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READING IELTs - 1
When people are deaf’ to music
Music has long been considered a uniquely human concept. In fact, most
psychologists agree that music is a universal human instinct. Like any ability,
however, there is great variation in people's musical competence. For every
brilliant pianist in the world, there are several people we refer to as " tone deaf". It
is not simply that people with tone deafness (or' amusia") are unable to sing in
tune, they are also unable to discriminate between tones or recognize familiar
melodies. Such a" disorder" can occur after some sort of brain damage , but
recently research has been undertaken in an attempt to discover the cause of
congenital amusia (when people are born with the condition), which is not
associated with any brain damage, hearing problems, or lack of exposure to music.
According to the research of Dr. Isabelie Peretz of the University of Montreat,
amusia is more complicated than the inability to distinguish pitches. An amusia (a
person who has the condition of amusia) can distinguish between two pitches that
are far apart, but cannot tell the difference between intervals smaller than a half
step on the Western diatonic scale, while most people can easily distinguish
differences smaller than that, when listening to melodies which have had a single
note altered so that it is out of key with the rest of the melody, do not notice a
problem. As would be expected, amusics perform significantly worse at singing
and tapping a rhythm along with a melody than do non-amusics.
The most fascinating aspect of amusia is how specific to music it is. Because of
music’s close ties
to language, it might be expected that a musical impairment may be caused by a
language impairment. Studies suggest, however, that language and music ability
are independent of one another. People with brain damage in areas critical to
language are often still able to sing, despite being unable to communicate through
speech. Moreover, while amusics show deficiencies in their recognition of pitch
differences in melodies, they show no tonal languages, such as Chinese, do not
report having any difficulty discriminating between words that differ only in their
intonation. The linguistic cues inherent in speech make discrimination of meaning
much easier for amusics. Amusics are also successful most of the time at detecting
the mood of a melody, can identify a speaker based on his or her voice and can
discriminate and identify environmental sounds.
Recent work has been focused on locating the part of the brain that is responsible
for amusia. The temporal lobes of the brain, the location of the primary auditory
cortex, have been considered. It has long been believed that the temporal lobes,
especially the right temporal lobe, are most active when activity, so any musical
disability should logically stem from here as well. Because it has been shown that
there is no hearing deficit in amusia, researchers moved on to the temporal
neocortex, which is where more sophisticated processing of musical cues was
thought to take place. New studies, however, have suggested that the deficits in
amusics are located outside the auditory cortex. Brain scans of amusics do not
show any reaction at all to differences smaller than a half step, when changes in
tones are large, their brains overreact, showing twice as much activity on the right
side of the brain as a normal brain hearing the same thing. These differences do not
occur in the auditory cortex, indicating again that the deficits of amusia lie mostly
in hearing impairment, but in higher processing of melodies.
So what does this all mean? Looking only at the research of Peretz in the field of
neuropsychology of music, it would appear that amusia is some sort of disorder. As
a student of neurobiology, however, I am skeptical. Certainly the studies by Peretz
that have found significant differences between the brains of so-called amusics and
normal brains are legitimate. The more important question now becomes one of
normality. Every trait from skin color to intelligence to mood exists on a
continuum-there is a great idea of variation from one extreme to the other. Just
because we recognize that basic musical ability is something that the vast majority
of people have, this doesn’t mean that the lack of it is abnormal
What makes an amusic worse off than a musical prodigy? Musical ability is
culturally valued, and may have been a factor in survival at one point in human
history, but it does not seem likely that it is being selected for on an evolutionary
scale any longer. Darwin believed that music was adaptive as a way of finding a
mate, but who needs to be able to sing to find a partner in an age when it is
possible to express your emotions through a song on your IPod?
While the idea of amusia is interesting, it seems to be just one end of the
continuum of innate musical ability. Comparing this ‘disorder’ to learning
disorders like a specific language impairment seems to be going too far. Before,
amusia can be declared a disability, further research must be done to determine
whether lack of musical ability is actually detrimental in any way. If
no disadvantages can be found of having amusia, then it is no more a disability
than having poor fashion sense or bad handwriting.
Question 1-5
Choose the correct letter, A, B, C or D
Write the correct letter in boxes 27-31 on your answer sheet
1. What does the writer tell US about people with tone deafness (amusia) in the
first
paragraph?
A They usually have hearing problems
B Some can play a musical instrument very well
C Some may be able to sing well-known melodies
D They have several inabilities in regard to music
2. What is the writer doing in the second paragraph?
A outlining some of factors that cause amusia
B summarising some findings about people with amusia
C suggesting that people with amusia are disadvantaged
D comparing the sing ability of amusia with their sense
3. What does the writer say about the relationship between language ability and
musical ability?
A People who are unable to speak can sometimes sing
B People with amusia usually have language problems too
C Speakers of tonal languages like Chinese rarely have amusia
D People with amusia have difficulty recognizing people by their voices
4. In the third paragraph, the writer notes that most amusics are able to
A learn how to sing in tune
B identify a song by its tune
C distinguish a sad tone from a happy tune
D recognise when a singer is not sing in tune
5. What is the writer doing in the fourth paragraph?
A claiming that amusics have problems in the auditory cortex
B outlining progress in understanding the brains of amusics
C proving that amuisa is located in the temporal lobes
D explaining why studies of hearing are difficult
Question 6-9
Do the following statements agree with the views of the writer in Reading
Passage?
In boxes 6-9 on your answer sheet, write
YES if the statement agrees with the claims of the writer
NO if the statement contradicts the claims of the writer
NOT GIVEN if it is impossible to say what the writer thinks about this
6 Perezt's research suggesting that amusia is a disorder is
convincing.
7 People with musical ability are happier than those without
this ability.
8 It is inappropriate to consider amusia as real disorder.
9 People with amusia often have bad handwriting.
Question 10-14
Complete each sentence with the correct ending, A-H below
Write the correct letter, A-H in boxes 10-14 on your answer sheet
10 The reason why some people are born with amusia is
11 One of the difficulties amusia experience is
12 For amusia, discrimination of meaning in speech is
13 Certain reactions in the brain of an amusia are
14 In most cultures, musical ability is
A an inability to hear when spoken language rises and falls.
B considered to be desirable.
C an inability to follow the beat of music.
D not a problem.
E not yet well understood.
F a result of injury to the mother.
G more marked that with other people.
H associated with intelligence.
Answer Table
1. D 8. YES
2. B 9. NOT GIVEN
3. A 10. E
4. C 11. C
5. B 12. D
6. NO 13. G
7. NOT GIVEN 14. B
Science and the Stradivarius:Uncovering the secret of quality
A. Violins made by long-dead Italian craftsmen from the Cremona region are
beautiful works of art, coveted by collectors as well as players. Particularly
outstanding violins have reputedly changed hands for over a million pounds.
In contrast, fine modern instruments can be bought for under £100. Do such
figures really reflect such large differences in quality? After more than a
hundred years of vigorous debate, this question remains highly contentious,
provoking strongly held but divergent views among musicians, violin
makers and scientists alike.
B. Every violin, whether a Stradivarius or the cheapest factory- made copy, has
a distinctive 'voice’ of its 0. Just as any musician can immediately
recognise the difference between Domingo and Pavarotti singing the same
operatic aria, so a skilled violinist can distinguish between different qualities
in the sound produced by individual Stradivari or Guarneri violins.
Individual notes on a single instrument sound different each time they are
played, which suggests that the perceived tone of a violin must be related to
the overall design of the instrument, rather than the frequencies of particular
resonances on it. But although various attempts have been made to analyse
such global properties, it is extremely difficult to distinguish between a fine
Stradivarius instrument and an indifferent modern copy on the basis of
the measured response alone. The ear is a supreme detection device, and a
system has yet to be developed which can match the brain's
sophisticated ability to assess complex sounds.
C. So how do skilled violinmakers optimise the tone of an instrument during
the construction process? They begin by selecting a wood of the highest
possible quality for the front and back plates (or parts of the violin), which
they test by tapping with a hammer and judging how well it 'rings’. The next
important step is to skillfully carve the plates out of the solid wood, taking
great care to get the right degree of arching and variations in
thickness. Traditional makers optimise the thickness by testing the ‘feel’
of the plates when they are flexed, and by the sounds
produced when they are tapped at different positions with the knuckles.
D. However, in the last 50 years or so a group of violin makers has emerged
who have tried to take a more overtly scientific approach to violin making.
One common practice they have adopted is to replace the traditional flexing
and tapping of plates by controlled measurements. During the carving
process, the thinned plates are sprinkled with flakes of glitter and suspended
horizontally above a loudspeaker. The glitter forms a pattern each time the
loudspeaker excites a resonance. The aim is to interactively 'tune' these first
few free plate resonances to specified patterns.
E. Unfortunately, there are very few examples of such measurements for really
fine Italian instruments because their owners are naturally reluctant to allow
their violins to be taken apart for the sake of science. The few tests that have
been performed suggest that the first Italian makers may have tuned the
resonant modes of the individual plates - which they could identify as they
tapped them - to exact musical intervals. This would be consistent with the
prevailing Renaissance view of ’perfection1, which was measured in terms
of numbers and exact ratios. However, there is no historical data to support
this case.
F. Another factor that affects sound quality is the presence of moisture. To
achieve the quality of “vibrancy” in a violin requires high-quality wood with
low internal damping. By measuring the pattern of growth-rings in the wood
of a Stradivarius, we know that the Italian violin makers sometimes used
planks of wood that had only been seasoned for five years. However, such
wood is now 300 years old, and the intrinsic internal damping will almost
certainly have decreased with time. The age of the wood may therefore
automatically contribute to the improved quality of older instruments. This
may also explain why the quality of a modern instrument appears to improve
in its first few years.
G. Another factor thought to account for sound quality is the nature of the
varnish used to protect the instrument. One of the most popular theories for
well over a century to account for the Stradivarius secret has been that the
varnish had some sort of 'magic' composition. However, historical research
has shown that it was very similar to the varnish used today. So apart from
the possibility that the Italian varnish was contaminated with the wings of
passing insects and debris from the workshop floor, there is no convincing
evidence to support the idea of a secret formula.
H. Other researchers, meanwhile, have claimed that Stradivarius's secret was to
soak the timber in water, to leach out supposedly harmful chemicals, before
it was seasoned. Although this would be consistent with the idea that
the masts and cars of recently sunken Venetian war galleys might have been
used to make violins, other scientific and historical evidence to support this
view is unconvincing.
I. In conclusion, science has not provided any convincing evidence to set
Cremonese instruments apart from the finest violins made by skilled
craftsmen today. Indeed, some leading soloists do occasionally play on
modern instruments. However, the foremost soloists - and, not surprisingly,
violin dealers, who have a vested interest in maintaining the Cremonese
legend of intrinsic superiority - remain utterly unconvinced.
Questions 1-8
Reading Passage has nine paragraphs, A-l
Choose the correct heading for paragraphs A and C-l from the list of
headings below.
Write the correct number, i-xi, in boxes 1-8 on your answer sheet.
List of Headings
i An analysis of protective coatings
ii Applying technology to violin production
iii. Location - a key factor
iv A controversial range of prices
v Techniques of mass production
vi The advantages of older wood
vii. A re-evaluation of documentary evidence
viii. The mathematical basis of earlier design
ix Manual woodworking techniques
x Preferences of top musicians
xi. The use of saturated wood
xii. The challenge for scientists
1 Paragraph A
2 Paragraph C
3 Paragraph D
4 Paragraph E
5 Paragraph F
6 Paragraph G
7 Paragraph H
8 Paragraph I
Questions 9-13
Do the following statements agree with the information given in Reading
Passage?
TRUE if the statement agrees with the information
FALSE if the statement contradicts the information
NOT GIVEN if there is no information on this
9 The quality of any particular note played on the same violin

varies.
10 Scientific instruments analyse complex sound more
accurately than humans.
11 The quality of handmade violins varies according to the
musical ability of the craftsman.
12 Modern violins seem to improve in their early years.
13 Modern violins are gaining in popularity amongst the top
violinists
Answer Table
1. iv 8. x
2. ix 9. TRUE
3. ii 10. FALSE
4. viii 11. NOT GIVEN
5. vi 12. TRUE
6. i 13. FALSE
7. xi
Insect decision-making
It has long been held that decision made collectively by large groups of people are
more likely to turn out to be accurate than decisions made by individuals. The idea
goes back to the 'jury theorem’ of Nicolas de Condorcet, an 18th-century French
philosopher who was one of the first to apply mathematics to the social sciences.
Condorcet’s theory describes collective decisions, outlining how democratic
decisions tend to outperform dictatorial ones. If, for example, each member of a
jury has only partial information ,the majority decision is more likely to be correct
than a decision arrived at by a single juror. Moreover, the probability of a correct
decision increases with the size of the jury.
Now it is becoming clear that group decisions are also extremely valuable for the
success of social animals, such as ants ,bees .birds and dolphins .Bees make
collective decisions ,and they do it rather well, according to Christian List of the
London School of Economics ,who has studied group decision-making in humans
and animals. Researchers led by Dr List looked at colonies once the original
colony reaches a certain size. The queen goes off with about two-thirds of the
worker bees to live in a new home or nest, leaving a daughter queen in the old nest
with the remaining workers. Among the bees that depart are some that have
searched for and found some new nest sites, and reported back using a
characteristic body movement known as a 'waggle dance' to indicate to the other
bees the suitable places they have located. The longer the dance, the better the site.
After a while, other bees start to visit the sites signaled by their companions to see
for themselves and, on their return, also perform more waggle dances. The process
eventually leads to a consensus on the best site and the breakaway swarm migrates.
The decision is remarkably reliable ,with the bees choosing the best site even when
there are only small difference between alternative sites.
But exactly how do bees reach such a robust consensus? To find out ,Dr List and
his colleagues used a computer generated model of the decision-making process.
By experimenting with it they found that, when bees in the model were very good
at finding nesting sites but did not share their information, this dramatically slowed
down the migration .leaving the swarm homelss and vulnerable .Conversely .bees
in the model blindly following the waggle dances of others without first checking.
The researchers concluded that the ability of bees to identify successfully and
quickly the best site depends on both the bees ‘interdependence in communicating
the whereabouts of the bees site, and their independence in confirming this
information for themselves.
Another situation in which collective decisions are taken occurs when animals are
either isolated from crucial sources of information or dominated by other members
of the group. José Halloy of the Free University of Brussels in Belgium used
robotic cockroaches to subvert the behaviour of living cockroaches and control
their decision-making process. In his experiment, the artificial bugs were
introduced to the live ones and soon became sufficiently socially integrated that
they were perceived by the real cockroaches as equals. By manipulating the robots,
which were in the minority, Halloy was able to persuade the living cockroaches to
choose an inappropriate shelter-even one which they had rejected before being
infiltrated by the robots.
The way insects put into effect collective decisions can be complex and as
important as the decisions themselves .At the University of Bristol, in the UK,
Nigel Franks and his colleagues studied how a species of ant establishes a new
nest. Franks and his associates reported how the insects reduce the problems
associated with making a necessarily swift choice. If the ants’ existing nest become
suddenly threatened, the insects choose certain ants to act as scouts to find a new
nest.
How quickly they accomplish the transfer to a new home depends not only on how
soon the best available site is found, but also on how quickly the migration there
can be achieved.
Once the suitable new nest is identified , the chosen ants begin to lead others ,
which have made it to the new site or which may simply be in the vicinity, back to
the original threatened nest. In this way, those ants which are familiar with the
route can help transport ,for example ,the queen and young ants to the new site,
and simultaneously show the way to those ants which have been left behind to
guard the old nest. In this way moving processes are accomplished faster and more
efficiently. Thus the dynamics of collective decision-making are closely related to
the efficient implementation of those decisions .How this might apply to choices
that humans make is , as yet,unclear. But it does suggest, even for humans ,the
importance of recruiting dynamic leaders to a cause,because the most important
thing about collective decision-making ,as shown by these insect
experiments, is to get others to follow.
Questions 1-6
Reading Passage has six paragraphs,A-F
Choose the correct heading for each paragraph from the list of headings below.
Write the correct number, i-vii, in boxes -16 on your answer sheet.
List of Headings
i The effect of man-made imitations on insects
ii The need to instruct additional insect guides
iii Signals used by certain insects to indicate a discovery
iv How urgency can affect the process of finding a new home
v The use of trained insects in testing scientific theories
vi The use of virtual scenarios in the study of insect behaviour
vii How the number of decision-makers affects the decision
1 Paragraph A
2 Paragraph B
3 Paragraph C
4 Paragraph D
5 Paragraph E
6 Paragraph F
Questions 7-10
Look at the following findings (Questions 7-10) and the list of academics below.
Match each finding with the correct academic, A-D
Write the correct letter, A-D, in boxes 7-10 on your answer sheet.
NB you may use any letter more than once.
7 Certain members can influence the rest of the group to alter a previous
decision.
8 Individual verification of a proposed choice is important for
successful decision outcome.
9 The more individuals taking part in a decision, the better the decision
will be.
10 The decision-making process of certain insects produces excellent
results even when fine distinctions are required.
List of Academics
A Nicolas de Condorcet
B Christian List and colleagues
C José Halloy
D Nigel Franks and colleagues
Questions 11-13
Complete the summary below.
Choose ONE WORD ONLY from the passage for each answer.
Write your answers in boxes 11-13 on your answer sheet.
A study of insect decision-making
A Bristol University study looked at how insects make decisions when their home
has been 11 . The ants in the experiment relied on the use of
individuals called 12 new nest and efficiently direct the others to go
there. The study concluded that the effective implementation of the ants' decision
meant that the insects could change homes quickly. The study emphasized the
necessity, for people well as insects,of having active 13 in order to
execute decisions successfully.
Answer Table
1. vii 8. B
2. iii 9. A
3. vi 10. B
4. i 11. threatened
5. iv 12. scouts
6. ii 13. leaders
7. C
Katherine Mansfield
Katherine Mansfield was a modernist writer of short fiction who was born and
brought up in New Zealand
Katherine Mansfield Beauchamp Murry was born in 1888, into a prominent family
in Wellington, New Zealand. She became one of New Zealand's best-known
writers, using the pen name of Katherine Mansfield. The daughter of a banker, and
born into a middle-class family, she was also a first cousin of Countess Elizabeth
von Arnim, a distinguished novelist in her time. Mansfield had two older sisters
and a younger brother. Her father, Harold Beauchamp, went on to become the
chairman of the Bank of New Zealand. In 1893, the Mansfield family moved to
Karori, a suburb of Wellington, where Mansfield would spend the happiest years
of her childhood; she later used her memories of this time as an inspiration for
her Prelude story.
Her first published stories appeared in the High School Reporter and the
Wellington Girls7 High School magazine in 1898 and 1899. In 1902, she
developed strong feelings for a musician who played the cello, Arnold Trowell,
although her feelings were not, for the most past, returned. Mansfield herself was
an accomplished cellist, having received lesion from Trowell's father. Mansfied
wrote in her journals of feeling isolated to some extent in New Zealand, and, in
general terms of her interest in the Maori people ( New Zealand's native people),
who were often portrayed in a sympathetic light in her later stories, such as How
Pearl Button was Kidnapped
She moved to London in 1903, where she attended Queen's college, along with her
two sisters. Manfield recommenced playing the cello, an occupation that she
believed, during her time at Queen's, she would take up professionally. She also
began contributing to the college newspaper, with such a dedication to it that she
eventually became its editor. She was particularly interested in the works of the
French writers of this period and on the 19th- century British writer, Oscar Wilde,
and she was appreciated amongst fellow students at Queen's for her lively and
charismatic approach to life and work. She met follow writer Ida Baker, a South
African, at the college, and the pair became lifelong friends. Mansfield did not
actively support the suffragette movement in the Uk. Women in New Zeland had
gained the right to vote in 1893.
Mansfield first began journeying into the other parts of Europe in the period 1903-
1906, mainly to Belgium and Germany. After finishing her schooling in England,
she returned to her New Zealand home in 1906, only then beginning to write short
stories in a serious way. She had several works published in Australia in a
magazine called Native Comparison, which was her first paid writing work, and by
this time she had her mind set on becoming a professional writer. It was also the
first occasion on which she used the pseudonym "k.Mansfied".
Mansfield rapidly grew discontented with the provincial New Zealand lifestyle,
and with her family. Two years later she headed again in London. Her father sent
her an annual subsidy of €100 for the rest of her life. In later years, she would
express both admiration and disdain for New Zealand in her journals.
In 1911, Mansfield met John Middleton Murry, the Oxford scholar and editor of
the literary magazine Rhythm. They were later to marry in 1918. Mansfield became
a co-editor of Rhythm, which was subsequently called The Blue Review, in which
more of her works were published. She and Murry lived in various houses in
England and briefly in Paris. The Blue Review failed to gain enough readers and
was no longer published. Their attempt to set up as writers in Paris was cut short
by Murry's bankruptcy, which resulted from the failure of this and other journals.
Life back in England meant frequently changed addresses and very limited funds.
Between 1915 and 1918, Mansfield moved between England and Bandoi, France.
She and Murry developed close contact with other well-known writers of the time
such as DH Lawrence, Bertrand Russell and Aldous Huxley. By October 1918
Mansfield had become seriously ill; she had been diagnosed with tuberculosis and
was advised to enter a sanatorium. She could no longer spend time with writers in
London. In the autumn of 1918 she was so ill that she decided to go to Ospedale in
Italy. It was the publication of Bliss and Other Stories in 1920 that was to solidify
Mansfield's reputation as a writer.
Mansfied also spent time in Menton, France, as the tenant of her father's cousin at "
The Villa Isola Bella". There she wrote she pronounced to be "...the only story that
satisfies me to any extent".
Mansfield produced a great deal of work in the final years of her life, and much of
her prose and poetry remained unpublished at her death in 1923. After her death,
her husband, Murry, took on the task of editing and publishing her works. His
efforts resulted in two additional volumes of short stories. The Doves' Nest and
Something Childish, published in 1923 and 1924 respectively, the publication of
her Poems as well as a collection of critical writings (Novels and Novelist) and a
number of editions of Mansfield's previously unpublished letters and journals.
Questions 1-6
Do the following statements agree with the information given in Reading Passage
1?
In boxes 1 - 6 on your answer sheet, write
1 The name Katherine Mansfield, that appears on the writer's book,
was exactly the same as her origin name
2 Mansfield won a prize for a story she wrote for the High School
Reporter.
3 How Pearl Button Was Kidnapped portrayed Maori people in a
favorable way.
4 when Mansfield was at Queen's college, she planned to be a
professional writer.
5 Mansfield was unpopular with the other students at Queen's
college
6 In London, Mansfield showed little interest in politics.
Questions 7-13
Complete the notes below
Choose ONE WORD AND/OR A NUMBER from the passage for each answer
Write your answers in boxes 7-13 on your answer sheet
Katherine Mansfield's adult years
 7
- moved from England back to New Zealand
- first paid writing work was in a publication based in 8
- her 9 and the New Zealand way of life made her feel dissatisfied
 1908: returned to London
 1911-1919:
- Met John Middleton Murry in 1911
- 10 perverted.... Mansfield and Murry from staying together in
Paris
- spent time with distinguished 11
- from 1916, tuberculosis restricted the time she spent in London
 1920
her 12 was consolidated when Bliss and Other Stories was published
wrote several stories at "Villa Isola Bella
 1923-1924
Mansfield's 13 published more of her works after her death
Answer Table
1. FALSE 8. Australia
2. NOT GIVEN 9. family
3. TRUE 10. bankruptancy
4. FALSE 11. writers
5. FALSE 12. reputation
6. TRUE 13. husband
7. 1906
Answers Underground
Burying greenhouse gases to slow global warming
A. One way to slow global warming is to take the greenhouse gases that cause
it and bury them. That is the idea behind projects now under way to capture
emissions from power plants and factories and force them underground or
deep into the ocean. There, proponents argue, they could be trapped for
thousands of years.
B. This concept, known as carbon sequestration, is already being used by oil
companies to improve the efficiency of oil wells, and now engineers have
begun exploring ways to capture carbon dioxide emissions from power
plants to reduce their impact on the environment. At a recent conference,
delegates from fourteen industrialised and developing countries agreed to
engage in cooperative research into capturing and storing carbon dioxide.
C. The goal is to stabilise emissions of greenhouse gases that trap heat in the
atmosphere. Over the past century, airborne carbon dioxide concentrations
have risen by nearly a third, according to Scott Klara, sequestration manager
at the US National Energy Technology Laboratory. Unless emissions are
slashed by two thirds worldwide, the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate
Change predicts that concentrations will rise to double the levels of the early
1700s, before the Industrial Revolution. These increased levels of carbon-
based compounds in the atmosphere are believed to be the cause of rising
temperatures and sea levels around the world. Ignoring the problem is
therefore not an option.
D. Limiting emissions, however, is not an easy undertaking since increased
energy consumption is a key to economic growth. Two thirds of the world's
power-generating capacity, expected to come into use by 2030, has not been
constructed yet, according to the International Energy Agency. The
developing world will be particularly important. China and India alone are
expected to account for two thirds of the global increase in coal usage over
the next fifteen years.
E. Solutions are being sought. Work is being undertaken with alternatives to
fossil fuels such as wind and solar energy, but it will be a long time before
these alternative sources play a major role in fulfilling the world's energy
needs. Geophysicist Klaus Lackner points out that around 85% of the
world's energy is derived from fossil fuels, the cheapest and most plentiful
energy source available, and the developing world in particular is unlikely to
give them up. That is why many scientists support sequestration
F. However, several problems must be resolved before sequestration plays a
key role in a low-carbon future. One is the cost of capturing carbon dioxide.
A second is storing the gas safely once it's been captured. Today, it costs
about $US50 to extract and store a tonne of carbon dioxide from a power
plant, which raises the cost of producing electricity by 30-80%. Lackner
argues that it is too expensive to adapt existing plants to capture carbon
dioxide. Instead, he recommends that carbon- capturing capacity be built
into future plants. Economic incentives are needed to encourage companies
to identify low-cost carbon-sequestration solutions. A government-supported
program in the US has enabled some factories to partially capture carbon
emissions, which they then sell for various uses, including carbonating soft
drinks. However, there are no power plants ready for full carbon capture.
G. Once the carbon has been captured it must be stored. Natural carbon sinks,
such as forests and wetlands, can remove some carbon dioxide from the
atmosphere, but not nearly enough. Carbon dioxide could be pumped to the
bottom of the ocean, where the pressure would keep it pinned to the seabed
in liquid form for decades, but that has serious long-term environmental
risks. David Hawkins, from the Natural Resources Defense Council in
Washington, warns that the carbon dioxide could radically alter the chemical
balance in the ocean, with potentially harmful consequences for marine life.
Others worry that the carbon dioxide could escape back into the atmosphere.
H. A few promising attempts at underground carbon sequestration are currently
under way. In western Canada, an oil company is pumping liquefied carbon
dioxide into oil wells to force more oil to the surface and boost recovery by
10-15%. The company gets the carbon dioxide via a pipeline from North
Dakota in the US, where the gas is captured from a synthetic-fuel plant. In
another instance in the North Sea, a Norwegian energy firm is injecting
carbon dioxide waste from its natural-gas operations into a saline aquifer
1,000 metres beneath the ocean floor.
I. Clearly, storing large amounts of gas underground raises environmental
fears. Environmentalists argue that more research is needed on potential
storage sites, such as oil and gas reservoirs and coal seams unsuitable for
mining, to ensure that they offer long-term solutions. The World Wide Fund
for Nature Australia has argued that the primary risk of underground storage
is that dangerously large volumes of carbon dioxide might escape and people
become asphyxiated.
J. Little progress in slashing global greenhouse gases can be achieved without
involving developing countries, but for now carbon sequestration is not their
priority because of the increased costs this would add to energy production.
Hawkins argues that, to encourage developing nations to use sequestration,
developed nations will have to provide assistance. He suggests a multilateral
initiative in which developed nations, perhaps by purchasing carbon credits
from poorer countries, finance the difference between the cost of a regular
coal-fired power plant and one that captures carbon emissions. That is, the
rich - who will remain the world's biggest polluters for years to come -
would buy the right to emit carbon from the poor, who would use the
proceeds to build better plants.
Questions 1-6
Look at the following issues (Questions 1-6) and the list of people and
organisations below.
Match each issue with the correct person or organization, A-F.
Write the correct letter, A-F, in boxes 1-6 on your answer sheet.
NB You may use any letter more than once.
1 The cost implications of fitting plants with the necessary equipment.
2 The effects of sequestration could have on sea creatures.
3 The reasons why products such as oil and gas continue to be popular
energy sources.
4 The need for industrialised countries to give aid to less wealthy
countries.
5 The significant increase in carbon dioxide concentrations in the air
over the last 100 years.
6 The potential for sequestration to harm human life.
List of People and organisations
A Scott Klara
B Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change
C International Energy Agency
D Klaus Lackner
E David Hawkins
F World Wide Fund for Nature Australia
Questions 7- 9
Reading Passage has ten paragraphs, A-J.
Which paragraph contains the following information?
Write the correct letter, A-J, in boxes 7-9 on your answer sheet.
7 Examples of sequestration already in use in several parts of the world
8 An example of putting carbon dioxide emissions to use in the food and
beverage industry
9 Current examples of the environmental harm attributed to carbon
dioxide in the air
Questions 10-13
Do the following statements agree with the information given in Reading
Passage?
10 Both developing and developed nations have decided to

investigate carbon dioxide sequestration.
11 A growing economy will use more power.
12 Capturing carbon dioxide has become financially attractive.
13 More forests need to be planted to improve the atmosphere.
Answer Table
1. D 8. F
2. E 9. C
3. D 10. TRUE
4. E 11. TRUE
5. A 12. FALSE
6. F 13. NOT GIVEN
7. H
Developmental Tasks of Normal Adolescence

Some years ago, Professor Robert Havighurst of the University of Chicago, USA,
proposed that stages in human development can best be thought of in terms of the
developmental ‘tasks’ that are part of the normal transition. He identified ten
developmental tasks associated with the adolescent transition. Each of the
Havighurst tasks can also be seen as elements of the overall sense of self that
adolescents carry with them as they move towards and into young adulthood.
Adolescents do not progress through these multiple developmental tasks
separately; at any given time they may be dealing with several.
The adolescent must adjust to a new physical sense of self. At no other time since
birth does an individual undergo such profound physical changes as during early
adolescence. Puberty is marked by sudden rapid growth in height and weight. Also,
the young person experiences the emergence and accentuation of those physical
traits that make the person a boy or a girl. The young person looks less like a child
and more like a physically mature adult. The effect of this rapid change is that mid-
adolescents are body-conscious, and their concerns are directed towards their
opposite-sexed peers.
The adolescent must adjust to new intellectual abilities. In addition to a sudden
spurt in physical growth, adolescents experience a sudden increase in their ability
to think about their world. As a normal part of maturity, they are able to think more
things. However, they are also able to conceive of their world with awareness.
Before adolescence, children's thinking is dominated by a concrete example for
any problem that they solve; their thinking is constrained to what is real and
physical. During adolescence, young people begin to recognise and understand
abstractions. The growth in ability to deal with abstractions accelerates during the
middle stages of adolescence.
The adolescent must adjust to increased cognitive demands at school. Adults see
high school in part as a place where adolescents prepare for adult roles and
responsibilities and in part as preparatory for further education. School curricula
are frequently dominated by the inclusion of more abstract, demanding material,
regardless of whether the adolescents have achieved formal thought. Since not all
adolescents make the intellectual transition at the same rate, demands for abstract
thinking prior to the achievement of that ability may be frustrating.
The adolescent must adopt a personal value system. During adolescence, as teens
develop increasingly complex knowledge systems, they also adopt an integrated set
of values and morals. During the early stages of moral development, parents
provide their child with a structured set of rules of what is right and wrong, what is
acceptable and unacceptable. Eventually the adolescent must assess the parent's
values as they come into conflict with values expressed by peers and other
segments of society. To reconcile differences, the adolescent restructures those
beliefs into a personal ideology.
The adolescent must develop expanded verbal skills to accommodate more
complex concepts and tasks. Their limited language of childhood is no longer
adequate. As their conceptual development may outstrip their verbal development,
adolescents may appear less competent than they really are.
The adolescent must establish adult vocational goals. As part of the process of
establishing a personal identity, the adolescent must also begin the process of
focusing on the question, 'What do you plan to be when you grow up?1 Mid-
adolescents must identify, at least at a preliminary level, what their adult
vocational goals are and how they intend to achieve them.
The adolescent must develop a personal sense of identity. Prior to adolescence,
one's identity is an extension of one's parents' identity. During the early adolescent
years a young person begins to recognise their uniqueness and to establish
themselves as separate individuals, independent of their parents. As such, one must
reconsider the answer to the question, ‘what does it mean to be me?' or "who am
l?"
The adolescent must establish emotional and psychological independence from his
or her parents, childhood is marked by strong dependence on one's parents.
Adolescents may yearn to keep that safe, secure, supportive, dependent
relationship. Yet, to be an adult implies a sense of independence, of autonomy, of
being one's own person. In an attempt to assert their need for independence and
individuality, adolescents may respond with what appears to be hostility and lack
of cooperation.
The adolescent must develop stable and productive peer relationships. Although
peer interaction is not unique to adolescence, it seems to hit a peak of importance
during early adolescence. Certainly by late adolescence or early adulthood the need
for peer approval has diminished. This degree to which an adolescent is able to
make friends and have an accepting peer group, though, is a major indicator of
how well the adolescent will adjust in other areas of social and psychological
development. Early adolescence is also a period of intense conformity to peers.”
Fitting in' not being different, and being accepted seem somehow pressing to this
age group. The worst possibility, from the view of the young teen, is to be seen by
peers as different.
The adolescent must develop increased impulse control and behavioural maturity.
In their shift to adulthood, most young people engage in one or more behaviours
that place them at physical, social, or educational risk. Risky behaviours are
sufficiently pervasive among adolescents to suggest that risk-taking may be a
normal developmental process of middle adolescence. Gradually adolescents
develop a set of behavioural self-controls through which they assess which
behaviours are acceptable and adult-like.
Questions 1-6
Classify the following developments as characterising
A early adolescence
B middle adolescence
C late adolescence
Write the correct letter, A, B or C, in boxes 1-6 on your answer sheet
1 becoming interested in people of the other gender
2 beginning to choose a future career
3 needing to feel the same as one's friends
4 beginning to form a self-image separate from the family context
5 having less need for the good opinion of friends
6 exposing oneself to dangers
Questions 7-10
Complete each sentence with the correct ending, A-E, below.
Write the correct letter, A-E in boxes 7-10 on your answer sheet.
7 Havighurst proposed a set of tasks which
8 A course of study at high school
9 The speed of development of thinking ability during adolescence
10 Adolescence is a time when the young person
A reflects an adolescent's emerging self-perception.
B cannot solve a problem without an example.
C is designed to become more challenging.
D formulates a personal set of moral beliefs and values.
E varies according to the individual.
Questions 11-13
Do the following statements agree with the information given in Reading Passage?
11 Most pre-adolescent children are capable of abstract thought.
12 Adolescents ‘limited skills with words may give a false
impression of their ability.
13 Whether or not an adolescent is accepted by their age-group is an
important clue to other aspects of their social adjustment.
Answer Table
1. B 8. C
2. B 9. E
3. A 10. D
4. A 11. FALSE
5. C 12. TRUE
6. B 13. TRUE
7. A
What is the secret of a long life?

This year, the number of retired pensioners in the UK exceeded the number of
under 18 years old for the first time in history. That's remarkable in its own right,
but the real 'population explosion' has been among the oldest of the old — the
centenarians. In fact, this imbalance is the fastest growing demographic in much of
the developed world. In the UK, the number of centenarians has increased by 60
per cent since the early 20th century. And their ranks are set swell even further,
thanks to the ageing baby-boomer generation: by 2030 there will be about a million
worldwide.
These trends raise social, ethical and economic dilemmas. Are medical advances
artificially prolonging life, with hide regard for the quality of that life? If growing
numbers of elderly people become dependent on state or familial support, society
faces skyrocketing costs and commitments. Yet researchers who study the oldest
old have made a surprising discovery that presents a less pessimistic view of the
future than many anticipate.
It is becoming clear that people who break through the 90-plus barrier represent a
physical elite. Far from gaining a longer burden of disability, their extra years tend
to be healthy ones. And supercentenarians, people aged 110 or over, are even
better examples of ageing well. The average supercentenarian had freely gone
about their daily life up until the age of 105 or so, some five to ten years longer
even than centenarians.
One of the most comprehensive studies comes from Denmark. In 1998 Kare
Christensen, at the University of Southern Denmark, contacted every single one of
3600 people born in 1905 who was still alive. Assessing their health over the
subsequent decade, he found that the proportion of people who managed to remain
independent throughout was constantly around one-third of the total. Each
individual risked becoming more infirm, but the unhealthiest ones passed away at
earlier ages, leaving the strongest behind. In 2005, only 166 of the people in
Christensen's sample were still alive, but one-third of those were still entirely self-
sufficient.
Christensen's optimistic findings are echoed in studies all over the world. In the
MC, Carol Brayne at the University of Cambridge studied 958 people aged over
90, and found that only one-quarter of them were living in accommodation
specifically catering for the needs of older people. Research in China reveals that
centenarians and nonagenarians spend fewer days ill and in bed than younger
elderly groups. Of course, people can live independently without being entirely
healthy, and it is true that most centenarians suffer from some kind of ailment.
These range from osteoarthritis to simple loneliness.
Not all the oldest old survive by delaying illness or disability, though. Many
soldier through it. Jessica Even of Ohio State University examined the medical
histories of over 400 centenarians. She found that those who achieve extreme
longevity tend to fall into three categories. About 40 per cent were 'delayers', who
avoided chronic diseases until after the age of 80. Another 40 per cent were
'survivors', who suffered from chronic diseases before the age of 80 but lived
longer to tell the tale. The final 20 per cent were 'escapers', who reached their
century with no sign of the most common chronic diseases. Intriguingly, one-third
of male centenarians were in this category, compared with only 15 per cent of
women. In fact, the two sexes fare very differently when it comes to longevity.
There are far more female centenarians, but the reasons for this are unclear.
Certainly, women tend to lead healthier lifestyles and experience fewer serious
accidents. They also go to their doctor more. Men are more prone to risky
behaviour and chronic illness, so it must be genetics which allows some men to
reach extreme old age. Evidence of this comes from longevity hotspots.
The Japanese island of Okinawa is the front runner. At 58 centenarians per 100,000
people, it has the world's highest proportion in this age group, with Sardinia and
Iceland not too far behind. All three are relatively isolated island communities,
which leads to less genetic variation amongst inhabitants. In these places, the result
has been a predisposition towards a longer life. Of
course, members of such communities usually share a particular environment, too,
but this alone cannot explain longevity. Gerontologists have emphasised the
importance of regular exercise, so anyone aiming to reach a century should not
underestimate this. They have also found that the influence on lifespan of social
factors such as wealth fades as we age. By comparing 10,000 pairs of Scandinavian
twins, Christensen found that genes are key, but that they only start exerting a
strong influence on our lifespan after the age of 60. Before then, those who are
both identical and nonidentical have largely independent chances of reaching a
given age.
Longevity genes have also been found in abundance in other organisms, including
over 70 in particular worms. Unfortunately, it's a different story in humans. While
many genes have been suggested to affect lifespan, very few have been
consistently verified in multiple populations.
Note:
1 .’’Centenarian”: someone who is 100 years or older.
2. ” Baby - boomer“: someone born just after the Second World War, a time
which saw a rapid increase in birth rate.
3. “Nonagenarian”: someone who is between 90 and 99 years old.
4. “Gerontologist”: a medical professional who specialises in aging and the
problems of aged Persons.
Questions 1-7
Do the following statements agree with the information given in the Reading
Passage?
1 The greatest growth in the centenarian population across the world

is in the UK.
2 Fewer families today are looking after their elderly members.
3 People who live beyond 90 years old are likely to be in good health.
4 Centenarians tend to be in better physical health than
supercentenarians.
5 None of the oldest survivors in Christensen's study could take care
of themselves.
6 Research findings from Cambridge and China conflicted with
Christensen's findings in Denmark.
7 Centenarians may suffer from stronger feelings of isolation than
people a generation younger.
Questions 8-13
Answer the questions below.
Choose ONE WORD ONLY from the passage for each answer
8. What name has Jessica Evert given to the category of centenarians who become
100 without suffering serious disease? 8
9. What factor is most likely to contribute to longevity in men? 9
10. Which place has the largest proportion of centenarians in the
world? 10
11. According to gerontologists, what should people avoid neglecting if they wish
to reach old age? 11
12. What social influence on longevity decreases as people get older? 12
13. In which species, apart from humans, have longevity genes been reliably
identified? 13
Answer Table
1. NOT GIVEN 8. escapers
2. NOT GIVEN 9. genetics
3. TRUE 10. Okinawa
4. FALSE 11. exercise
5. FALSE 12. wealth
6. FALSE 13. Worms
7. NOT GIVEN
Toxic Stress: A Slow Wear And Tear

A. Our bodies are built to respond when under attack. When we sense danger,
our brain goes on alert, our heart rate goes up, and our organs flood with
stress hormones like cortisol and adrenaline. We breathe faster, taking in
more oxygen, muscles tense, our senses are sharpened and beads of sweat
appear. This combination of reactions to stress is also known as the "fight-
or-flight" response because it evolved as a survival mechanism, enabling
people and other mammals to react quickly to life-threatening situations. The
carefully orchestrated yet near-instantaneous sequence of hormonal changes
and physiological responses helps someone to fight the threat off or flee to
safety. Unfortunately, the body can also overreact to stressors that are not
life-threatening, such as traffic jams, work pressure, and family difficulties.
B. That's all fine when we need to jump out of the way of a speeding bus, or
when someone is following us down a dark alley. In those cases, our stress is
considered "positive", because it is temporary and helps us survive. But our
bodies sometimes react in the same way to more mundane stressors, too.
When a child faces constant and unrelenting stress, from neglect, or abuse,
or living in chaos, the response stays activated, and may eventually derail
normal development. This is what is known as "toxic stress". The effects are
not the same in every child, and can be buffered by the support of a parent or
caregiver, in which case the stress is considered "tolerable". But toxic stress
can have profound consequences, sometimes even spanning generations.
Figuring out how to address stressors before they change the brain and our
immune and cardiovascular systems is one of the biggest questions in the
field of childhood development today.
C. In 1998, two researchers, Vincent Felitti and Robert Anda, pioneered in
publishing a study demonstrating that people who had experienced abuse or
household dysfunction as children were more likely to have serious health
problems, like cancer or liver diseases, and unhealthy lifestyle habits, like
drinking heavily or using drugs as adults. This became known as the "ACE
Study," short for "adverse childhood experiences." Scientists have since
linked more than a dozen forms of ACEs - including homelessness,
discrimination, and physical, mental, and sexual abuse - with a higher risk of
poor health in adulthood.
D. Every child reacts to stress differently, and some are naturally more resilient
than others. Nevertheless, the pathways that link adversity in childhood with
health problems in adulthood lead back to toxic stress. As Jenny Anderson,
senior reporter at Quartz, explains, "when a child lives with abuse, neglect,
or is witness to violence, he or she is primed for that fight or flight all the
time. The burden of that stress, which is known as 'allostatic load or
overload,' referring to the wear and tear that results from either too much
stress or from inefficient management of internal balance, eg, not turning off
the response when it is no longer needed, can damage small, developing
brains and bodies. A brain that thinks it is in constant danger has trouble
organising itself, which can manifest itself later as problems of paying
attention, or sitting still, or following instructions - all of which are needed
for learning".
E. Toxic is a loaded word. Critics say the term is inherently judgmental and
may appear to blame parents for external social circumstances over which
they have little control. Others say it is often misused to describe the source
of stress itself rather than the biological process by which it could negatively
affect some children. The term, writes John Devaney, centenary chair of
social work at the University of Edinburgh, "can stigmatise individuals and
imply traumatic happenings in the past".
Some paediatricians do not like the term because of how difficult it is to
actually fix the stressors their patients face, from poverty to racism. They
feel it is too fatalistic to tell families that their child is experiencing toxic
stress, and there is little they can do about it. But Nadine Burke Harris,
surgeon general of California, argues that naming the problem means we can
dedicate resources to it so that paediatricians feel like they have tools to treat
"toxic stress".
F. The most effective prevention for toxic stress is to reduce the source of the
stress. This can be tricky, especially if the source of the stress is the child's
own family. But parent coaching, and connecting families with resources to
help address the cause of their stress (sufficient food, housing insecurity, or
even the parent's own trauma), can help. Another one is to ensure love and
support from a parent or caregiver. Young children's stress responses are
more stable, even in difficult situations, when they are with an adult they
trust.
As Megan Gunnar, a child psychologist and head of the Institute of Child at
the University of Minnesota, said: "When the parent is present and
relationship is secure, basically the parent eats the stress: the kid cries, the
parent comes, and it doesn't need to kick in the big biological guns because
the parent is the protective system". That is why Havard's Center on the
Developing Child recommends offering care to caregivers, like mental
health or addiction support, because when they are healthy and well, they
can better care for their children.
Question 1-6
The reading passage has six paragraphs, A-F.
Choose the correct heading for each paragraph from the list of headings below.
Write the correct number (i – vii) in boxes.
List of Headings
i The controversy around the word “toxic”
ii Effects of different types of stress
iii How to protect children from toxic stress
iv An association of adverse experience with health problems and unhealthy habits
v Body’s reactions in response to the perceived harmful event
vi Signs of being under sustained stress
vii Negative impacts of toxic stress on children’s mental health
1 Paragraph A
2 Paragraph B
3 Paragraph C
4 Paragraph D
5 Paragraph E
6 Paragraph F
Question 7-9
Choose
TRUE if the statement agrees with the information given in the text,
FALSE if the statement contradicts the information,
NOT GIVEN if there is no information on this.
7 Felitti and Anda were the first to show that ACEs create impacts
regarding health and habits later on in life.
8 Some children have the same level of vulnerability to stressful
events.
9 Several paediatricians consider poverty and racism the primary
contributors to toxic stress.
Question 10-13
Look at the following people and the list of statements below.
Match each person with the correct statement, A-E.
Write the correct letter A-E in boxes.
List of statements
A Traumatic experiences in childhood might lead to poor self-management.
B Supportive and responsive relationships with caring parents can prevent or
reverse the damaging effects of toxic stress responses.
C Properly naming a type of stress can facilitate its treatment process.
D The real name of a particular form of stress could denounce a number of people.
E Toxic stress can cause the next generations to suffer from negative consequences
on both mental and physical health problems.
10 Megan Gunnar
11 Jenny Anderson
12 John Devaney
13 Nadine Burke Harris
Answer Table
1. v 8. FALSE
2. ii 9. NOT GIVEN
3. iv 10. B
4. viii 11. A
5. i 12. D
6. iii 13. C
7. TRUE
Why Do We Touch Strangers So Much? A History Of The Handshake Offers

Clues
For thousands of years, the handshake has been used for different purposes.
A. There is a lot that can be conveyed in a handshake, a kiss, or a hug.
Throughout history, such a greeting was used to signal friendship, finalize a
business transaction, or indicate religious devotion. Touching strangers,
however, can also transmit other, less beneficial shared outcomes—like
disease outbreaks.
As fears about COVID-19, or coronavirus, mount, France has warned its
citizens to pause their famous cheek kisses, and across the world, business
deals are being sealed with an elbow bump. But with histories tracing back
thousands of years, both greetings are likely too entrenched to be so easily
halted.
B. A popular theory on the handshake’s origin is that it began as a gesture of
peace. Grasping hands proved one was not holding a weapon—and shaking
them was a way to ensure a partner had nothing hiding up their sleeve. So
far, there has not been any reliable evidence to prove this assumption.
Throughout the ancient world, the handshake appears on vases, gravestones,
and stone slabs in scenes of weddings, gods making deals, young warriors
departing for war, and the newly dead’s arrival to the afterlife. In the literary
canon, it stretches to the Iliad and the Odyssey.
The handshake’s catch-all utility, used in friendship, romance, and business
alike, makes interpretation difficult. “The handshake continues to be a
popular image today because we too see it as a complex and ambiguous
motif,” writes art historian Glenys Davies in an analysis of its use in
classical art.
C. In America, it is likely that the handshake’s popularity was propelled by
18th century Quakers. In their efforts to eschew the hierarchy and social
rank, they found the handshake a more democratic form of greeting to the
then-common bow, curtsy, or hat doffing. “In their place, Quakers put the
practice of the handshake, extended to everyone regardless of station, as we
still do,” writes historian Michael Zuckerman.
There may be a scientific explanation for its lasting power. In a 2015 study,
researchers in Israel filmed handshakes between hundreds of strangers and
found nearly a quarter of participants sniffed their hands afterwards. They
theorized that a handshake might be unconsciously used to detect chemical
signals, and possibly as a means of communication—just as other animals
do by smelling each other.
D. The kiss-as-greeting has a similarly rich history. It was incorporated into
early Christianity and used in religious ceremonies. “In his Epistle to the
Romans, St. Paul instructed followers to ‘salute one another with a holy
kiss,’” writes Andy Scott in the book One Kiss or Two: In Search of the
Perfect Greeting. In the Middle Ages, a kiss was used as a sign of fidelity
and to seal agreements like property transfers.
E. Today, a swift kiss on the cheek known in French as “la bise,” is a standard
greeting in much of the world. The word may have originated with the
Romans, who had a different term for each type of kiss and called the polite
version “basium.” In Paris, two kisses are common. In Provence expect
three, and four is the norm in the Loire Valley. The cheek kiss is also
common in countries like Egypt, where three kisses is customary, Latin
America, and the Philippines. It is thought that during the plague in the 14th
century, la bise may have stopped and was not revived again until 400 years
later, after the French Revolution. In 2009, la bise was temporarily paused as
swine flu became a concern. At the end of February, the French Health
Minister advised against it as the coronavirus cases increased. “The
reduction in social contacts of a physical nature is advised,” he said. “That
includes the practice of the bise.”
F. In her book Don’t Look, Don’t Touch, behavioural scientist Val Curtis of
the London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine, says that one
possible reason for the kiss and handshake as a greeting is to signify that the
other person is trusted enough to share germs with. Because of this, the
practice can go in and out of style depending on public health concerns.
In a 1929 study, a nurse named Leila Given wrote an article in the American
Journal of Nursing lamenting the loss of the last generation’s “finger-tipping
and the high handshake” customs in favour of a handshake. She warned that
hands “are agents of bacterial transfer” and cited early studies showing that a
handshake could easily spread germs. In conclusion, she recommended that
Americans adopt the Chinese custom at the time of shaking one’s own hands
together when greeting a friend. “At least our bacteria would then stay at
home,” she wrote.
Question 1-7
Choose
TRUE if the statement agrees with the information given in the text, choose
FALSE if the statement contradicts the information, or choose
NOT GIVEN if there is no information on this.
1 Shaking hands is an indicator of hospitality.
2 Evidence showed that the handshake started as a sign of peace.
3 When shaking hands, people often rolled up their sleeves.
4 The use of a handshake in different situations can be unpredictable.
5 In America, handshakes became prevalent because they represented

equality and freedom.
6 A research conducted in 2015 showed that exactly 25% of

participants smelled their hands after a handshake.
7 People often smell their hands to spot poisonous chemicals.
Question 8-12
Choose no more than THREE WORDS AND/OR A NUMBER from the passage
for each answer.
Write your answer in boxes.
The history of cheek kissing

In the past, Christian used cheek kisses in 8 . In the Middle Age, the kiss-
as-greeting was used to show 9 or used in making agreements. At
present, it is a norm for people almost all over the world to greet each other. In
Rome, people named different types of kisses in different ways. It is common for
people in Paris to exchange 10 . The standard is three in Provence and
four in the Lore Valley. A kiss on the cheek is also popular among people of
Egypt, Latin America and the Philippines. People believe that in the 14th century,
the cheek kiss might have been paused and it remained so for 11 . In
2009, due to 12 , cheek kisses were also stopped for a while.
Question 13-14
Answer the question below.

Choose NO MORE THAN TWO WORDS from the passage for each answer.
Write your answers in boxes.
13. What did French Health Minister advise people to avoid to prevent the spread
of coronavirus? 13
14. What can be transferred from a handshake? 14
Answer Table
1. TRUE 8. religious ceremonies
2. FALSE 9. fidelity
3. NOT GIVEN 10. two kisses
4. TRUE 11. 400 years or four hundred years or 4
hundred years
5. TRUE 12. swine flu
6. FALSE 13. social contacts
7. NOT GIVEN 14. germs or bacteria
Chinstrap Penguin Population In The Last 50 Years

A. The chinstrap penguin has a cap of black plumage, a white face, and a
continuous band of black feathers extending from one side of the head to the
other, the “chinstrap.” The northern part of the Antarctic Peninsula, several
Antarctic and subantarctic islands, and the uninhabited Balleny Islands
between Antarctica and New Zealand are the habitats of the species.
B. Antarctic penguin colonies in some parts of the Antarctic have declined over
the last 50 years, mostly because of climate change, researchers say. The
colonies of chinstrap penguins, also known as ringed or bearded penguins,
have dramatically dropped since they were last surveyed almost 50 years
ago, scientists discovered. The findings became surprising because, until
now, the chinstraps have been deemed of “least concern” by the
International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN). “We really didn’t
know what to expect, and then we found this huge decline on Elephant
Island,” Noah Strycker, an ornithologist and penguin researcher at Stony
Brook University, told CNN from Greenpeace’s Esperanza ship in the
Antarctic. “It’s a little bit worrying as it means that something is shifting in
the ecosystem and the fall in penguin numbers is reflecting that shift.”
C. Every colony of Elephant Island, which is a crucial penguin habitat northeast
of the Antarctic Peninsula, when surveyed, experienced a population fall, as
per the independent researchers who joined a Greenpeace expedition to the
region. Elephant Island was last surveyed in 1971, and there were 122,550
pairs of penguins across all colonies. However, the recent count revealed just
52,786 pairs with a drop of almost 60%. On Elephant Island, the size of the
population change varied from colony to colony, and the most significant
decline was recorded at a colony known as Chinstrap Camp, which is 77%.
D. Just the days after temperatures hit an all-time high in the Antarctic with
18.3 Celsius (64.94 Fahrenheit) recorded on February 6, the latest study is
published. The previous high 17.5 C (63.5 F) was recorded in March 2015.
Scientists recorded the temperature at Argentina’s Esperanza research
station, according to the meteorological agency of the country.
E. The reduced sea ice and warmer oceans due to climate change have led to
less krill, the main component of the penguins’ diet. “Climate change is
probably the underlying factor, and the effects are rippling through the food
chain,” Strycker said. “Penguins, seals, and whales all depend on krill,
which depends on ice. So if climate change affects the ice, that impacts on
everything else.” Heather J. Lynch, associate professor of ecology and
evolution at New York’s Stony Brook University and one of the
expedition’s research leads, said: “Such significant declines in penguin
numbers suggest that the Southern Ocean’s ecosystem has fundamentally
changed in the last 50 years and that the impacts of this are rippling up the
food web to species like chinstrap penguins.” She added that “while several
factors may have a role to play, all the evidence we have pointed to climate
change as being responsible for the changes we are seeing.”
F. However, some good news was also there, as the researchers reported an
increase in gentoo penguins population in neighbouring colonies, beyond
Elephant Island. “It’s interesting, as a tale of two penguins on the Antarctic
Peninsula,” said Strycker. “Gentoo is a species from further north and they
appear to be colonizing the area and are actually increasing in numbers.”
G. The Greenpeace ship Esperanza has been documenting the threat to the
oceans worldwide and taking the scientists for travelling abroad. For the first
time, the Low Island in the South Shetland Islands, north of the Antarctic
Peninsula, has been surveyed properly. The manual and drone techniques are
used by the researchers, from Stony Brook and Northeastern University in
Boston, to survey a series of significant but relatively unknown colonies of
chinstrap penguin here. The results are, however, not yet available.
Greenpeace has been campaigning for the three Antarctic sanctuaries that it
would establish to offer protection to many of the colonies surveyed. These
would be off-limits to humans.
H. Louisa Casson, Greenpeace Oceans Campaigner, said in a statement:
“Penguins are an iconic species, but this new research shows how the
climate emergency is decimating their numbers and having far-reaching
impacts on wildlife in the most remote corners of Earth. This is a critical
year for our oceans. “Governments must respond to the science and agree on
a strong Global Ocean Treaty at the United Nations this spring that can
create a network of ocean sanctuaries to protect marine life and help these
creatures adapt to our rapidly changing climate.”
Question 1 - 7
The Reading Passage has 8 paragraphs labelled A-H.
Write the correct letter A-H in boxes.
1 the highest temperatures ever.

2 the difference between current and past records on penguin population.
3 places where people cannot go to.
4 places where chinstrap penguins live.
5 measures to protect ocean species.
6 factors contributing to the decline in the amount of food available.
7 description of a specific species.
Question 8-10
Choose TRUE if the statement agrees with the information given in the text,
choose FALSE if the statement contradicts the information,
or choose NOT GIVEN if there is no information on this.
8 The IUCN showed little concern about the fall in penguin numbers.
9 Climate change is a reason for the changes in the food chain of
chinstrap penguins.
10 Gentoo penguins are not affected by climate change.
Question 11 - 13
Complete the note below.
Choose ONLY ONE WORD from the passage for each answer.
The Greenpeace ship has been used to:
 record the 11 to marine life over the world.
 carry the 12 overseas.
Build 13
 to protect many surveyed colonies.
Answer Table
1. D 8. NOT GIVEN
2. C 9. TRUE
3. G 10. NOT GIVEN
4. A 11. threat
5. H 12. scientists
6. E 13. sanctuaries
7. A
Learning to Walk
These days the feet of a typical city dweller rarely encounter terrain any more
uneven than a crack in the pavement. While that may not seem like a problem, it
turns out that by flattening our urban environment we have put ourselves at risk of
a surprising number of chronic illnesses and disabilities. Fortunately, the
commercial market has come to the rescue with a choice of products. Research into
the idea that flat floors could be detrimental to our health was pioneered back in
the late 1960s in Long Beach, California. Podiatrist Charles Brantingham and
physiologist Bruce Beekman were concerned with the growing epidemic of high
blood pressure, varicose veins and deep-vein thromboses and reckoned they might
be linked to the uniformity of the surfaces that we tend to stand and walk on.
The trouble, they believed, was that walking continuously on flat floors, sidewalks
and streets concentrates forces on just a few areas of the foot. As a result, these
surfaces are likely to be far more conducive to chronic stress syndromes than
natural surfaces, where the foot meets the ground in a wide variety of orientations.
They understood that the anatomy of the foot parallels that of the human hand -
each having 26 bones, 33 joints and more than 100 muscles, tendons and ligaments
- and that modern lifestyles waste all this potential flexibility.
Brantingham and Beekman became convinced that the damage could be rectified
by making people wobble. To test their ideas, they got 65 factory workers to try
standing on a variable terrain floor - spongy mats with varying degrees of
resistance across the surface. This modest irregularity allowed the soles of the
volunteers' feet to deviate slightly from the horizontal each time they shifted
position. As the researchers hoped, this simple intervention made a huge
difference, within a few weeks. Even if people were wobbling slightly, it activated
a host of muscles in their legs, which in turn helped pump blood back to their
hearts. The muscle action prevented the pooling of blood in their feet and legs,
reducing the stress on the heart and circulation. Yet decades later, the flooring of
the world's largest workplaces remains relentlessly smooth. Earlier this year,
however, the idea was revived when other researchers in the US announced
findings from a similar experiment with people over 60. John Fisher and
colleagues at the Oregon Research Institute in Eugene designed a mat intended to
replicate the effect of walking on cobblestones*.
In tests funded by the National Institute of Aging, they got some 50 adults to walk
on the toots in their bare feet for less than an hour, three times a week. After 16
weeks, these people showed marked improvements in mobility, and even a
significant reduction in blood pressure. People in a control group who walked on
ordinary floors also improved but not as dramatically. The mats are now available
for purchase and production is being scaled up. Even so, demand could exceed
supply if this footstimulating activity really is a 'useful nonpharmacological
approach for preventing or controlling hypertension of older adults, as the
researchers believe. They are not alone in recognising the benefits of cobblestones.
Reflexologists have long advocated walking on textured surfaces to stimulate so-
called 'acupoints' on the soles of the feet. They believe that pressure applied to
particular spots on the foot connects directly to particular organs of the body and
somehow enhances their function. In China, spas, apartment blocks and even
factories promote their cobblestone paths as healthful amenities. Fisher admits he
got the concept from regular visits to the country. Here, city dwellers take daily
walks along cobbled paths for five or ten minutes, perhaps several times a day, to
improve their health. The idea is now taking off in Europe too.
People in Germany, Austria and Switzerland can now visit 'barefoot parks' and
walk along 'paths of the senses - with mud, logs, stone and moss underfoot. And it
is not difficult to construct your own path with simple everyday objects such as
stones or bamboo poles. But if none of these solutions appeal, there is another
option. A new shoe on the market claims to transform flat, hard, artificial surfaces
into something like uneven ground. 'These shoes have an unbelievable effect,' says
Benno Nigg, an exercise scientist at Calgary University in Canada.
Known as the Masai Barefoot Technology, the shoes have rounded soles that cause
you to rock slightly when you stand still, exercising the small muscles around the
ankle that are responsible for stability. Forces in the joint are reduced, putting less
strain on the system, Nigg claims.
Some of these options may not appeal to all consumers and there is a far simpler
alternative.
If the urban environment is detrimental to our health, then it is obvious where we
should turn. A weekend or even a few hours spent in the countryside could help
alleviate a sufferer's aches and pains, and would require only the spending of time.
However, for many modern citizens, the countryside is not as accessible as it once
was and is in fact a dwindling resource. Our concrete cities are growing at a
terrifying rate - perhaps at the same rate as our health problems.
Questions 1-5
1 Brantingham and Beekman were the first researchers to investigate
the relationship between health problems and flat floors.
2 The subjects in Fisher's control group experienced a decline in their
physical condition.
3 The manufacturers are increasing the number of cobblestone mats
they are making.
4 Fisher based his ideas on what he saw during an overseas trip.
5 The Masai Barefoot Technology shoes are made to fit people of all
ages.
Questions 6-8
Choose the correct letter, A, B, C or D.
Write the correct letter in boxes 6-8 on your answer sheet.
6. The writer suggests that Brantingham and Beekman's findings were
A ignored by big companies.
B doubted by other researchers.
C applicable to a narrow range of people.
D surprising to them.
7. What claim is made by the designers of the cobblestone mats"?

A They need to be used continuously in order to have a lasting effect.
B They would be as beneficial to younger people as to older people.
C They could be an effective alternative to medical intervention.
D Their effects may vary depending on individual users.
8. Which of the following points does the writer make in the final paragraph?
A People should question new theories that scientists put forward.
B High prices do not necessarily equate to a quality product.
C People are setting up home in the country for health reasons.
D The natural environment is fast disappearing.
Questions 9-14
In their research, Brantingham and Beekman looked at the complex

physical 9 of the foot and noted that the surfaces of modem
environments restrict its movement. They invented a mat which they tried out on
factory workers. Whenever the workers walked on it, the different levels
of 10 in the mat would encourage greater muscle action. In turn, this
lessened the effect of 11 on the cardiovascular system.
Similar research was undertaken by John Fisher and colleagues in Oregon. As a
result of their findings, they decided to market cobblestone mats to the elderly as a
means of dealing with 12 . Reflexologists claim that by manipulating
specific parts of the feet, the performance of certain 13 will also
improve. Finally, Benno Nigg at Calgary University believes that specially
shaped 14 on shoes should give health benefits.
Answer Table
1. TRUE 8. D
2. FALSE 9. anatomy
3. TRUE 10. resistance
4. TRUE 11. stress
5. NOT GIVEN 12. hypertension
6. A 13. organs
7. C 14. soles
Traditional Maori medicines

The Maori are the indigenous people of the islands of New Zealand. Their
traditional medicine, which is believed to date back as far as the 13th century, was
a system of healing that was passed down through the generations orally. It
comprised diverse practices and placed an emphasis on the spiritual dimension of
health. Its practice included remedies made from herbs, and physical therapies such
as massage to relieve discomfort in the muscles and bones.
Maori systems for treating illness were well developed before European arrived in
New Zealand in the late 1700s: they had quite detailed knowledge of anatomy and
recognition of the healing properties of various plants. When Europeans first
visited New Zealand, the average age of death for Maori adults was around 30.
However, apart from this, the people were fit and healthy, and troubled by few
diseases.
Illness was often seen as spiritually based. Maori saw themselves as guardians of
the earth, and the focus of their existence was to remain at one with the natural and
supernatural world. Rather than a medical problem, sickness was often viewed as a
symptom of disharmony with natures.
In Maori culture, illnesses were divided into diseases of the gods (mate atua) and
physical diseases (mate tangata). Diseases sent by the gods were often attributed to
attacks by evil spirits, because the person had broken a religious rule. For instance,
for Maori, Places where people had died, or places where their ancestors were
buried were sacred, so if someone took food from a river where someone had died,
or took a stick form a tree that had held their ancestor's bones and placed it on a
cooking fire, it was believed that the gods could punish them for their disrespectful
acts by making them SICK.
More than 200 plants were used medicinally by Maori. The leaves of the flax plant
were used to treat skin infections and food poisoning, and the hard part of the leaf
was also used as a splint or brace for broken bones and injured backs. Flax fibers
were used along with a sharpened stick to sew up bad cuts. The bark and leaves of
the pepper tree were used to heal cuts, wounds and stomach pain. People who had
toothache were instructed to chew the leaves of this same tree, and this was found
to be of considerable benefit. The pepper tree was also used in vapor baths to treat
people with painful joints.
Colonization by European in the 1800s had a significant effect on traditional Maori
healing. Europeans brought many new diseases with them which Maori healers had
limited ability to combat. Though Western medicine was also relatively ineffectual
at the time, this failure still strongly affected Maori confidence in their healers.
Some western missionaries attributed the spread of disease to the fact the Maori
did not believe in Christianity, and as Maori healers appeared powerless, many
Maori accepted this explanation and turned to Christianity. Over time the schools
of higher learning which ahd trained healers started to close and the tradition of the
Maori healer declined.
From the late 20th century, there was renewed Maori interest in their traditional
medicine. This was due to several factors. There was a resurgence of all aspects of
Maori culture in New Zealand. Furthermore, people started to be less trusting of
Western medicine-statistics from the 1970s came out revealing that Maori health
continued to be poorer than that of other New Zealanders. There were also
problems with access to health care for Maori. Additionally, there was and still a
today a perceived lack of a spiritual dimension in Western health services.
Although Maori today largely accepted Western concepts of health and illness, and
use the mainstream health system, there is significant demand for traditional
medicine. This is true for unusual illnesses, or those that fail to respond to standard
medical treatment, but also for common ailments such as the cold and influenza.
Today's healers differ significantly from those of old times. Training is highly
variable, usually informal, and often less tribally bound than the rigorous education
of the traditional houses of higher learning. Many modern healers work in urban
clinics, some alongside mainstream health professionals. They experiment,
incorporating knowledge from Western and other medical systems. As a result,
their modern day work has no standard system of diagnosis or widespread
agreement about treatments. Despite this, many healers are recognized as having
knowledge and ability that has been passed down from their ancestors. The Maori
language is also seen as important by many of those receiving treatment.
Questions 1-6
1 Early Maori healers learned their skills through studying written
texts.
2 The first Europeans in New Zealand were surprised by how long
the Maori lived.
3 Diseases of the gods were believed to be more serious than physical
diseases.
4 The leaves of the pepper tree were used to treat toothache.
5 Western religion was one reason why traditional Maori medicine
became less popular.
6 Modern day Maori healers often reach the same conclusion about
the type of treatment which is best.
Questions 7-13
Complete the notes below.
A short history of Maori healing
Pre-European arrival
 Maori were using plant based remedies, as well as treatment including
massage
 Diseases sent from the gods were thought to be caused by disobeying a
spiritual 7
 Sickness could be attributed to eating food from a sacred 8 or
burning sacred wood
After European arrival

1800s
 The inability of Maori healers to cure new diseases meant the Maori
people lost 9 in them.
 Eventually the 10 for Maori healing began shutting down
1970s
 Published 11 showed that Maori were not as healthy as
Europeans
2000s
 Maori healers can be seen working with Western doctors in 12
in cities
 Many patients appreciate the fact that the Maoris 13 in used
by healers
Answer Table
1. FALSE 8. river
2. NOT GIVEN 9. confidence
3. NOT GIVEN 10. schools
4. TRUE 11. statistics
5. TRUE 12. clinics
6. FALSE 13. language
7. rule
E-training
A
E-learning is the unifying term to describe the fields of online learning, web-based
training, and technology-delivered instruction, which can be a great benefit to
corporate e-learning. IBM, for instance, claims that the institution of its e-training
program, Basic Blue, whose purpose is to train new managers, saved the company
in the range of $200 million in 1999. Cutting the travel expenses required to bring
employees and instructors to a central classroom account for the lion’s share of the
savings. With an online course, employees can learn from any Internet-connected
PC, anywhere in the world. Ernst and Young reduced training costs by 35 percent
while improving consistency and scalability.
B
In addition to generally positive economic benefits, other advantages such as
convenience, standardized delivery, self-paced learning, and a variety of available
content, have made e-learning a high priority for many corporations. E-learning is
widely believed to offer flexible “any time, any place” learning. The claim for “any
place” is valid in principle and is a great development. Many people can engage
with rich learning materials that simply were not possible in a paper of broadcast
distance learning era. For teaching specific information and skills, e-training holds
great promise. It can be especially effective at helping employees prepare for IT
certification programs. E-learning also seems to effectively address topics such as
sexual harassment education’, safety training and management training – all areas
where a clear set of objectives can be identified. Ultimately, training experts
recommend a “blended” approach that combines both online and in-person training
as the instruction requires. E-learning is not an end-all solution. But if it helps
decrease costs and windowless classrooms filled with snoring students, it definitely
has its advantages.
C
Much of the discussion about implementing e-learning has focused on the
technology, but as Driscoll and others have reminded us, e-learning is not just
about the technology, but also many human factors. As any capable manager
knows, teaching employees new skills is critical to a smoothly run business.
Having said that, however, the traditional route of classroom instruction runs the
risk of being expensive, slow and, oftentimes, ineffective. Perhaps the classroom’s
greatest disadvantage is the fact that it takes employees out of their jobs. Every
minute an employee is sitting in a classroom training session is a minute they’re
not out on the floor working. It now looks as if there is a way to circumvent these
traditional training drawbacks. E-training promises more effective teaching
techniques by integrating audio, video, animation, text and interactive materials
with the intent of teaching each student at his or her own pace. In addition to
higher performance results, there are other immediate benefits to students such as
increased time on task, higher levels of motivation, and reduced test anxiety for
many learners.
D
On the other hand, nobody said E-training technology would be cheap. E-training
service providers, on the average, charge from $10,000 to $60,000 to develop one
hour of online instruction. This price varies depending on the complexity of the
training topic and the media used. HTML pages are a little cheaper to develop
while streaming-video presentations or flash animations cost more. Course content
is just the starting place for the cost. A complete e-learning solution also includes
the technology platform (the computers, applications and network connections that
are used to deliver the courses). This technology platform, known as a learning
management system (LMS), can either be installed onsite or outsourced. Add to
that cost the necessary investments in network bandwidth to deliver multimedia
courses, and you’re left holding one heck of a bill. For the LMS infrastructure and
a dozen or so online courses, costs can top $500,000 in the first year. These kinds
of costs mean that custom e-training is, for the time being, an option only for large
organizations. For those companies that have a large enough staff, the e-training
concept pays for itself. Aware of this fact, large companies are investing heavily in
online training. Today, over half of the 400-plus courses that Rockwell Collins
offers are delivered instantly to its clients in an e-learning format, a change that has
reduced its annual training costs by 40%. Many other success stories exist.
E
E-learning isn’t expected to replace the classroom entirely. For one thing,
bandwidth limitations are still an issue in presenting multimedia over the Internet.
Furthermore, e-training isn’t suited to every mode of instruction or topic. For
instance, it’s rather ineffective imparting cultural values or building teams. If your
company has a unique corporate culture is would be difficult to convey that to
first-time employees through a computer monitor. Group training sessions are
more ideal for these purposes. In addition, there is a perceived loss of research time
because of the work involved in developing and teaching online classes. Professor
Wallin estimated that it required between 500 and 1,000 person-hours, that is,
Wallin-hours, to keep the course at the appropriate level of currency and
usefulness. (Distance learning instructors often need technical skills, no matter
how advanced the courseware system.) That amounts to between a quarter and half
of a person-year. Finally, teaching materials require computer literacy and access
to equipment. Any e-Learning system involves basic equipment and a minimum
level of computer knowledge in order to perform the tasks required by the system.
A student that does not possess these skills, or have access to these tools, cannot
succeed in an e-Learning program.
F
While few people debate the obvious advantages of e-learning, systematic research
is needed to confirm that learners are actually acquiring and using the skills that
are being taught online, and that e-learning is the best way to achieve the outcomes
in a corporate environment. Nowadays, a go-between style of Blended
learning, which refers to a mixing of different learning environments, is gaining
popularity. It combines traditional face-to-face classroom methods with more
modern computer-mediated activities. According to its proponents, the strategy
creates a more integrated approach for both instructors and learners. Formerly,
technology-based materials played a supporting role in face-to-face instruction.
Through a blended learning approach, technology will be more important.
Questions 1-6
The reading passage has six paragraphs, A-F
Choose the correct heading for paragraphs A-F from the list below.
Write the correct number, i-xi, in boxes 1-6 on your answer sheet.
List of Headings
i overview of the benefits for application of E-training
ii IBM’s successful choice of training
iii Future directions and a new style of teaching
iv learners’ achievement and advanced teaching materials
v limitations when E-training compares with traditional class
vi multimedia over the Internet can be a solution
vii technology can be a huge financial burden
viii the distance learners outperformed the traditional university learners
worldwide
ix other advantages besides economic consideration
x Training offered to help people learn using computers
1 Paragraph A
2 Paragraph B
3 Paragraph C
4 Paragraph D
5 Paragraph E
6 Paragraph F
Questions 7-10
The reading Passage has six paragraphs A-F
Write the correct letter A-F, in boxes 7-10 on your answer sheet.
7 Projected Basic Blue in IBM achieved great success.

8 E-learning wins as a priority for many corporations as its
flexibility.
9 The combination of traditional and e-training environments
may prevail.
10 Example of fast electronic delivery for a company’s
products to its customers.
Questions 11-13
Choose THREE correct letters, among A-E

A Technical facilities are hardly obtained.
B Presenting multimedia over the Internet is restricted due to the bandwidth
limit.
C It is ineffective imparting a unique corporate value to fresh employees.
D Employees need to block a long time leaving their position attending
training.
E More preparation time is needed to keep the course at a suitable level.
Answer Table
1. i 8. B
2. ix 9. F
3. iv 10. D
4. vii 11. B
5. v 12. C
6. iii 13. E
7. A
THE STORY OF COFFEE

A
Coffee was first discovered in Eastern Africa in an area we know today as
Ethiopia. A popular legend refers to a goat herder by the name of Kaldi, who
observed his goats acting unusually friskily after eating berries from a bush.
Curious about this phenomenon, Kaldi tried eating the berries himself. He found
that these berries gave him renewed energy.
B
The news of this energy laden fruit quickly moved throughout the region. Coffee
berries were transported from Ethiopia to the Arabian Peninsula, and were first
cultivated in what today is the country of Yemen. Coffee remained a secret in
Arabia before spreading to Turkey and then to the European continent by means of
Venetian trade merchants.
C
Coffee was first eaten as a food though later people in Arabia would make a drink
out of boiling the beans for its narcotic effects and medicinal value. Coffee for a
time was known as Arabian wine to Muslims who were banned from alcohol by
Islam. It was not until after coffee had been eaten as a food product, a wine and a
medicine that it was discovered, probably by complete accident in Turkey, that by
roasting the beans a delicious drink could be made. The roasted beans were first
crushed and then boiled in water, creating a crude version of the beverage we enjoy
today. The first coffee houses were opened in Europe in the 17th Century and in
1675, the Viennese established the habit of refining the brew by filtering out the
grounds, sweetening it, and adding a dash of milk.
D
If you were to explore the planet for coffee, you would find about 60 species of
coffee plants growing wild in Africa, Malaysia, and other regions. But only about
ten of them are actually cultivated. Of these ten, two species are responsible for
almost all the coffee produced in the world: Coffea Arabica and Coffea Canephora
(usually known as Robusta). Because of ecological differences existing among the
various coffee producing countries, both types have undergone many mutations
and now exist in many sub-species.
E
Although wild plants can reach 10 - 12 metres in height, the plantation one reaches
a height of around four metres. This makes the harvest and flowering easier, and
cultivation more economical. The flowers are white and sweet-scented like the
Spanish jasmine. Flowers give way to a red, darkish berry. At first sight, the fruit is
like a big cherry both in size and in colour. The berry is coated with a thin, red film
(epicarp) containing a white, sugary mucilaginous flesh (mesocarp). Inside the
pulp there are the seeds in the form of two beans coupled at their flat surface.
Beans are in turn coated with a kind of resistant, golden yellow parchment, (called
endocarp). When peeled, the real bean appears with another very thin silvery film.
The bean is bluish green verging on bronze, and is at the most 11 millimetres long
and 8 millimetres wide.
F
Coffee plants need special conditions to give a satisfactory crop. The climate needs
to be hot-wet or hot temperate, between the Tropic of Cancer and the Tropic of
Capricorn, with frequent rains and temperatures varying from 15 to 25 Degrees C.
The soil should be deep, hard, permeable, well irrigated, with well-drained subsoil.
The best lands are the hilly ones or from just-tilled woods. The perfect altitude is
between 600 and 1200 metres, though some varieties thrive at 2000-2200 metres.
Cultivation aimed at protecting the plants at every stage of growth is needed.
Sowing should be in sheltered nurseries from which, after about six months, the
seedlings should be moved to plantations in the rainy season where they are
usually alternated with other plants to shield them from wind and excessive
sunlight. Only when the plant is five years old can it be counted upon to give a
regular yield. This is between 400 grams and two kilos of arabica beans for each
plant, and 600 grams and two kilos for robusta beans.
G
Harvesting time depends on the geographic situation and it can vary greatly
therefore according to the various producing countries. First, the ripe beans are
picked from the branches. Pickers can selectively pick approximately 250 to 300
pounds of coffee cherry a day. At the end of the day, the pickers bring their heavy
burlap bags to pulping mills where the cherry coffee can be pulped (or wet milled).
The pulped beans then rest, covered in pure rainwater to ferment overnight. The
next day the wet beans are hand-distributed upon the drying floor to be sun dried.
This drying process takes from one to two weeks depending on the amount of
sunny days available. To make sure they dry evenly, the beans need to be raked
many times during this drying time. Two weeks later the sun dried beans, now
called parchment, are scooped up, bagged and taken to be milled. Huge milling
machines then remove the parchment and silver skin, which renders a green bean
suitable for roasting. The green beans are roasted according to the customers’
specifications and, after cooling, the beans are then packaged and mailed to
customers.
Questions 1-6
The reading passage on The Story of Coffee has 7 paragraphs A – G.
From the list of headings below choose the most suitable headings for
paragraphs B – G.
Write the appropriate number (i – xi) in boxes 1-6 on your answer sheet.
NB There are more headings than paragraphs, so you will not use them all.
I. Growing Coffee
ii. Problems with Manufacture
iii. Processing the Bean
iv. First Contact
v. Arabian Coffee
vi. Coffee Varieties
vii. Modern Coffee
viii. The Spread of Coffee
ix. Consuming Coffee
x. Climates for Coffee
xi. The Coffee Plant
Example Answer
Paragraph A iv
1 Paragraph B
2 Paragraph C
3 Paragraph D
4 Paragraph E
5 Paragraph F
6 Paragraph G
Questions 7-9
Complete the labels on the diagram of a coffee bean below.
Choose your answers from the text and write them in boxes 7-9 on your answer
sheet.
7
8
9
Questions 10-13
Using the information in the passage, complete the flowchart below.
Use NO MORE THAN THREE WORDS from the passage for each answer.
Coffee Production Process
10
11
12
13
Answer Table
1. viii 8. mesocarp
2. ix 9. endocarp
3. vi 10. wet milled
4. xi 11. overnight
5. i 12. raked
6. iii 13. customers’ specifications
7. epicarp
Mind Music
Scientists investigate 'earworms', the music we can't get out of our head
A. Ever had a song stuck in your head, playing on an endless loop? Scientists call
them 'involuntary musical images', or 'earworms, and a wave of new research is
shining light on why they occur and what can be learned from them. Some
neuroscientists and cognitive psychologists are studying earworms to explore the
mysteries of memory and the part of the brain that is beyond our conscious control.
The idea that we have full control over our thought processes is an illusion,' says
psychologist Lauren Stewart, who founded the master's program in music, mind
and brain at Goldsmiths, University of London, UK, where recent research has
taken place. Researchers haven't been able to watch what happens in the brain
when earworms occur, because they happen unpredictably. Much of what is known
about them comes from surveys, questionnaires, diaries and lab experiments.
B. A Goldsmiths study published in the journal Memory and Cognition this year
showed that the singing we hear in our heads tends to be true to actual recordings.
Researchers had 17 volunteers tap to the beat of any earworm they heard during a
four-day period while a device attached to their wrist recorded their movements.
The tapping tempos were within 10% of the tempos of the original recordings.
Another Goldsmiths study, published this year in Consciousness and Cognition,
found that people who report hearing earworms often, and find them most
intrusive, have slightly different brain structures, with more gray matter in areas
associated with processing emotions.
C. Studies also show that the music in our heads often starts playing during times
of 'low cognitive load', such as while showering, getting dressed, walking, or doing
chores. Dr Stewart likens earworms to 'sonic screen savers' that keep the mind
entertained while it is otherwise unoccupied. She and her colleagues tested that
theory by having volunteers listen to songs and giving them various tasks
afterwards. The volunteers who sat idly for the next five minutes were the most
likely to report hearing the music m their heads. Dr Stewart observed that the more
challenging the activity, the less likely the volunteers were to hear the music. Diary
studies also show songs tend to match people's moods and therefore they are not
random. If you are energized and upbeat, an earworm that occurs is likely to be
uptempo too.
D. Songs the brain fixates on are usually those it has been exposed to recently,
surveys show, which is why tunes getting heavy radio play frequently top the
earworm charts. Even tunes you may have heard but didn't pay attention to can
worm their way into your subconscious, says Ira Hyman, a psychologist at Western
Washington University in Bellingham, USA. In an unpublished study there,
participants who listened to music while doing other tasks were more likely to
report that the songs returned as earworms later on, compared with participants
who simply listened.
E. Some earworms are just fragments of a song that repeat like a broken record.
So, when the mind hits a part of a song it can't remember, it loops back rather than
moving on. That could make an earworm even more entrenched, Dr Hyman says.
According to a theory known as the Zeigarik effect, named for a Soviet
psychologist, Bluma Zeigarnik, unfinished thoughts and activities weigh on the
mind more heavily than those that are completed, although experiments exposing
students to interrupted songs have yielded mixed results.
F. Researchers say they can't pinpoint a spot in the brain where earworms live.
Imaging studies by Andrea Halpern at Bucknell University, in Lewisburg, USA,
have shown that deliberately imagining music and actually listening to music
activate many of the same neurological networks. Dr Halpern's earlier studies
showed that when subjects listened to the first few notes of familiar music, areas in
the right frontal and superior temporal portions of the brain became activated,
along with the supplementary motor area at the top, which is typically involved in
remembering sequences. When the same subjects listened to unfamiliar music and
were asked to recall it, there was activity in the left frontal portions of the brain
instead.
G. One factor that makes some songs stick might be repetition. 'Repetition leads to
familiarity which leads to anticipation, which is satisfied by hearing the song,' says
John Seabrook, author of The Song Machine: Inside the Hit Factory, about how
producers pump pop songs full of aural "hooks', the punchy melodic phrases
designed to target the brain and leave it wanting more. The researchers are
comparing the melodic structure of 100 often-mentioned songs with 100 similarly
popular songs that weren't cited as earworms, to assess the difference. Songs with
earworm potential appear to share certain features: a repeating pattern of ups and
downs in pitch, and an irregular musical interval.
H. The researchers plan next to test their results in reverse, and play ringtones from
songs of both the earworm and non earworm variety for volunteers several times a
day to see which ones get stuck. Drs Stewart and Halper are now working together
to recruit survey participants for a study looking at whether people at different
stages of life experience earworms differently. 'You can argue that older people
might get them more often because they know more songs,' Dr Halpern says. 'But
the few responses we have so far indicate that they have earworms less often. It
could be that they don't play music as often as younger people do.
Questions 1-4
The reading Passage has eight paragraphs, A-H.
Write the correct letter, A-H, in boxes 1-4 on your answer sheet.
1 a description of the characteristics common to songs with earworms

2 a justitication for research into earworms
3 a description of the brain's reaction to known and unknown songs
4 details of proposed research into the frequency with which earworms
occur indifferent age groups
Questions 5-8
Goldsmiths study
Researchers from Goldsmiths concluded that the music we imagine in our minds is
quite similar to recordings. They proved this by asking volunteers to record the
rhythm of music using a monitor on their 5 . Further research has
demonstrated that those who hear earworms more frequently have brains that may
deal with 6 differently from other people, Dr Stewart also believes that
the brain is 7 by earworms when it is not focused on a task. In fact, a
reduction in the occurrence of earworms was found to be directly related to
how 8 the task was Interestingly, volunteers' diaries revealed that the
songs they heard inside their head reflected their moods, so the choice of music is
not accidental.
Questions 9-13
Look at the following statements and the list of researcher below.
Match each statement with the correct person, A, B, C or D.
Write the correct letter. A, B, C or D, in boxes 9-13 on your answer sheet.
9 Some musicians create music that is intentionally memorable.
10 People are unable to completely regulate how they think.
11 We can remember songs without knowing that we have heard them.
12 Thinking about music has a similar effect on the brain to hearing
music.
13 Earworms are more persistent when only a short section of the song is
constantly replayed.
List of Researchers
A Lauren Stewart
B Ira Hyman
C Andrea Haiper
D John Seabrook
Answer Table
1. A 8. challenging
2. E 9. C
3. D 10. A
4. H 11. B
5. wrist 12. C
6. emotions 13. B
7. unoccupied
Ensuring our future food supply

Climate change and new diseases threaten the limited varieties of seeds we depend
on for food. Luckily, we still have many of the seeds used in the past-but we must
take steps to save them.
Six miles outside the town of Decorah, Iowa in the USA, an 890-acre stretch of
rolling fields and woods called Heritage Farm is letting its crops go to seed.
Everything about Heritage Farm is in stark contrast to the surrounding acres of
intensively farmed fields of corn and soybean that are typical of modern
agriculture. Heritage Farm is devoted to collecting rather than growing seeds. It is
home to the Seed Savers Exchange, one of the largest non government-owned seed
banks in the United States.
In 1975 Diane Ott Whealy was given the seedlings of two plant varieties that her
great grandfather had brought to America from Bavaria in 1870: Grandpa Ott’s
morning glory and his German Pink tomato. Wanting to preserve similar
traditional varieties, known as heirloom plants, Diane and her husband, Kent,
decided to establish a place where the seeds of the past could be kept and traded.
The exchange now has more than 13,000 members, and the many thousands of
heirloom varieties they have donated are kept in its walk-in coolers, freezers, and
root cellars the seeds of many thousands of heirloom varieties and, as you walk
around an old red barn that is covered in Grandpa Ott’s beautiful morning glory
blossoms, you come across the different vegetables, herbs, and flowers they have
planted there.
"Each year our members list their seeds in this,"Diane Ott Whealy says, handing
over a copy of the Seed Savers Exchange 2010 Yearbook. It is as thick as a big-
city telephone directory, with page after page of exotic beans, garlic, potatoes,
peppers, apples, pears, and plums-each with its own name and personal
history .For example, there’s an Estonian Yellow Cherry tomato, which was
brought to the seed bank by “an elderly Russian lady” who lived in Tallinn, and a
Persian Star garlic from “a bazaar in Samarkand.”There’s also a bean donated by
archaeologists searching for pygmy elephant fossils in New Mexico.
Heirloom vegetables have become fashionable in the United States and Europe
over the past decade, prized by a food movement that emphasizes eating locally
and preserving the flavor and uniqueness of heirloom varieties. Found mostly in
farmers' markets and boutique groceries, heirloom varieties have been squeezed
out of supermarkets in favor of modern single-variety fruits and vegetables bred to
ship well and have a uniform appearance, not to enhance flavor. But the movement
to preserve heirloom varieties goes way beyond the current interest in North
America and Europe in tasty, locally grown food. It’s also a campaign to protect
the world’s future food supply.Most people in the well-fed world give little thought
to where their food comes from or how it’s grown. They wander through well-
stocked supermarkets without realizing that there may be problem ahead.We’ve
been hearing for some time about the loss of flora and fauna in our rainforests.Very
little,by contrast,is being said or done about the parallel decline in the diversity of
the foods we eat.
Food variety extinction is happening all over the world - and it's happening fast. In
the United States an estimated 90 percent of historic fruit and vegetable varieties
are no longer grown. Of the 7,000 different apple varieties that were grown in the
1800s, fewer than a hundred remain. In the Philippines thousands of varieties of
rice once thrived; now only about a hundred are grown there. In China 90 percent
of the wheat varieties cultivated just a hundred years ago have disappeared.
Experts estimate that in total we have lost more than 50 percent of the world's food
varieties over the past century.
Why is this a problem? Because if disease or future climate change affects one of
the handful of plants we've come to depend on to feed our growing planet, we
might desperately need one of those varieties we've let become extinct. The loss of
the world's cereal diversity is a particular cause for concern. A fungus called Ug99,
which was first identified in Uganda in 1999, is spreading across the world's wheat
crops. From Uganda it moved to Kenya, Ethiopia, Sudan, and Yemen. By 2007 it
had jumped the Persian Gulf into Iran. Scientists predict that the fungus will soon
make its way into India and Pakistan, then spread to Russia and China, and
eventually the USA.
Roughly 90 percent of the world's wheat has no defense against this particular
fungus. If it reached the USA, an estimated one billion dollars' worth of crops
would be at risk. Scientists believe that in Asia and Africa alone, the portion
currently in danger could leave one billion people without their primary food
source. A famine with significant humanitarian consequences could follow,
according to Rick Ward of Cornell University.
The population of the world is expected to reach nine billion by 2045. Some
experts say we’ll need to double our food production to keep up with this growth.
Given the added challenge of climate change and disease, it is becoming ever more
urgent to find ways to increase food yield. The world has become increasingly
dependent upon a technology-driven, one-size-fits-all approach to food supply. Yet
the best hope for securing our food's future may depend on our ability to preserve
the locally cultivated foods of the past.
Questions 1-7
Passage? In boxes 1 -7 on your answer sheet, write.
1 Heritage Farm is different from most other nearby farms.
2 Most nongovernment-owned seed banks are bigger than Seed
Savers Exchange.
3 Diane Ott Whealy's grandfather taught her a lot about seed
varieties.
4 The seeds people give to the Seed Savers Exchange are stored
outdoors.
5 Diane and her husband choose which heirloom seeds to grow on
Heritage Farm.
6 The seeds are listed in alphabetical order in The Seed Savers
Exchange Yearbook.
7 The Seed Savers Exchange Yearbook describes how each seed was
obtained.
Questions 8-13
Complete the notes below.
Choose ONE WORD AND/OR A NUMBER from the passage for each answer.
The food we grow and eat
Supermarkets
 sell fruit and vegetables that transport well
 want fruit and vegetables to be standard in their 8

Public awareness
 while people know about plants disappearing from 9 very few
know about the decline in fruit and vegetable varieties
Extinction of food varieties
 less than 100 of the types of 10 once available in the USA are still
grown
over 11 of food varieties around the world have disappeared in the
last 100 years
Current problems in food production
 a particular fungus is attacking wheat in various countries
 Rick Ward believes the threat to food supplies in Asia and Africa might lead
to a 12
Food production in the future
 climate change and disease may put pressure on food production
 twice the amount of food may be needed because of
an increase in 13
Answer Table
1. TRUE 8. appearance
2. FALSE 9. rainforests
3. NOT GIVEN 10. apples
4. FALSE 11. 50 percent
5. NOT GIVEN 12. famine
6. NOT GIVEN 13. Population
7. TRUE
The fluoridation controversy
The long-standing debate about whether to fluoridate our drinking water continues
Fluoridation is the addition of fluorine to public water supplies with the aim of
reducing tooth decay. The fluorine, when mixed with water, becomes fluoride and
the desired concentration of fluoride in public water is approximately one part per
million, depending on the regional temperature and hence the amount of water
people are likely to drink. Many studies, such as those by McClure in 1970 through
to Burt in 1983, have shown that when children drink fluoridated water, their
average rate of tooth decay seems greatly reduced. A typical figure claimed is 50
percent reduction. This apparently enormous benefit for children's teeth is the
major argument in favor of fluoridation.
Three main grounds for opposition to fluoridation have been expressed. First,
opponents claim the benefits are exaggerated or not established. Second, there are
claims of health risks to pans of the population, for example, allergic reactions. It is
also accepted that high levels of fluoride can cause discoloration of otherwise
healthy teeth. Proponents do not consider this to be a problem in such small
concentrations, whereas opponents disagree - especially because some people
drink more water and obtain much more than the standard 1 milligram of fluoride
per day. Third, fluoridation is thought to be an infringement on individual rights
because it is compulsory medication of all members of a community.
An understanding of the fluoridation issue has important implications. If,
according to the experts, fluoridation is unquestionably a beneficial and non-
hazardous measure, then the wisdom of allowing the public to vote on, and reject it
must be questioned.
Almost all studies that have been done have assumed that the scientific aspects of
the controversy are unproblematic, and they have excluded science from
sociological examination. The traditional view is that science is a special kind of
knowledge, which is established through scientific methods and objectively
applied by members of a scientific community. However, in recent years there has
been a major challenge to this picture by a sociology of science that shows how
scientific knowledge is socially negotiated, and inevitably linked to the values of
the relevant parties, both scientists and nonscientists. These challengers do not see
scientific knowledge as exempt from social inquiry.
Kuhn (1970) argued that scientific knowledge does not always develop as an
orderly process, but is characterized by periodic revolutions. in which the methods
of study and the assessment criteria change in a fragmented way. According to
Kuhn, the shift from one scientific way of thinking to another is not made solely on
the basis of clear rules of formal scientific practice, but can include social factors,
though Kuhn has never developed a full analysis of what these might be. Collins
(1975) took this concept further when he asserted that the outcome of experiments
was not something whose meaning could be immediately comprehended, but rather
something for interpretation, discussion between scientists, and reinterpretation in
the light of other experiments.
One interpretation of this analysis of science is that traditional distinctions between
facts and theories, and between scientific knowledge and values, can no longer be
justified. Because social processes are involved at all stages of the creation,
evaluation, and establishing of scientific knowledge, social values may also be
involved.
In the same way as many scientists who study fluoridation have overlooked social
values, sociologists have also downplayed an important part of the debate by
ignoring the number of eminent scientists who have questioned aspects of
fluoridation. An example is the study by Sutton in 1960, which analyzed the classic
North American studies of the effect of fluoridation on tooth decay, and found that
each showed significant methodological shortcomings. Sutton's detailed study
throws doubt as to the extent of reductions in tooth decay from fluoridation. Yet
Sutton's book is not cited in a single analysis of the fluoridation issue by any
sociologist. In a situation of some scientific uncertainty, differences in values are
highlighted. A supporter of fluoridation might argue. The evidence for the benefits
of fluoridation is quite substantial, while the evidence for harm is limited and
dubious. I think the likely benefits outweigh the possible dangers; hence I support
fluoridation because it is the cheapest and easiest way to make sure every child
reaps the benefits. An opponent might argue, 'Though the evidence for the benefits
of fluoridation is substantial, there is some doubt about it. Since fluoridation is not
necessary for good teeth, we should forego the benefits if there is some slight
chance of harm. Some scientists claim that a small percentage of the population
could be harmed by fluoride. Therefore I oppose fluoridation of water supplies and
favor the voluntary use of fluoride tablets by those who want to take them.'
Both arguments consider the scientific evidence concerning fluoridation, but differ
in their assessments of the social benefits and costs. This difference is not between
rationality and irrationality but is a legitimate difference in values, for example, the
positive value placed on good teeth, the negative value placed on possible health
risks, and the social benefits or costs of compulsory or voluntary intake of
fluorides.
From the sociological point of view, opposition to fluoridation is not necessarily
irrational. Rather, claims to rationality and to scientific authority are better seen as
part of a strategy to promote fluoridation than as incontrovertible statements of
fact. Second, social values are likely to be bound up in any decision about
fluoridation, so this is not an issue on which declarations by scientific experts
ought to be considered the final word.
Questions 1-5
Choose the correct letter, A, B, C or D
Write the correct letter in boxes 1-5 on your answer sheet
1. The optimum amount of fluorine in fluoridated water is calculated partly
according to
A how hot the area is.
B how warm the water is.
C how many dental problems there are in the community.
D how much fluorine the community chooses to have in its water.
2. One reason given by the writer for opposing fluoridation is that
A it may contribute to tooth decay
B it will be unacceptably expensive for the public.
C obligatory fluoridation takes away personal freedom.
D excessive fluoride could be added to the water by mistake.
3. The writer mentions Kuhn in order to
A provide a contrast with the view of Collins.
B support the rational nature of scientific inquiry.
C demonstrate that Kuhn did not argue his case adequately.
D show that science can be influenced by non-scientific considerations
4. What did Sutton's research discover about earlier studies in North America?
A There were failings in the way they were carried out.
B The scientists involved had achieved unique results.
C Proponents of fluoridation had not understood its long-term effects.
D Fluoridation had a greater effect on tooth decay than previously believed.
5. In the last paragraph, what does the writer say about scientists?
A They should reveal their true motivations.
B They should not decide the fluoridation policy.
C They are solely concerned with scientific truths.
D They cannot reach agreement on the fluoridation issue.
Questions 6-9
Passage?
YES if the statement agrees with the views of the writer
NO if the statement contradicts the views of the writer
NOT GIVEN if it is impossible to say what the writer thinks about this
6 Scientific knowledge should be kept separate from social values.
7 Many sociologists have disregarded the doubts that some scientists
have concerning fluoridation.
8 Sutton's findings have been given insufficient attention by
scientists outside of North America.
9 There are valid arguments on both sides of the fluoridation debate.
Questions 10-14
Complete each sentence with the correct ending. A-G. below. Write the correct
letter. A-G, in boxes 10-14 on your answer sheet.
10. The traditional view of science is that 10
11. A sociological view of science argues that 11
12. Collins is of the opinion that 12
13. The writer suggests that a supporter of fluoridation may conclude
that 13
14. The writer suggests that an opponent of fluoridation may conclude
that 14
A the results of scientific research are not always understood at first
B if it is impossible to say what the writer thinks about this
C people should be able to choose whether they want fluoride.
D there is insufficient proof to support a cautious approach.
E the serious damage fluoride causes far outweighs any positive effects.
F children are not the only ones who benefit from fluoridation.
G scientific knowledge is affected by the beliefs of everyone concerned.
Answer Table
1. A 8. NOT GIVEN
2. C 9. YES
3. C 10. B
4. A 11. G
5. B 12. A
6. NO 13. D
7. YES 14. E
How the mind ages

The way mental function changes is largely determined by three factors-mental
lifestyle, the impact of chronic disease and flexibility of the mind.
Experiments have shown that younger monkeys consistently outperform their older
colleagues on memory tests. Formerly, psychologists concluded that memory and
other mental functions in humans deteriorate over time because of changes in the
brain. Thus mental decline after young adulthood appeared inevitable. The truth,
however, is not quite so simple.
Stanley Rapoport at the National Institute of Health in the United States measured
the flow of blood in the brains of old and young people as they completed different
tasks. Since blood flow reflects neural activity. Rapoport could compare which
networks of neurons were the same, the neural networks they used were
significantly different. The older subjects used different internal strategies to
accomplish comparable results at the same time,'Rapoport says. At the Georgia
Institute of Technology, psychologist Timothy Salthouse compared a group of fast
and accurate typists of college age with another group in their 60s. Both groups
typed 60 words a minute. The older typists, it turned out, achieved their speed with
cunning little strategies that made them more efficient than their younger
counterparts. They made fewer finger shifts, gaining a fraction of a second here
and there. They also read ahead in the test. The neural networks involved in typing
appear to have been reshaped to compensate for losses in motor skills or other age
changes.
In fact, there's evidence that deterioration in mental functions can actually be
reversed. Neuropsychologist Marion Diamond at the University of California has
shown that mental activity maks neurons sprout new dendrites* which establish
connections with other neurons. The dendrites shrink when the mind is idle. For
example,'when a rat is kept in isolation, the animal's brain shrinks, but if we put
that rat with other rats in a large cage and give them an assortment of toys, we can
show, after four days, significant differences in its brain.'says Diamond. After a
month in the enriched surroundings, the whole cerebral cortex has expanded, as
has its blood supply.'But even in the enriched surroundings, rats get bored unless
the toys are varied. Animals are just like we are. They need stimulation,'says
Diamond. A busy mental lifestyle keeps the human mind fit, says Warner Schaie of
Penn State University. ‘People who regularly participate in challenging tasks retain
their intellectual abilities better than mental couch potatoes.'
In his studies, Schaie detected a decline in mental function among individuals who
underwent lengthy stays in hospital for chronic illness. He postulated it might be
due to the mental passivity encouraged by hospital routine.
One of the most profoundly important mental functions is memory. Memory exists
in more than one form, what we call knowledge- facts- is what psychologists such
as Harry Bahrick of Ohio Wesleyan University call semantic memory. Events,
conversations and occurrences in time and space, on the other hand, make up
episodic memory. It's true that episodic memory begins to decline when most
people are in their 50s, but it's never perfect at any age.
Probing the longevity of knowledge, Bahrick tested 1,000 high school graduates to
see how well they remembered the school subject algebra. Some had completed the
course a month before, other 50 years earlier. Surprisingly, he found that a person's
grasp of algebra did not depend on how long ago he'd taken the course. The
determining factor was the duration of instruction. Those who had spent only a few
months learning algebra forgot most of it within two or three years while others
who had been instructed for longer remembered better. According to Bahrick,'the
long-term residue of knowledge remains stable over the decades, independent of
the age of the person and the memory.'
Perhaps even more important than the ability to remember is the ability to manage
memory- a mental function known as metamemory.'You could say metamemory is
a byproduct of going to school,'says psychologist Robert Kail of Purdue
University,'The question-and-answer process,especially exam taking, helps
children learn and teaches them how their memory functions.This may be one
reason why the better educated a person is, the more likely they are to perform well
in many aspects of life and in psychological assessments: A group of adult novice
chess players were compared with a group of child experts at the game. But when
asked to remember the patterns of chess pieces arranged on a board, the children
won.' Because they'd played a lot of chess, their knowledge of chess was better
organized than that of the adults, and their existing knowledge of chess served as a
framework for new memory,'explains Kail. Cognitive style, another factor in
maintaining mental function, is what Schaie calls the ability to adapt and roll with
life's punches.'He measured mental flexibility with questions and tests requiring
people to carry out in an offbeat way an everyday activity they had done millions
of times. One example was asking people to copy a paragraph substituting
uppercase letters for lowercase ones. These tests seem silly, but flexible-minded
people manage to complete them,'says Schaie. The rigid person responds with
tension instead and performs poorly. Those who score highly on tests of cognition
at an advanced age are those who tested high in mental flexibility at middle age'.
On a more optimistic note, one mental resource that only improves with time is
specialized knowledge. Crystallised intelligence about one's occupation apparently
does not decline at all until at least age 75. Vocabulary is another such specialized
form of knowledge. Research clearly shows that vocabulary develops with time.
Retired teachers and journalists consistently score higher on tests of vocabulary
and general information than college students.
Questions 1-3
Choose the correct letter A, B, C or D.
Write the correct letter in boxes 1-3 on your answer sheet.
1. What does the writer say about the performance of older typists on the test?
A They used different motor skills from younger typists.
B They had been more efficiently trained than younger typists.
C They used more time-saving techniques than younger typists.
D They had better concentration skills than younger typists.
2. The experiment with the rats showed that
A brain structure only changed when the rats were given a familiar toy
B the rats became anxious after a lengthy period of time alone
C the rats lived longer then they were part of a social group
D the rats'brains expanded or shrank depending on the level of mental activity
3. A comparison between adults and children who played chess showed that
A the children were as capable as the adults of remembering a series of
numbers
B the children had better recall of the layout of pieces
C the adults stored memories of chess moves in a more logical manner
D the adults had clearer memories of chess games they had played
Questions 4-9
Types of memory
Psychologists distinguish between two different types of memory: 4

and 5 memory. A study was conducted into people's knowledge
of 6 to determine recall ability. This aspect of memory was found to be a
function not of age but rather of length of tuition.
School also helps with a brain function called 7 . This is why a more
highly educated person is generally more successful and does better in 8
tests.
Some of our mental functions remain unaffected by age or even improve. For
example, as we get older, our knowledge of 9 increases.
Questions 10-13
Look at the following statements and the list of people below.
Match each statement with the correct person, A-E.
Write the correct letter, A-E, in boxes 23-26 on your answer sheet.
10 The educational system makes students aware of how their memory
works.
11 Although older people may use a different mental approach when
completing a task, they can still achieve the same result as younger people
12 Being open to new ways of doing things can have a positive impact on
your mental condition as we get older
13 Both animals and humans need to exist in an environment full of
interest.
List of People
A Stanley Rapoport
B Marion Diamond
C Warner Schaie
D Harry Bahrick
E Robert Kail
Answer Table
1. C 8. psychological
2. D 9. vocabulary
3. B 10. E
4. semantic 11. A
5. episodic 12. C
6. algebra 13. B
7. metamemory
The moto car

The start of the automobile's history went all the way back to 1769 when
automobiles running on the steam engine were invented as carriers for human
transport In 1806, the first batch of cars powered by an internal combustion engine
came into being, which pioneered the introduction of the widespread modem
petrol-fueled internal combustion engine in 1885.
It is generally acknowledged that the first practical automobiles equipped with
petrol/gaso-line-powered internal combustion engines were invented almost at the
same time by different German inventors who were Working on their own. Karl
Bfenz first built the automobile in 1885 in Mannheim. Benz attained a patent for
his invention on 29 January 1886, and in 1888, he started to produce automobiles
in a company that later became the renowned Mercedes-Benz.
As this century began, the automobile industry marched into the transportation
market for the wealth. Drivers at that time were an adventurous bunch; they would
go out regardless of the weather condition even if they weren’t even protected by
an enclosed body or a convertible top. Everybody in the community knew who
owned what car, and cars immediately became a symbol of identity and status.
Later, cars became more popular among the public since it allowed people to travel
whenever and wherever they wanted. Thus, the price of automobiles in Europe and
North America kept dropping, and more people from the middle class could afford
them. This was especially attributed to Henry Ford who did two crucial things.
First, he set the price as reasonable as possible for his cars; second, he paid his
employees enough salaries so that they could afford the cars made by their very
own hands.
The trend of interchangeable parts and mass production in an assembly line style
had been led by America, and from 1914, this concept was significantly reinforced
by Henry Ford. This large-scale, production-line manufacture of affordable
automobiles was debuted. A Ford car would come off all assembled from the line
every 15 minutes, an interval shorter than any of the former methods. Not only did
it raise productivity, but also cut down on the requirement for manpower. Ford
significantly lowered the chance of injury by carrying out complicated safety
procedures in production—particularly assigning workers to specific locations
rather than giving them the freedom to wander around. This mixture of high wages
and high efficiency was known as Fordism, which provided a valuable lesson for
most major industries.
The first Jeep automobile that came out as the prototype Bantam BRC was the
primary light 4-wheel-drive automobile of the U.S. Army and Allies, and during
World War II and the postwar period, its sale skyrocketed. Since then, plenty of
Jeep derivatives with similar military and civilian functions have been created and
kept upgraded in terms of overall performance in other nations.
Through all the 1950s, engine power and automobile rates grew higher, designs
evolved into a more integrated and artful form, and cars were spreading globally.
In the 1960s, the landscape changed as Detroit was confronted with foreign
competition. The European manufacturers, used the latest technology, and Japan
came into the picture as a dedicated car-making country. General Motors, Chrysler,
and Ford dabbled with radical tiny cars such as the GM A-bodies with little
success. As joint ventures such as the British Motor Corporation unified the
market, captive imports and badge imports swept all over the US and the UK.
BMC first launched a revolutionary space-friendly Mini in 1959, which turned out
to harvest large global sales. Previously remaining under the Austin and Morris
names, Mini later became an individual marque in 1969. The trend of corporate
consolidation landed in Italy when niche makers such as Maserati, Ferrari, and
Lancia were bought by larger enterprises. By the end of the 20th century, there had
been a sharp fall in the number of automobile marques.
In the US, car performance dominated marketing, justified by the typical cases of
pony cars and muscle cars. However, in the 1970s, everything changed as the
American automobile industry suffered from the 1973 oil crisis, competition with
Japanese and European imports, automobile emission control regulations* and
moribund innovation. The irony in all this was that full-size sedans such as
Cadillac and Lincoln scored a huge comeback between the years of economic
crisis.
In terms of technology, the most mentionable developments that postwar era had
seen were the widespread use of independent suspensions, broader application of
fuel injection, and a growing emphasis on safety in automobile design. Mazda
achieved many triumphs with its engine firstly installed in the fore-wheel, though it
gained itself a reputation as a gas-guzzler.
The modem era also has witnessed a sharp elevation of fuel power in the modem
engine management system with the. help of the computer. Nowadays, most
automobiles in use are powered by an internal combustion engine, fueled by
gasoline or diesel. Toxic gas from both fuels is known to pollute the air and is
responsible for climate change as well as global warming.
Questions 1-6
Look at the following descriptions (Questions 1-6) and the list of automobile
brands below.
Match each description with the correct automobile brand, A-G. Write the correct
letter, A-G, in boxes 1-6 on your answer sheet.
List of Automobile Brands
A Ford
B the BMC Mini
C Cadillac and Lincoln
D Mercedes Benz
E Mazda
F Jeep
G Maserati, Ferrari, and Lancia
1 began producing the first automobiles
2 produced the industrialized cars that common consumers could
afford
3 improved the utilization rate of automobile space
4 upgraded the overall performance of the car continuously
5 maintained leading growth even during an economic recession
6 installed its engine on the front wheel for the first time
Questions 7-13
Answer the questions below.
Choose NO MORE THAN THREE WORDS AND/OR A NUMBER from the
passage for each answer.
7. What is the important feature owned by the modem engine since the 19th
century? 7
8. What did a car symbolize to the rich at the very beginning of this
century? 8
9. How long did Ford assembly line take to produce a car? 9
10. What is the major historical event that led American cars to suffer when
competing with Japanese imported cars? 10
11. What do people call the Mazda car which was designed under the front wheel
engine? 11
12. What has greatly increased with the computerised engine management systems
in modem society? 12
13. What factor is blamed for contributing to pollution, climate change and global
warming? 13
Question 14
Write the correct letter in box 27 on your answer sheet.
14. What is the main idea of the passage?
A The influence of the cars on the environment
B The historical development and innovation in car designs
C The beginning of the modem designed gasoline engines
D The history of human and the Auto industry
Answer Table
1. D 8. Identity and status
2. A 9. 15 Minutes
3. B 10. 1973 Oil crisis
4. F 11. (a) gas-guzzler
5. C 12. Fuel power
6. E 13. Toxic gas
7. Petrol-fueled internal combustion 14. B
Global Warming in New Zealand 2

A
New Zealand is expected to warm by about 3°C over the next century. The
northern polar regions will be more than 6°C warmer, while the large continents –
also the largest centres of population – will be 4°C or warmer. In contrast, the
Southern Ocean, which surrounds New Zealand, may warm by only 2°C. The sea
will act as an air conditioner and in this aspect, New Zealand’s location is
comparatively fortunate.
B
Any predictions are complicated by the variability of New Zealand’s climate. The
annual temperature can fluctuate as much as 1°C above or below the long-term
average. The early summer of 2006-7, for instance, was notably cool, thanks in
part to the iceberg that drifted up the east coast. A few months later, warm water
from the Tasman Sea helped make May 2007 unusually hot. These variables will
continue unaffected so that, although the general pattern will be for rising
temperatures, the warming trend may not be uniform.
C
The Ocean to the south of New Zealand will have one important effect. As the
world warms, the great bank of west winds that circle Antarctica will become
stronger. This has already been observed, and its impact on New Zealand is likely
to be profound, stronger, more frequent west winds will bring increased,
sometimes catastrophic rainfall to the west coast of the country and create drier
conditions in some eastern regions that are already drought-prone. At the same
time, the general warming will spread south.
D
Furthermore, in the drier regions, the average moisture deficit – that is, the
difference between the amount of water in soils available to plants and the amount
plants need for optimum growth – will increase. Soils could go into moisture
deficit earlier in the growing season and the deficits could last longer into autumn
that at present. What we think of today as a medium-severity drought could be an
almost annual occurrence by the end of the century. One direct consequence of
warmer – and shorter – winters will be a reduction in snow cover. The permanent
snow line in the mountains will rise, while snow cover below this will be shorter-
lived. The amount of snow that falls may actually increase, however, even in some
northern centres, owing to the intensification of precipitation, Ski-field base station
may eventually have to be moved upwards to be within reach of the new snow line
but there could still be plenty of the white stuff up there.
E
There will also be a marked impact on New Zealand’s glaciers. Over the last 100
years, the glaciers have been reduced by 35%, although since 1978 increase
snowfall has offset the effect of warming. The latest studies conducted by the
National Institute for Water and Atmospheric. Research (NIWA), however,
suggest that by the end of the century, warming over the Southern Alps could be
significantly greater than over the rest of the country.
F
Sea levels around New Zealand have risen by 25cm since the middle of the 9th
century and by 7 cm since 1990. Predictions for the coming years cover a wide
range, however, partly because of unknown rises resulting from the melting of the
ice in the Arctic, Greenland and Antarctica. In addition, sea level at any given time
is affected by many different factors, one of which is called storm surge. When a
Coincides with a high tide along low lying coastal areas, this bulge raises the tide
higher than normal, creating. Surge not unlike a slow-motion tsunami. Not only
does a rise in sea level increase the potential for his sort damage, but it also has
less immediate impacts. The one potentially grave outcome is that groundwater
systems may become contaminated with saltwater, spoiling them for the irrigation
of farmland, which in turn could diminish crop harvests. Similarly, over time,
estuaries may be enlarged by erosion as tidal influences reach further upstream,
altering the contours of whole shorelines and initiating further unforeseen
consequences.
G
The impacts these changes will have on New Zealand are difficult to generalize.
Human systems are better able to adapt to change than natural ecosystems because
humans can see a problem coming and plan a response. Farmers and
horticulturalists have made considerable advances, replacing crops they grow to
better suit the new conditions. However, plant breeders will need to show
considerable ingenuity if they can overcome the acute water shortages that are
forecast.
H
For natural ecosystems the rate of change is crucial. If it is low, the plants and
animals and fish will be able to ‘keep up’; if it is high, only the most adaptable
species-those that can survive in the widest range of ecological niches-are likely to
survive. Species adapted to only a narrow range of conditions or food sources will
find adaptation much more difficult. Take tuatara, for instance. Their sex is
determined by the temperature at which the eggs are incubated in warm (currently
above 22 °C) condition become predominately male – and now males already
outnumber females by nearly two to one in some island refuges. In the mountains,
as the permanent snow line moves upwards, the tolerance zones of some alpine
plants and animals may simply disappear. It should also be remembered that global
warming is just that – a global phenomenon. ‘New Zealand’s own greenhouse
emissions are tiny – around 0.5% of the global total. Even if New Zealanders were
to achieve the government’s target of carbon neutrality, this would have no
discernable impact on global climate change.
I
The changes that global warming is going to bring to New Zealand during the 21st
century are going to be significant, but where the country is likely to be most
vulnerable is with respect to climate change elsewhere. New Zealand may warm
more slowly than most places, but if its major export markets undergo damaging
change, the economic impact will be severe.
Questions 1-6
1. What is the main idea of the first paragraph?
A The air condition in New Zealand will maintain a high quality because of
the ocean
B The Southern Ocean will remain at a constant strength
C The continents will warm more than the point
D New Zealand will not warm as much as other countries in the next century
because it is surrounded by sea.
2. What does the writer say about New Zealand’s variable weather?
A Temperature changes of 1°C will not be seem important in future
B Variable weather will continue, unchanged by global warming
C There was an unusually small amount of variation in 2006-2007
D Summer temperatures will vary but winter ones will be consistent
3. What is the predicted impact of conditions in the ocean to the south of New
Zealand?
A New Zealand will be more affected by floods and droughts
B Antarctica will not be adversely affected by warming.
C The band of west winds will move further to the south.
D The usual west wind will no longer be reliable
4. The writer mentions ‘moisture deficit’ to show?
A The droughts will be shorter but more severe
B How the growing season will become longer.
C How growing conditions will deteriorate
D That farmers should alter the make-up of soils
5. What are the implications of global warming for New Zealand’s
A Skiing may move to lower the altitude in future.
B The ski season will be later in the year than at present.
C The northern ski field will have to move to the south
D Warming may provide more snow for some ski locations
6. The writer refers to NIWA’s latest studies in the 3rd paragraph to show
A how a particular place could be affected by warming
B that the warming trend has been intensifying since 1978
C that freezing levels will rise throughout the century
D how the growth of glaciers is likely to cause damage
Questions 7-9
Choose NO MORE THAN TWO WORDS from the passage for each answer.
Rising sea levels
The extent of future sea level rises around New Zealand is uncertain and may be
determined in the 7 . Another variable is sudden rises in sea level caused
by bad weather. Higher sea levels can lead to reduced 8 and result in
changes to the shape of 9 .
A agriculture production
B tropical waters
C tidal waves
D polar regions
E global warming
F coastal land
G high tides
Questions 10-14
YES if the statement is true
NO if the statement is false
NOT GIVEN if the information is not given in the passage
10 The natural world is less responsive to challenges than humans.
11 The agricultural sector is being too conservative and resistant to
innovation.
12 The global warming is slow; it will affect different regions in
different ways.
13 The tuatara is vulnerable to changes in climate conditions.
14 New Zealand must reduce carbon emission if global warming is
to be slowed.
Answer Table
1. D 8. A
2. B 9. F
3. A 10. YES
4. C 11. NOT GIVEN
5. D 12. NOT GIVEN
6. A 13. YES
7. D 14. NO
Willpower
A
Although willpower does not shape our decisions, it determines whether and how
long we can follow through on them. It almost single-handedly determines life
outcomes. Interestingly, research suggests the general population is indeed aware
of how essential willpower is to their wellbeing; survey participants routinely
identify a ‘lack of willpower’ as the major impediment to making beneficial life
changes. There are, however, misunderstandings surrounding the nature of
willpower and how we can acquire more of it. There is a widespread
misperception, for example, that increased leisure time would lead to subsequent
increases in willpower.
B
Although the concept of willpower is often explained through single-word terms,
such as ‘resolve’ or ‘drive’, it refers in fact to a variety of behaviours and
situations. There is a common perception that willpower entails resisting some
kind of a ‘treat’, such as a sugary drink or a lazy morning in bed, in favour of
decisions that we know are better for us, such as drinking water or going to the
gym. Of course this is a familiar phenomenon for all. Yet willpower also involves
elements such as overriding negative thought processes, biting your tongue in
social situations, or persevering through a difficult activity. At the heart of any
exercise of willpower, however, is the notion of ‘delayed gratification’, which
involves resisting immediate satisfaction for a course that will yield greater or
more permanent satisfaction in the long run.
C
Scientists are making general investigations into why some individuals are better
able than others to delay gratification and thus employ their willpower, but the
genetic or environmental origins of this ability remain a mystery for now. Some
groups who are particularly vulnerable to reduced willpower capacity, such as
those with addictive personalities, may claim a biological origin for their problems.
What is clear is that levels of willpower typically remain consistent over time
(studies tracking individuals from early childhood to their adult years demonstrate
a remarkable consistency in willpower abilities). In the short term, however, our
ability to draw on willpower can fluctuate dramatically due to factors such as
fatigue, diet and stress. Indeed, research by Matthew Gailliot suggests that
willpower, even in the absence of physical activity, both requires and drains blood
glucose levels, suggesting that willpower operates more or less like a ‘muscle’,
and, like a muscle, requires fuel for optimum functioning.
D
These observations lead to an important question: if the strength of our willpower
at the age of thirty-five is somehow pegged to our ability at the age of four, are all
efforts to improve our willpower certain to prove futile? According to newer
research, this is not necessarily the case. Gregory M. Walton, for example, found
that a single verbal cue – telling research participants how strenuous mental tasks
could ‘energise’ them for further challenging activities – made a profound
difference in terms of how much willpower participants could draw upon to
complete the activity. Just as our willpower is easily drained by negative
influences, it appears that willpower can also be boosted by other prompts, such as
encouragement or optimistic self-talk.
E
Strengthening willpower thus relies on a two-pronged approach: reducing negative
influences and improving positive ones. One of the most popular and effective
methods simply involves avoiding willpower depletion triggers, and is based on
the old adage, ‘out of sight, out of mind’. In one study, workers who kept a bowl of
enticing candy on their desks were far more likely to indulge than those who
placed it in a desk drawer. It also appears that finding sources of motivation from
within us may be important. In another study, Mark Muraven found that those who
felt compelled by an external authority to exert self-control experienced far greater
rates of willpower depletion than those who identified their own reasons for taking
a particular course of action. This idea that our mental convictions can influence
willpower was borne out by Veronika Job. Her research indicates that those who
think that willpower is a finite resource exhaust their supplies of this commodity
long before those who do not hold this opinion.
F
Willpower is clearly fundamental to our ability to follow through on our decisions
but, as psychologist Roy Baumeister has discovered, a lack of willpower may not
be the sole impediment every time our good intentions fail to manifest themselves.
A critical precursor, he suggests, is motivation – if we are only mildly invested in
the change we are trying to make, our efforts are bound to fall short. This may be
why so many of us abandon our New Year’s Resolutions – if these were actions we
really wanted to take, rather than things we felt we ought to be doing, we would
probably be doing them already. In addition, Muraven emphasises the value of
monitoring progress towards a desired result, such as by using a fitness journal, or
keeping a record of savings toward a new purchase. The importance of motivation
and monitoring cannot be overstated. Indeed, it appears that, even when our
willpower reserves are entirely depleted, motivation alone may be sufficient to
keep us on the course we originally chose.
Questions 1-7
1 Willpower is the most significant factor in determining success in

life.
2 People with more free time typically have better willpower.
3 Willpower mostly applies to matters of diet and exercise.
4 The strongest indicator of willpower is the ability to choose long-
term rather than short-term rewards.
5 Researchers have studied the genetic basis of willpower.
6 Levels of willpower usually stay the same throughout our lives.
7 Regular physical exercise improves our willpower ability.
Questions 8-13
Look at the following statements (Questions 8-13) and the list of researchers
below.
Match each statement with the correct person, A–D.
Write the correct letter, A–D, in boxes 8-13 on your answer sheet.
NB You may use some letters more than once.
This researcher …
8 identified a key factor that is necessary for willpower to function.
9 suggested that willpower is affected by our beliefs.
10 examined how our body responds to the use of willpower.
11 discovered how important it is to make and track goals.
12 found that taking actions to please others decreases our willpower.
13 found that willpower can increase through simple positive thoughts.
List of People
A Matthew Gailliot
B Gregory M. Walton
C Mark Muraven
D Veronika Job
E Roy Baumeister
Question 14
Which of the following is NOT mentioned as a factor in willpower?
Willpower is affected by:
A physical factors such as tiredness
B our fundamental ability to delay pleasure
C the levels of certain chemicals in our brains
D environmental cues such as the availability of a trigger
Answer Table
1. TRUE 8. E
2. FALSE 9. D
3. FALSE 10. A
4. TRUE 11. C
5. NOT GIVEN 12. C
6. TRUE 13. B
7. NOT GIVEN 14. C

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