (+ve ion) & anions. (-ve ion)
a) 1 set of ions from electrolyte, + ion & – ion
b) 1 set of ions from water, H+ & OH-

• SELECTIVE DISCHARGED OF IONS affected by 3 factors :

F1: Standard Electrode Potential Value
F2: Concentration of ions in the electrolyte
F3: Type of electrode (Anode)

3 FACTORS

F1: Standard Electrode Potential Value F2: Concentration of ions in electrolyte F3: Types of electrode (Anode)

a) Cation (+ ion) with MORE • HALIDE ION with HIGHER
POSITIVE Eº is selectively CONCENTRATION is selectively
discharged at cathode (Reduction) discharged at anode. (Oxidation)
b) Anion (- ion) with MORE
Note:
NEGATIVE Eº is selectively
1. F2 only apply at anode if more
discharged at anode (Oxidation)
concentrated halide ion is present.
2. If concentrated electrolyte without
Conditions: halide ion, apply F1 at anode.
1. Dilute/solution/aqueous / <1.0 moldm-3 3. At cathode, apply F1.
2. Inert electrode (GCP)
Condition: Concentrated / ≥1.0 moldm-3
• ACTIVE ANODE involve in reaction
• Example: Copper , Silver
• Metal atom at anode will ionize by
donating e to form metal ion. (Oxidation)
Note:
1. F3 only apply at anode.
2. No ion is discharged at anode.
3. At cathode, apply F1.
Condition: Active electrode
Factor 1 : Standard Electrode Potential Value
Example : Electrolysis of dilute sulphuric acid, H2SO4 with carbon electrodes

Anode : F1 Cathode : F1

Ions present in the electrolyte

Anode Electrode Cathode
Movement of ions
Ion to be selectively discharged
Reason
Method of ion discharged

Half equation
Role
Observation
Inference
Conversion of energy
Overall ionic equation
Factor 2 : Concentration of Halide Ions in Electrolyte (Anode)
Example : Electrolysis of concentrated potassium iodide solution, KI with carbon electrodes

Cathode : F1

Anode : F2
• More concentrated halide
is selectively discharged

Ions present in the electrolyte

Anode Electrode Cathode
Movement of ions
Ion to be selectively discharged
Reason
Method of ion discharged

Half equation
Role
Observation
Inference
Conversion of energy
Overall ionic equation
Factor 3 : Type of Electrode (Anode)
Example : Electrolysis of copper(II) sulphate solution, CuSO4 with copper electrodes

Cathode : F1

Anode : F3
• Active anode ionizes

Ions present in the electrolyte

Anode Electrode Cathode
Movement of ions
Electrode ionized / Ion to be
selectively discharged
Reason
Method
Half equation
Role
Observation
Inference
Conversion of energy
Overall ionic equation
Observation
Inference
Copper(II) sulphate solution electrolyte
Explanation
Application of Electrolysis in Industries

• 3 applications of electrolysis in industries :

a) Purification of less reactive metals
b) Electroplating of metals
c) Extraction of reactive metals (IUM metal)

A Purification of Less Reactive Metals

Structure
a) Anode: Impure metal
b) Cathode: Pure metal
c) Electrolyte: Solution with ion of metal to be purified

Example : Purification of Copper

Labelled diagram Procedure

1. Clean the impure copper and pure copper with sand
paper.
2. Measure and add 50 cm3, 0.1 moldm-3 of copper(II)
sulphate solution into a beaker.
3. Immerse both the impure copper and pure copper
into the solution.
4. Connect impure copper to negative terminal and
pure copper to positive terminal of batteries and an
ammeter.
5. Turn on the switch for 15 minutes.

Ions present in the electrolyte

Anode Electrode Cathode
Electrode ionized /
Ion to be discharged
Reason
Method
Half equation
Role
Observation
Inference
Overall ionic equation
Observation
Electrolyte Inference
Explanation
B Electroplating of Metals

Purpose
a) To prevent corrosion of metal
b) To improve appearance of metal
Structure
a) Anode : Plating metal
b) Cathode : Object to be electroplated
c) Electrolyte: Solution with ion of plating metal

Example : Electroplating of Copper coin with Silver

Labelled diagram Procedure

Ions present in the electrolyte

Anode Electrode Cathode
Electrode ionized /
Ion to be selectively discharged
Reason
Method
Half equation
Role
Observation
Inference
Overall ionic equation
Energy conversion

Conditions for Good Quality Plating

a) Polish the object to be plated with sand paper
b) Use a low electric current
c) Use a low concentration of electrolyte
d) Rotate the object to be electroplated constantly
C Extraction of Reactive Metals

Purpose : To extract reactive metal from its ores

Structure
a) Anode & Cathode : Carbon
b) Electrolyte : Molten metal ore

Example : Extraction of Aluminiun from Bauxite, Al2O3

Note
1. Cryolite is added to lower the
melting point of aluminium oxide
from 2045°C to 900°C.
2. Carbon anodes must be frequently
replaced as hot oxygen burns with
anode to form CO2 gas.

Ions present in the electrolyte

Anode Electrode Cathode
Ion to be discharged
Method
Half equation
Role
Observation
Inference
Overall ionic equation
Energy conversion

Negative Impact of Aluminium Extraction

• Global warming (CO2)
• Soil erosion (Mining)
• Lost of habitat and food for wildlife
• Red toxic sludge contaminates the local water sources
1.5 Extraction of Metal From its Ores
• Metals are found in nature as ores (compounds)
Metal Ore Chemical Formula 4 Extraction Methods
Calcium Limestone
Iron Hematite a) Electrolysis
Magnetite b) Carbon reduction in furnace
Tin Cassiterite c) Direct heating
Lead Galena
Aluminium Bauxite d) Metal reduction

• Metal Extraction method based on Reactivity Series of Metals (RS)

Reactivity Series is an arrangement of metals according to their reactivity towards oxygen.

Method B : Extraction of Metals through Carbon Reduction in Blast Furnace

Example: Extraction of Iron from Hematite

Function of Coke (source of carbon)

• Remove oxygen produces waste gases, CO2 & CO
Function of limestone
• Remove other impurities, SiO2 to form slag
Function of slag
• Prevents the oxidation of metal (Floating above)
Zone 3 • As building material such as cement

Zone 3 (1000⁰C)
Zone 2 • 2Fe2O3(s) + 3C(s) → _________________________
• Fe2O3(s) + 3CO(g) → _________________________
Zone 1 • [Θ] : ________________________________________
• [H] : ________________________________________
• Oxidizing agent : ______________________________
• Reducing agent:_______________________________

Formation of slag, CaSiO3 Zone 2 (1500⁰C) : C(s) + CO2(g) → ____________

• CaCO3(s) → ____________________
Zone 1 (1900⁰C) : 3C(s) + O2(g) → _____________
• CaO(s) + SiO2(s) → ______________
Method D : Extraction of Metals through Metal Reduction

• In this reaction, a more reactive metal able to displace a less reactive metal from its oxide.

• Based on the Reactivity Series of Metals,

More Reactive Metal

i) Gains oxygen
ii) Undergoes oxidation
iii) Acts as reducing agent

Less Reactive Metal

i) Loses oxygen
ii) Undergoes reduction
iii) Acts as oxidizing agent

Example : Displacement / Reduction of Copper from Copper(II) oxide by Zinc

Oxidizing agent: ___________________

Reducing agent: ____________________

Explanation :
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________

• Application of Metal Reduction in Daily Life

a) Railway track welding
b) Metal Cutting Thermite Reaction (Highly exothermic)
c) High temperature ignition C.E : 2Al(s) + Fe2O3(s) → Al2O3(s) + 2Fe(l)
d) Disabling military equipment
1.3 Chemical Cell
• An electrochemical cell that converts chemical energy to electrical energy.
• Redox reaction produces electron flow in external circuit which determine the potential difference of the
cell.
• Examples
a) Simple voltaic cell
b) Daniell cell
c) U-tube cell

• Important Information about Chemical Cell

1. Polarity of the cell:
a) Negative terminal : Metal with more negative Eº value / More electropositive metal
b) Positive terminal : Metal with more positive Eº value / Less electropositive metal
2. Process at electrode:
a) Anode : Oxidation occurs as electrons are donated
b) Cathode : Reduction occurs as electrons are received
3. Direction of electron flow
Electrons flow from negative terminal (ID) to positive terminal (ID) through the external circuit
producing an electric current.
4. Calculation of voltage / potential difference of a voltaic cell, E° cell

5. Cell Notation
Simple Voltaic Cell
Example 1
Simple voltaic cell using magnesium ribbon & silver plate as electrodes in NaCl solution

Given E° velue :

Mg2+aq) + 2e ⇋ Mg(s) Eº = – 2.38 V

Ag+aq) + e ⇋ Ag(s) Eº = + 0.80 V
Na+aq) + e ⇋ Na(s) Eº = – 2.71 V
2H+aq) + 2e ⇋ H2(g) Eº = 0.00 V

-ve terminal +ve terminal

Type of metal
(Reason)

Ions present in
the electrolyte
Oxidation / Reduction
(Reason)

Half equation
Overall ionic equation
Direction of
electron flow

Observation
Voltmeter

Inference
Voltmeter

Eº Cell
Daniell cell

Structure
a) An electrochemical cell combining 2 half-cells with different Eº values
b) Electrodes (2 different metals)
i) Negative terminal electrode : Metal with more negative Eº value
ii) Positive terminal electrode : Metal with more positive Eº value
c) Electrolyte (2 different solutions)
i) Each metal is immersed into salt solution with its metal ion
ii) 2 different solutions are connected by a salt bridge or porous pot
d) Function of salt bridge or porous pot
i) Allow the movement of ions to complete the circuit
ii) Balance the charge of both solutions

Example 2
Danill cell using zinc plate in zinc sulphate solution and copper plate copper(II) sulphate solution with
salt bridge (KNO3 solution) or porous pot.
 Zn2+ + 2e ⇋ Zn Eº = – 0.76 V Cu2+ + 2e ⇋ Cu Eº = + 0.34 V 2H+ + e ⇋ H2 Eº = 0.00 V

Terminal – ve terminal + ve terminal

Type of metal
(Reason)

Ions present in the

electrolyte
Oxidation / Reduction
(Reason)

Half equation
Overall ionic equation
Direction of
electron flow

Observation
Voltmeter

Electrolyte

Inference
Voltmeter
Electrolyte
Eº Cell
Cell notation

Relationship between Potential Difference and Electrical Energy Produced

Based on E° value given, calculate the E°cell for Cell A & Cell B.
State the relationship between potential difference and electrical energy produced.
Mg2+(aq) + 2e ⇋ Mg(s) E° = – 2.38 V
Fe2+(aq) + 2e ⇋ Fe(s) E° = – 0.44 V
Cu2+(aq) + 2e ⇋ Cu(s) E° = + 0.34 V
Ag+(aq) + e ⇋ Ag(s) E° = + 0.80 V

E° cell A = E° cell B =

Based on the E° cell value of Cell A and Cell B,

• The ………… the difference of the E° of the pair of metals in a voltaic cell, the ………… potential difference
/ voltage produced.
• The ………… the potential difference produced, the ……………. the electrical energy produced.
1.6 Rusting
Metal Corrosion as Redox Reaction
Definition of Metal Corrosion
• A redox reaction where a metal is oxidized spontaneously by donating electron to form metal ion causing partial
or complete destruction of the metal.
Example
Test tube A B
Observation Blue precipitate formed Brown precipitate formed
Inference
Reason

Rusting of Iron as Redox Reaction

• Corrosion of iron is known as rusting.
Conditions for rusting of iron 3 stages in rusting of iron
a) Presence of oxygen a) Formation of Fe2+ ion and OH- ion
b) Presence of water b) Formation of Fe(OH)2
c) Formation of hydrated Fe2O3.xH2

Diagram of Mechanism of Rusting Involving Electron Transfer

Stage 1 : Formation of Fe2+ ion and OH- ion

Anode Cathode
Area

Explanation
[Θ] /[H]

Stage 2 : Formation of iron(II) hydroxide

Explanation

Ionic equation : Chemical equation for redox reaction :

Stage 3 : Formation of hydrated iron(III) oxide (rust)

• Explanation : ________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________
 Factors that Increase the Rate of Rusting

F1 : Presence of acid and salt as electrolyte
Examples
a) Iron bridges, fences and cars at coastal areas
rust faster due to the salt in the breeze.
b) Iron structures in industrial areas rust faster
due the acidic gas in the air.
F2 : Attaching iron with a less electropositive metal
Explanation
• Iron is more electropositive metal
• Iron atom is easier to be oxidized by donating e
• Iron metal rusts faster

Relationship between Electropositivity of Metal and Rate of Corrosion

• Metal with more negative the Eº value is more electropositive and easier to be oxidized by donating e.
Thus, the rate of corrosion is higher.
Electropositivity decreases

• More electropositive metal is easier to be oxidized

by donating e.
• They are easier to be corroded than Fe
• Rusting of iron is prevented

• Less electropositive metal is more difficult to be

oxidized by donating e.
• They are more difficult to be corroded than Fe
• Rusting of iron is promoted

Note
• The ease of metal corrosion also depends on the nature of the product of metal corrosion.
Example
Aluminium window frame is more resistance to corrosion than iron window frame since aluminium is
more electropositive than iron.

Aluminium oxide (Product of corrosion as protective layer)

• Hard, impermeable and difficult to be cracked
• Underneath aluminium is protected from further corrosion

Iron(III) oxide (Product of rusting layer)

• Soft, permeable and easily crack
• Water and oxygen penetrate this layer for further rusting
Experiment : To investigate the effect of other metals on the rusting of iron

Procedure
1. Clean the iron nails, magnesium ribbon and copper
strip with sand paper.
2. Coil the iron nails with magnesium ribbon and
copper strip respectively.
3. Put the a iron nail in test tube I, iron nail coiled with
magnesium in test tube II and iron nail coiled with
copper strip in test tube III.
4. Pour hot jelly solution with phenolphthalein and
potassium hexacyanoferrate(III) solution into each
of the test tubes.
5. Leave the test tubes for 2 days.
6. Observe and record the changes in the test tubes.

Test tube Observation Inference

I A few blue spots formed
II Pink spots formed
III A lot of blue spots formed

1. Function of potassium hexacyanoferrate(III) solution : ________________________________________________

2. Function of phenolphthalein : ____________________________________________________________________
3. Purpose of hot jelly solution : ____________________________________________________________________
4. Relationship between the intensity of blue spots and the rate of rusting :
____________________________________________________________________________________________
5. a) Write and explain the oxidation half equation in test tubes II and III.
____________________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________________
b) Write and explain the reduction half equation in all test tubes.
____________________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________________
6. Relationship between the electropositivity of a metal coiled with iron nail and the rusting of iron :
____________________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________________
7. Arrange iron, magnesium and copper in an ascending order of electropositivity : ___________________________
8. There are no pink spots formed in test tubes I and III. Explain.
____________________________________________________________________________________________
9. Explain the difference in the observation in test tube I and III.
____________________________________________________________________________________________
Methods of Preventing Rusting of Iron
Method Example Explanation
a) Painting • Thin protective layer prevent air and water from
• Gates, window frames, contact with iron
bridges, vehicle body
• Rusting of iron is prevented.
b) Greasing / Oiling
• Bicycle chain, tools,
engine parts, door hinge
c) Plastic coating
• Wire fences, hangers

d) Tin plating • Iron or steel is coated with a very thin layer of tin.
• Food can • Tin reacts with oxygen to form a protective coating,
tin(IV) oxide.
• This protective layer prevents oxygen and water
Protective from contact with iron.
Layer • Rusting of iron is prevented.

e) Galvanizing • Iron is coated with a layer of zinc.

• Roofing • Zinc reacts with oxygen to form zinc oxide.
• Water tanks (Poisonous)
• Rubbish bins • This protective layer prevents oxygen and water
from contact with iron
• Rusting of iron is prevented.

f) Chrome plating • Iron is electroplated with chromium

• Water taps, car
bumper, hydraulic arm
More electropositive metal
(Mg, Al, Zn)
Sacrificial • Bridge pillar,
metal ship hull, oil rig pillar,
protection underground iron pipe.
Alloying Stainless steel
• Surgical instruments,
kitchen utensils
• Chromium reacts with oxygen to form chromium
oxide.
• This protective layer prevents oxygen and water
from contact with iron.
• Rusting is prevented.
• Iron is attached to a more electropositive metal.
(Mg, Al, Zn)
• Electropositive metal (ID) will oxide / corrode more
readily than iron. Electropositive metal (ID) acts as
sacrificial metal which prevent the rusting of iron.
• Chromium and nickel are added to steel.
• Shiny, corrosion resistant protective oxide layer is
formed when exposed to oxygen.
• This protective layer prevents oxygen and water
form contact with iron.
• Rusting of iron / steel is prevented.