INTEGRAL CALCULUS

Indefinite Integrals
If F(x) is a function whose derivative F'(x) = f(x) on certain interval of the x-axis, then F(x) is called
the anti-derivative of indefinite integral f(x). When we integrate the differential of a function we get
that function plus an arbitrary constant. In symbols we write

where the symbol , called the integral sign, specifies the operation of integration upon f(x) dx; that
is, we are to find a function whose derivative is f(x) or whose differential is f(x) dx. The dx tells us
that the variable of integration is x.

Evaluate the following integrals:

Example 1:

Example 2:

Example 3:

Solution to Example 1:
 answer

Solution to Example 2:

This is the form . If we let , then is raised to a power 4 and is

multiplied by the differential of the function corresponding to , the
integral can be evaluated as follows:

answer

It should be pointed out that no integral can be evaluated directly unless it contains, in addition to the
expression identified with , the exact differential of the function corresponding to .

Solution to Example 3:

answer

Evaluate the following:

Example 4:

Example 5:
Example 6:

Solution to Example 4

This is not of the form because of the missing constant factor 3 in the integrand.
Identifying , , then the differential . We must then insert 3 in the
integrand and to compensate for it, we place the reciprocal 1/3 before the integral sign. This in effect
multiplying by one does not affect the value of the function.

Let , then

answer

Solution to Example 5
Let
u = 2x3 + 2x + 1
du = (6x2 + 2) dx = 2(3x2 + 1) dx
n = -2/3

answer

Solution to Example 6

If we let and , then . But there is no in the given integrand. It is

easy to insert -4 in the integrand and offset this by placing -1/4 before the integral sign but nothing
can be done about the missing factor . We therefore expand and integrate term by
term.

answer
Integration Formulas
In these formulas, u and v denote differentiable functions of some independent variable (say x) and
a, n, and C are constants.

1. The integral of the differential of a function u is u plus an arbitrary constant C (the definition
of an integral).

2. The integral of a constant times the differential of the function. (A constant may be written
before the integral sign but not a variable factor).

3. The integral of the sum of a finite number of differentials is the sum of their integrals.

4. If n is not equal to minus one, the integral of un du is obtained by adding one to the exponent
and divided by the new exponent. This is called the General Power Formula.
Definite Integral
The definite integral of f(x) is the difference between two values of the integral of f(x) for two distinct
values of the variable x. If the integral of f(x) dx = F(x) + C, the definite integral is denoted by the
symbol

The quantity F(b) - F(a) is called the definite integral of f(x) between the limits a and b or simply the
definite integral from a to b. It is called the definite integral because the result involves neither x nor
the constant C and therefore has a definite value. The numbers a and b are called the limits of
integration, a being the lower limit and b the upper limit.

General Properties of Definite Integral

1. The sign of the integral changes if the limits are interchanged.

2. The interval of integration may be broken up into any number of subintervals, and integrate
over each interval separately.

3. The definite integral of a given integrand is independent of the variable of integration. Hence,
it makes no difference what letter is used for the variable of integration.
The General Power Formula as shown is in the form

Thus far integration has been confined to polynomial functions. Although the power formula was
studied, our attention was necessarily limited to algebraic integrals, so that further work with power
formula is needed. The power formula can be used to evaluate certain integrals involving powers of
the trigonometric functions.

Problem

Evaluate

Solution

answer

Problem

Evaluate .

Solution
 answer

Problem

Integrate .

Solution

answer
Logarithmic Functions | Fundamental Integration Formulas

The limitation of the Power Formula , is when ; this makes the right
side of the equation indeterminate. This is where the logarithmic function comes in, note

that , and we can recall that . Thus,

The formula above involves a numerator which is the derivative of the denominator. The
denominator represents any function involving any independent variable. The formula is
meaningless when is negative, since the logarithms of negative numbers have not been defined. If
we write so that , then we have

When negative numbers are involved, the formula should be considered in the form

The integral of any quotient whose numerator is the differential of the denominator is the logarithm of
the denominator.
Exponential Functions | Fundamental Integration Formulas
There are two basic formulas for the integration of exponential functions.

1.

2.

Where
= function, say
= constant (example: 3, π, sin 30°, √7)
Trigonometric Functions | Fundamental Integration
Formulas
Basic Formulas

1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

6.

Formulas Derived from Logarithmic Function

7.

8.

9.

10.

The six basic formulas for integration involving trigonometric functions are stated in terms of
appropriate pairs of functions. An integral involving and , which the simple integration
formula cannot be applied, we must put the integrand entirely in terms of and or in terms
of and . Notice that these formulas are reverse formulas in Differential Calculus.
The formulas derived from trigonometric function can be traced as follows:

→ Formula

→ Formula
Inverse Trigonometric Functions | Fundamental Integration
Formulas
In applying the formula (Example: Formula 1 below), it is important to note that the numerator du is
the differential of the variable quantity u which appears squared inside the square root symbol. We
mentally put the quantity under the radical into the form of the square of the constant minus the
square of the variable.

1.

2.

3.
Algebraic Substitution | Integration by Substitution
In algebraic substitution we replace the variable of integration by a function of a new variable. A
change in the variable on integration often reduces an integrand to an easier integrable form.

Example 1:

Example 2:

Example 3:

Solution to Example 1

Let
 answer

Solution to Example 2

Let
Solution to Example 3

Let
 answer

Trigonometric Substitution | Techniques of Integration

Trigonometric substitution is employed to integrate expressions involving functions of (a 2 − u2), (a2 +
u2), and (u2 − a2) where "a" is a constant and "u" is any algebraic function. Substitutions convert the
respective functions to expressions in terms of trigonometric functions. The substitution is more
useful but not limited to functions involving radicals.

Use the following suggestions:

When the integrand involves...

 (a2 − u2), try u = a sin θ

 (a2 + u2), try u = a tan θ
 (u2 − a2), try u = a sec θ

The substitution may be represented geometrically by constructing a right triangle.

Integration of Rational Fractions | Techniques of
Integration
Partial Fraction
Functions of x that can be expressed in the form P(x)/Q(x), where both P(x) and Q(x) are
polynomials of x, is known as rational fraction. A rational fraction is known to be a proper
fraction if the degree of P(x) is less than the degree of Q(x). Example of proper fraction is...

A rational fraction is said to be an improper fraction if the degree of P(x) is greater than or equal to
the degree of Q(x). Examples are...

and

Improper fraction may be expressed as the sum of a polynomial and a proper fraction. For example:

Proper fraction such as can be expressed as the sum of partial fraction, provided that
the denominator will factorized.

Integration of any rational fraction depends essentially on the integration of a proper fraction by
expressing it into a sum of partial fractions. There are four cases that may arise in dealing with
integrand involving proper fraction.
Plane Areas in Rectangular Coordinates | Applications of
Integration

 Area by integration
 Horizontal strip
 Limits
 Limits of integration
 Lower limit
 Plane areas
 Strip
 Upper limit
 Vertical strip

There are two methods for finding the area bounded by curves in rectangular coordinates. These
are...

1. by using a horizontal element (called strip) of area, and

2. by using a vertical strip of area.

The strip is in the form of a rectangle with area equal to length × width, with width equal to
the differential element. To find the total area enclosed by specified curves, it is necessary to sum
up a series of rectangles defined by the strip.

Using Horizontal Strip

From the figure, the area of the strip is , where . The total area can be found by
running this strip starting from going to . Our formula for integration is...
Note that is the right end of the strip and is always on the curve and is the left end of the
strip and is always on the curve . We therefore substitute and prior to
integration.

Using Vertical Strip

We apply the same principle of using horizontal strip to the vertical strip. Consider the figure below.

The total area is...

Where
= upper end of the strip =
= lower end of the strip =

The steps in finding the area can be outlined as follows:

1. Sketch the curve
2. Decide what strip to use and define its limits
3. Apply the appropriate formula based on the strip then integrate.
Browse for some examples that illustrate the two methods.

Example 1 | Plane Areas in Rectangular Coordinates

 downward parabola
 horizontal strip
 limits of integration
 parabolic segment
 plane areas
 vertical strip

Example 1
Find the area bounded by the curve y = 9 - x2 and the x-axis.

Solution
Step 1: Sketch the curve.

→ downward parabola, vertex at (0, 9), latus rectum = 1

The required area is symmetrical with respect to the y-axis, in this case, integrate the half of the area
then double the result to get the total area. The use of symmetry will greatly simplify our solution
most specially to curves in polar coordinates.

Using Horizontal Strip

Step 2: Determine the limits of the strip.
The strip shown will start from and end to
Step 3: Apply the appropriate formula then integrate.

Where

= parabola =
= y-axis =

answer

Using Vertical Strip

Step 2: Determine the limits of the strip.
In this case the limits are not defined; we need to solve the points of intersection of the curves.

when , . The strip will swipe from x = 0 to x = 3.

Step 3: Apply the appropriate formula then integrate.

Where

= parabola =
= x-axis =

ok!
Example 2 | Plane Areas in Rectangular Coordinates

 area by integration
 limits
 limits of integration
 plane areas
 spandrel
 vertical strip

Example 2
Find the area bounded by the curve a2 y = x3, the x-axis and the line x = 2a.

Solution

when
when
points of intersection: (0, 0) and (2a, 8a)

Using vertical strip:

answer
Example 3 | Plane Areas in Rectangular Coordinates

 area by integration
 horizontal strip
 limits of integration
 parabolic segment
 plane areas

Example 3
Find the area bounded by the curve x = y2 + 2y and the line x = 3.

Solution

→ rightward parabola, vertex at (-1, -1), LR = 1

when

Using Horizontal Strip

answer
Example 4
Solve the area bounded by the curve y = 4x - x2 and the lines x = -2 and y = 4.

Solution

→ downward parabola, vertex at (2, 4), LR = 1

answer

Example 5
Find the area between the curves 2x2 + 4x + y = 0 and y = 2x.

Solution

→ downward parabola, vertex at (-1, 2), LR = 1/2

Points of intersection
when x = 0, y = 2(0) = 0
when x = -3, y = 2(-3) = -6
points of intersection: (0, 0) and (-3, -6)

answer

Example 6
Find each of the two areas bounded by the curves y = x3 - 4x and y = x2 + 2x.

Solution

→ upward parabola, vertex at (-1, -1), LR = 1

 → (approximate - for graphing purposes only)

Maximum and minimum points of y = x3 - 4x

when x = 1.15, y = 1.153 - 4(1.15) = -3.08
when x = -1.15, y = (-1.15)3 - 4(-1.15) = 3.08
Maxima: (-1.15, 3.08)
Minima: (1.15, -3.08)

Points of intersection:

when x = 0, y = 0
when x = 3, y = 3^3 - 4(3) = 15
when x = -2, y = (-2)^3 - 4(-2) y = 0

Points of intersection: (0, 0), (3, 15) and (-2, 0)

answer

answer
Example 7 | Area inside the square not common to the
quarter circles

 area by integration
 plane areas
 quarter circle

Problem
The figure shown below is composed of arc of circles with centers at each corner of the square 20
cm by 20 cm. Find the area inside the square but outside the region commonly bounded by the
quarter circles. The required area is shaded as shown in the figure below.

Solution

Where
Thus,

At this point, you can use your scientific calculator to solve for the area of region ABC. From

calculator.

Required area,

answer

For the sake of discussion, integration is carried further step by step below.
 For

Let

When y = 0, θ = 0
When y = 10, θ = 30° = π/6

Thus,
Required area,

answer

Plane Areas in Polar Coordinates | Applications of

Integration

 area by integration
 integration of polar area
 polar area
 polar coordinates
 polar curves

The fundamental equation for finding the area enclosed by a curve whose equation is in polar
coordinates is...

Where θ1 and θ2 are the angles made by the bounding radii.

The formula above is based on a sector of a circle with radius r and central angle dθ. Note that r is a
polar function or r = f(θ). See figure above.
Example 1 | Plane Areas in Polar Coordinates

 area by integration
 plane areas
 polar area
 polar curves
 two-leaved rose

Example 1
Find the area enclosed by r = 2a sin2 θ.

Solution
 answer

Example 2 | Plane Areas in Polar Coordinates

 area by integration
 integration of polar area
 lemniscate of Bernoulli
 plane areas
 polar area

Example 2
Find the area bounded by the lemniscate of Bernoulli r 2 = a2 cos 2θ.

Solution

The curve is symmetrical with respect to the origin, and occurs only with values of θfrom -45° to 45°
(-¼ π to ¼ π).
The area in polar coordinates is:

answer
Example 3
Find the area inside the cardioid r = a(1 + cos θ) but outside the circle r = a.

Solution
 answer

Find the area of the inner loop of the limacon r = a(1 + 2 cos θ).

Solution
 answer

Find the area enclosed by four-leaved rose r = a cos 2θ.

Solution

θ 0° 15° 30° 45° 60° 75° 90°

r a 0.87a 0.5a 0 -0.5a -0.87a -a

Since cos (-2θ) = cos 2θ, the equation remains unchanged when θ is replaced by -θ, the curve is
symmetric with respect to the x-axis. The equation remains unchanged when θ is replaced by (180°
- θ), since cos 2(π - θ) = cos 2θ. Therefore, the graph is symmetric with respect to the y-axis.
Because of symmetry, we can sketch the curve without recourse to point-by-point plotting.
answer
Example 6
What is the area within the curve r 2 = 16 cos θ?

Solution

θ 0° ±30° ±60° ±90° > 90°

r ±4 ±3.72 ±2.83 0 imaginary

The values in the table show that the graph is symmetrical to the origin and θ ranges from -90° to
90°.

answer
Volumes of Solids of Revolution | Applications of
Integration

 circular disk method

 cylindrical shell method
 solids of revolution
 volume
 volume by integration

The solid generated by rotating a plane area about an axis in its plane is called a solid of
revolution. The volume of a solid of revolution may be found by the following procedures:

Circular Disk Method

The strip that will revolve is perpendicular to the axis of revolution. In this method, the axis of rotation
may or may not be part of the boundary of the plane area that is being revolved.

Using Horizontal Strip

The disk as shown in the figure has an outer radius of x R, a hole of radius xL, and thickness dy. The
differential volume is therefore π xR2 dy - π xL2 dy and the total volume is...
The integration involved is in variable y since the derivative is dy, x R and xL therefore must be
expressed in terms of y. If the axis of revolution is part of the boundary of the plane area that is
being revolved, xL = 0, and the equation reduces to...

Using Vertical Strip

From the figure shown below, the volume can be found by the formula...
If yL = 0, we have

Where yU and yL are functions of x.

Cylindrical Shell Method

The strip that will revolve is parallel to the axis of revolution. The volume of revolution is obtained by
taking the limit of the sum of cylindrical shell elements, each of which is equal in volume to the mean
circumference times the height times the thickness.

Using Horizontal Strip

Using Vertical Strip

Example 1 | Volumes of Solids of Revolution

 circular disk method

 cylindrical shell method
 paraboloid
 solids of revolution
 volume by integration

Example 1
Find the volume of the solid generated when the area bounded by the curve y2 = x, the x-axis and
the line x = 2 is revolved about the x-axis.

Solution
Circular Disk Method
 answer

Cylindrical Shell Method

answer

Example 2 | Volumes of Solids of Revolution

 circular disk method

 cylindrical shell method
 horizontal strip
 parabolic segment
 solids of revolution
 volume by integration
Example 2
Find the volume generated when the area in Example 1 will revolve about the y-axis.

Solution
Circular Disk Method

answer
Cylindrical Shell Method

answer