IAS Compass - Current Affairs Compilation For Prelims 2024 - History Culture

CONTENTS
ANCIENT HISTORY OF INDIA 5

1. RATNAGIRI’S PRE-HISTORIC PETROGLYPHS 5
2. BHIMBETKA PRE-HISTORIC CAVES 5
3. PALAEOLITHIC TOOL DISCOVERY ADDS TO UNDERSTANDING OF HUMAN SETTLEMENTS 6
4. NEOLITHIC AGE 7
5. NEW IVC CEMETERY DISCOVERED AT KUTCH REGION OF GUJARAT 8
6. MEGALITHIC CULTURE IN INDIA 9
7. KEELADI ARCHAEOLOGICAL SITE 9
8. PM RECALLS THE NOBLE TEACHINGS OF BHAGWAN MAHAVIR ON MAHAVIR JAYANTI 10
9. 11TH CENTURY JAIN SCULPTURES DISCOVERED IN VARUNA 12
10. INDIA TO HOST MAIDEN GLOBAL BUDDHIST SUMMIT 13
11. BENOY K BEHL’S SHOW REVEALS THE HIDDEN GEMS OF THE AJANTA CAVES TO THE WORLD 17
12. INDIA TO DISPLAY RELICS OF LORD BUDDHA IN THAILAND 18
13. MAHABODHI TEMPLE COMPLEX, BODH GAYA 19
14. MURAL IN NEW PARLIAMENT 20
15. ODISHA’S MODERN CAPITAL SWALLOWS ITS ANCIENT URBAN HUB 21
16. IMAGE OF DHANVANTARI IN THE LOGO OF NATIONAL MEDICAL COMMISSION 21
17. THIRUVALLUVAR 22
18. APPOINTMENT OF ARCHAKAS IN AGAMIC TEMPLES 23
19. GEO HERITAGE SITES 24
MEDIEVAL HISTORY OF INDIA 27

1. PARROT LADY 27
2. MARTAND TEMPLE 28
3. UTTARAMERUR MODEL OF DEMOCRACY 28
4. GURJARA PRATIHARA DYNASTY 30
5. QILA RAI PITHORA 32
6. ENSEMBLES OF HOYSALAS INSCRIBED ON UNESCO WORLD HERITAGE LIST 33
7. DISCOVERY OF TEMPLES IN TELANGANA SHOWS SPREAD OF CHALUKYA REIGN 34
8. JAGANNATH TEMPLE CORRIDOR 35
9. ESTIMATE OF GHIYAS-UD-DIN BALBAN (1216-1287) 36
10. TUGHALQABAD FORT 37
11. KHILJI DYNASTY ARCHITECTURE 38
12. FUSION OF ROCK ART 38
13. QUTUB MINAR AND ITS MONUMENTS 39
14. PURANA QILA: THE GRAND OLD FORT OF DELHI 40
15. KHOONI DARWAJA 40
16. KHAN-E-KHANA (RAHIM KHAN’S TOMB) AND THE HUMAYUN’S TOMB 41
17. FATEHPUR SIKRI 43
18. MUGHAL RULER AURANGZEB 44
19. RANI DURGAVATI 45
20. LACHIT BARPHUKAN 45
21. BABA BANDA SINGH BAHADUR 46
22. HISTORY AND SIGNIFICANCE OF THE SIKH ASSEMBLY 46
23. JANTAR MANTAR 47
24. AHMEDNAGAR OF MAHARASHTRA TO RENAMED AFTER AHILYADEVI HOLKAR 47
25. MARATHA FORTS NOMINATED FOR UNESCO WORLD HERITAGE LIST 48
26. NAWAB WAJID ALI SHAH 49
27. BHAKTI MOVEMENT 51
28. SHRINE OF SAINT SHEIKH AHMED KARIM 52
29. ADI SHANKARA STATUE UNVEILED IN MADHYA PRADESH 53
30. LORD BASAVESHWARA & NADAPRABHU KEMPEGOWDA 54
31. GURU RAVIDAS 55
32. GURU NANAK PARAB 56
33. SATTRAS OF ASSAM 57
34. SANT SEVALAL MAHARAJ 58
MODERN HISTORY & POST INDEPENDENCE 59

1. SWAMI DAYANAND SARASWATI 59
2. MATUA MAHA SABHA 60
3. HUNDRED YEARS OF VAIKOM SATYAGRAHA 60
4. SAVITRIBAI PHULE 61
5. SANTINIKETAN FINDS ITS PLACE ON UNESCO’S WORLD HERITAGE LIST 62
6. SIR SYED AHMAD KHAN (1817-1898) 63
7. MAHIMA DHARMA 65
8. POLITICAL DEBATE HAS STARTED ON WHO KILLED TIPU SULTAN AMID THE ELECTIONS IN KARNATAKA 66
9. REINTERPRETING SANTAL REBELLION 68
10. ALLURI SITARAMA RAJU AND RAMPA REBELLION 68
11. MADRAS FOUNDATION DAY 69
12. SUBHASH CHANDRA BOSE 70
13. RANI VELU NACHIYAR 71
14. ASSAM’S FIRST FEMALE FREEDOM FIGHTER 71
15. BHAGAT SINGH’S VASUDHAIVA KUTUMBAKAM 73
16. INDIAN NATIONAL CONGRESS 73
17. WOMEN WHO CONTRIBUTED IN MAKING THE INDIAN CONSTITUTION 77
18. LIBERATION OF BANGLADESH 78
19. OPERATION POLO IN HYDERABAD 79
ART & CULTURE OF INDIA 81

1. SRI RANGANATHASWAMY TEMPLE 81
2. BADRINATH DHAM 81
3. PRASHAD SCHEME 81
4. ANGKOR WAT TEMPLE 82
5. THIRUNELLI TEMPLE IN KERALA 83
6. PANDHARPUR TEMPLES 83
7. JEHOVAH’S WITNESSES 84
8. MANY, NOT ONE RAMAYANA 85
9. NAGARA STYLE OF TEMPLE ARCHITECTURE, IN WHICH RAM TEMPLE IS BEING BUILT 86
10. GEOGRAPHICAL INDICATION (GI) 88
11. MOHINIYATTAM 89
12. TIBETAN BUDDHIST LAMA DANCE 90
13. THEYYAM 90
14. KOLKALI ART 90
15. GARBA MAKES IT TO UNESCO INTANGIBLE CULTURAL HERITAGE LIST 90
16. CHHAU DANCE 91
17. DOKRA ART 92
18. SARI FESTIVAL- VIRASAT 92
19. ETIKOPPAKA TOY CRAFT 93
20. LAMBANI ART ITEMS 93
21. JAMDANI SARI 94
22. NAMDA ART OF JAMMU AND KASHMIR 94
23. HISTORY AND SYMBOLISM OF SHIVA’S NATARAJA FORM 94
24. CLASSICAL MUSIC IN INDIA 95
25. IN CITY, AN EXHIBITION CELEBRATING INDIA’S MONUMENTS IN THANJAVUR STYLE 97
26. FAMOUS BASOHLI PAINTING FROM JAMMU AND KASHMIR'S KATHUA GETS GI TAGGING 98
27. FUSION OF ROCK ART 99
28. WARLI ART 99
29. MAKAR SANKRANTI 99
30. MAKARAVILAKKU FESTIVAL 100
31. DHANU YATRA 100
32. LOSAR FESTIVAL 100
33. PARSHURAM KUND FESTIVAL 100
34. ONAM FESTIVAL 100
35. LEGEND OF SAMMAKKA SARAKKA 101
36. KAMBALA 101
37. BHOGALI BIHU 101
38. KERALA CAPITAL SEES MASSIVE TURNOUT OF DEVOTEES FOR ATTUKAL PONGALA 102
39. SAHITYA AKADEMI AWARDS 102
40. NOBEL PRIZE IN LITERATURE 103
41. KUVEMPU AWARD 104
42. BHARAT RATNA AWARD 104
43. ABOUT PADMA AWARDS 104
44. INDIAN MARTIAL ARTS 105
45. MUDIYETTU 107
46. 73RD REPUBLIC DAY 108
47. SHILABHATTARIKA 109
48. KUKI & MEITEI TRIBE OF MANIPUR 110
49. TRIPURA BOARD ALLOWS KOKBOROK IN ROMAN SCRIPT IN EXAMINATIONS 110
50. INTERNATIONAL MOTHER LANGUAGE DAY (2024) 111
51. MADHIKA LANGUAGE IN KERALA IS ON THE BRINK OF EXTINCTION 111
52. DEMAND TO OFFICIALLY LIST BENGALI AS A ‘CLASSICAL LANGUAGE’ 111
53. UNITED NATIONS EDUCATIONAL, SCIENTIFIC AND CULTURAL ORGANIZATION 112
54. ENCROACHMENTS AROUND CENTRALLY PROTECTED MONUMENT 116
55. GATEWAY OF INDIA AND CENTRALLY PROTECTED MONUMENTS 116
56. ABOUT INTACH 117
57. DHORDO IS RECOGNISED AS A BEST TOURISM VILLAGE 117
58. BIHAR TO DEVELOP SITA’S BIRTHPLACE 118
1
ANCIENT HISTORY OF
Chapter INDIA
1. RATNAGIRI’S PRE-HISTORIC PETROGLYPHS
• Location: Maharashtra's Ratnagiri district
• The rock art, or petroglyphs, estimated to be 20,000 years old is classified as protected monuments by the state
archaeology department and the Archaeological Survey of India.
• Added to the tentative list of UNESCO’s world heritage sites.
• A petroglyph is an image created by removing part of a rock surface by incising, picking, carving, or abrading,
as a form of rock art.
• Different from rock art (paintings on rocks).
• Petroglyphs are different as the images are carved into the flat, open rock surface which gives them a scale.
SIGNIFICANCE OF RATNAGIRI’S PREHISTORIC ROCK ART

• Carving found on large scale across the entire Ratnagiri district called ‘Katal shilpa’.
• Evidence of the continued existence of human settlements: Mesolithic (middle stone age) to the early
historic era.
OTHER PETROGLYPHS SITES IN INDIA

• Kupgal- Karnataka
• Kandanathi- Andhra Pradesh
• Sindhudurg- Maharashtra
• Dindigul- Tamil Nadu
• Nilgiri- Tamil Nadu
• Bhimbedtka- Madhya Pradesh
• Edakkal caves- Kerala
• Unakoti- Tripura
• Dhomkhar and Tangtse- Ladakh
2. BHIMBETKA PRE-HISTORIC CAVES

• Location: Raisen District, Madhya Pradesh
• The first discovery of rock paintings was made in India in 1867–68 by an archaeologist, Archibold Carlleyle.
• Prehistoric (a period of ancient history before the start of writings) paintings.
• The caves of Bhimbetka were discovered in 1957–58 by eminent archaeologist V.S. Wakankar.
• Marked as a UNESCO's World Heritage Site 2003.
• Categorised into three major historical periods:
o Period I, Upper Palaeolithic;
o Period II, Mesolithic; and
o Period III, Chalcolithic.
• Upper Palaeolithic Period paintings: Linear representations, in green and dark red, of huge animal figures,
such as bisons, elephants, tigers, rhinos and boars besides stick-like human figures.
RAU’S IAS PRELIMS COMPASS 2024 | HISTORY & CULTURE 5

ANCIENT HISTORY OF INDIA
• Mesolithic Period Paintings: Most paintings belong to this period; Themes increased but size reduced; Scenes
of hunting became prominent; Weapons such as barbed spears, pointed sticks, arrows and bows were shown.;
Community dances provide a common theme.
• Chalcolithic Period Painting:
o Paintings of this period reveal mutual exchange of requirements of the cave dwellers of this area with settled
agricultural communities of the Malwa plains.
o Pottery and metal tools are also shown.
o Most famous paintings: Boar attacking human.
3. PALAEOLITHIC TOOL DISCOVERY ADDS TO

UNDERSTANDING OF HUMAN SETTLEMENTS
• Significant discovery of Paleolithic quartzite tools, specifically hand axes in Telangana’s Mulugu district
• Heavy quartzite tools were utilized for cutting wood and hunting animals for sustenance.
• In 1863 Geological Survey team of East India Company at Attirampakkam near Madras discovered bifacial hand-
axes (dated 15 lakh years old).
GEOGRAPHICAL SETTINGS IN INDIAN SUBCONTINENT

• The Indian landscape possessed all the essential conditions for a successful hunting-gathering lifestyle:
o diverse landforms facilitating the movement of such groups;
o the presence of various basic rocks and siliceous stones suitable for toolmaking;
o perennial water bodies in the form of streams and springs;
o and a rich variety of wild plant and animal foods.
• Except for the Himalayan tract and the Indo-Gangetic alluvial tracts, Stone Age groups occupied the entire Indian
landmass.
PALAEOLITHIC PHASE IN INDIA

• Categorized into three distinct developmental stages:
o Lower Palaeolithic: 600,000 years BP to 150,000 years BP
o Middle Palaeolithic: 165,000 BP to 31,000 years BP
o Upper Palaeolithic: 40,000 years BP to 12,000 years BP
• Lower Palaeolithic practices: use of large pebbles or flakes for crafting tools such as choppers, chopping tools,
hand-axes, cleavers, knives.
• Middle Palaeolithic: use of a diverse range of flakes struck from cores to create tools like scrapers, points,
borers.
• Upper Palaeolithic: blunted and penknife blades, blades featuring serrated edges, and arrow points.
LOWER PALAEOLITHIC PHASE: Soanian tradition and Acheulian Cultural tradition.
KEY LOWER PALAEOLITHIC SITES:

• Singi Talav in western Rajasthan
• Rock shelter III F-23 at Bhimbetka in Madhya Pradesh, providing Acheulian, Middle and Upper Palaeolithic, and
Mesolithic levels.
• Adamgarh in Madhya Pradesh
• Paisra in Munger district, Bihar.
• Chirki-Nevasa in Maharashtra
• Morgaon, a site in the Deccan basalt landscape in the Bhima drainage basin
• Hunsgi in north Karnataka.

• Attirampakkam in Tamil Nadu, an in-situ Acheulian site
MIDDLE PALAEOLITHIC PHASE

• Associated with the extinct Homo neanderthalensis, commonly known as Neanderthal man, who lived during
the Upper Pleistocene period.
• Notable sites include:
o Didwana in Rajasthan, Hiran valley in Gujarat, Potwar Plateau between the Indus and Jhelum rivers, Budha
Pushkar in Rajasthan, Luni river system (indicating tool industries west of the Aravallis), Chirki Nevasa in
Maharashtra, and Kalpi in Uttar Pradesh.
UPPER PALAEOLITHIC PHASE

• Final phase of the Palaeolithic era.
• Anatomically Modern Homo sapiens (AMHS), the only surviving human species, is associated with this cultural
phase, encompassing our own species.
• In the Indian context, Upper Palaeolithic cultural relics are primarily stone tools based on blade-tool technology.
• Bone tools were discovered in the Kurnool caves (Andhra Pradesh).
• Prominent Upper Palaeolithic sites: Chopani Mando in Belan valley, Baghor in Madhya Pradesh, Paisra in
Munger district of Bihar, Haora and Khowai river valleys in western Tripura, Kurnool in Andhra Pradesh,
Muchchatla Chintamanu Gavi in Andhra Pradesh, and Renugunta in Chittor district of Andhra Pradesh.
• Bone tool industries of the Upper Palaeolithic phase:
o Kurnool cave sites in Andhra Pradesh
o Crude technology, reflecting the short-term nature of cave occupations.
o Muchchatla Chintamanu Gavi in Andhra Pradesh cave have revealed blade tools and bone tools.
4. NEOLITHIC AGE
Ancient celt (crafted from Doloraid stone) found at Poothinatham village, Tamil Nadu.
EARLY NEOLITHIC CULTURES & BEGINNING OF AGRICULTURE

• Advent of agriculture and animal domestication.
• Location: Indus region and the Ganges Valley in India.
• Fertile soil deposited by rivers contributed to agricultural growth.
• Surplus of grains and animal food.
• Surplus food production led to rise of early civilizations: Large villages were established, pottery developed,
and permanent residences were constructed.
• Neolithic locations in North-Western India: Mehrgarh and Sarai Kala, (presently located in Pakistan).
• Neolothic locations in South India: Near granite hills with access to water sources; River valleys of Godavari,
Krishna, Pennaru, Tungabhadra, and Kaveri.
SOCIAL ORGANISATION
• Presence of small houses suggests the presence of nuclear families.
• Development of ceramics and beads indicates advancements in material cultural.
• Burials within houses were practiced and animal burials suggest the adoption of rituals and reverence for the
deceased.
• Worshipped natural forces. Existence of terracotta images of cattle implies the presence of a fertility cult.
POTTERY OF THE NEOLITHIC PERIOD

• A ceramic or Pre-Pottery Neolithic due to the absence of pottery vessels.
• Material used: unfired clay, leather, wood, stone, straw.

• Painted ornamentation observed mostly in the Middle Neolithic period.
5. NEW IVC CEMETERY DISCOVERED AT KUTCH REGION OF

GUJARAT
A burial site has been discovered at Khatiya Village, in Kutch region, Gujarat. It is the largest pre-urban Harappan
cemetery.
ABOUT KHATIYA CEMETERY

• Banks of the Gandi stream, which flows into the Great Rann of Kutch.
• In prehistoric times, the Great Rann of Kutch was a navigable area through which the Ghaggar-Harka Nara River
used to pass.
• Pottery: redware, buffware and greyware.
• Believed to be 5,000 years old, belonging to the ‘pre-urban’ phase of the Harappan civilisation.
HARAPPAN CIVILISATION
The Harappan civilization (Indus Valley Civilization) is divided into three phases:
1. Early Harappan Phase from 3300 to 2600 BCE.
2. Mature Harappan Phase from 2600 to 1900 BCE.
3. Late Harappan Phase from 1900 to 1300 BCE.
EARLY HARAPPAN PHASE

• Marked the transition towards the mature Harappan period.
• Farmers from the highlands gradually migrated between their mountain residences and the lowland river
valleys.
• Earliest specimens of the Indus script date back to the third millennium BCE.
• Diverse range of crops such as peas, sesame seeds, dates, and cotton.
• Domesticated animals like the water buffalo.
• By 2600 BCE, early Harappan villages had developed into major urban centres (beginning of the mature
Harappan phase).
• The following sites show how the Early Harappan phase originated and took shape:
o Mehrgarh, Baluchistan: Larger villages and agriculture more developed.
o Ghaggar-Hakra-Indus Axis: Civilisation developed fully. Around 40 Early Harappan sites have been
discovered.
o Amri, near the Indus River: Development of Indus pottery tradition from hard made, monochrome potteries
to nicely painted, wheel-made potteries decorated with humped Indian bull. Use of copper and bronze also
increased.
o Kot Diji, on the left bank of river Indus opposite Mohenjo-Daro: Diverse forms of wheel-made potteries
decorated with plain dark brown stripes, named as the Kot-Dijian Pottery.
o Punjab, Rajasthan and Haryana: Kot Diji-type of potteries have been found. Lapis lazuli, steatite and
terracotta human figurines were found.
o Kalibangan, north Rajasthan (on now dried-up Ghaggar bank): People lived in mud bricks houses of standard
sizes. Copper axes, terracotta bangles shell, carnelian etc. have been found. Evidence of use of plough for
agriculture.
o Banawali, now dried-up course of Ghaggar and Saraswati, Hissar district of Haryana: Potteries, terracotta
bangles, terracotta animal figurines, shell etc; Depiction of covered cart with spoked wheel found.

6. MEGALITHIC CULTURE IN INDIA

In Thirunavaya, situated along the Bharathapuzha River in Kerala, megalithic hat stones were unearthed.
WHAT ARE MEGALITHS?

• A megalith is a stone which is larger in size and has been used to construct a monument or a structure.
• The monument or the structure has been constructed either alone or together with other stones.
• Mainly in the Neolithic and continued into the Chalcolithic Age, Bronze Age and Iron Age.
• The Indian megaliths are mainly from the Iron Age.
• Some sites predate the Iron Age, extending up to 2000 BC.
• Constructed mainly as commemorative memorials or burial sites.
• Sites: Brahmagiri (Karnataka); Yeleswaram (Andhra Pradesh), and Adichanallar (Tamil Nadu
Examples:
• Polylithic types: more than one stone is used such as Dolmen; Cairn; Cromlekh; Cist.
• Monolithic type: consists of a single stone such as Menhir; Stone Circle.
MEGALITHIC CULTURE OF INDIA

• Scattered throughout the Indian subcontinent.
• Highest concentration found in peninsular India, in the states of Maharashtra (mainly in Vidarbha), Karnataka,
Tamil Nadu, Kerala, Andhra Pradesh, and Telangana.
• Existed before written records, it is challenging to determine the racial or ethnic origins of the people.
• Engaged in agricultural activities during both the rabi and kharif seasons:
o Various grains, including rice, wheat, kodo millet, barley, lentil, black gram, horse gram, common pea, pigeon
pea, and Indian jujube, have been discovered.
BURIAL RITUALS AND SOCIAL ORGANISATION

• Dominance of religious and supernatural beliefs within megalithic communities.
• Different burial traditions suggest the existence of various social and ethnic groups.
• In the Vidarbha region, an interesting local ethnic tradition involved burying horses alongside the deceased.
• Communities may have encompassed various professional groups, including blacksmiths, warriors, goldsmiths,
farmers, and carpenters. Inference is drawn from the types of grave goods.
• Discovery of paddy husks at burial sites suggest people's commitment to ensuring a comfortable afterlife.
• Megaliths were not usually constructed for commoners; instead, they signify the emergence of a ruling class or
elite.
ERECTION OF MEGALITHS BY SOME INDIAN TRIBES

• Examples of such tribes include the Gadabas, Gonds, Kurumbas, Marias, Mundas, Savaras, Garos, Khasis, Nagas,
Karbis, Tiwas, and Marams.
• Khasi community, build memorial stones known as 'Kynmaw,' signifying ‘remembering.’
7. KEELADI ARCHAEOLOGICAL SITE

Location: Keeladi is a tiny hamlet in the Sivaganga district in south Tamil Nadu. It is located along the Vaigai
river.
LINKED TO SANGAM AGE

• A period of history in ancient Tamil Nadu, believed to be from the third century BCE to the third century CE.
LINKS TO INDUS VALLEY

• The findings have invited comparisons with the Indus Valley Civilisation while acknowledging the cultural gap of
1,000 years between the two places.

• Some of the symbols found in pot sherds of Keeladi bear a close resemblance to Indus Valley signs.
• All the characteristics of an urban civilisatio found: brick structures, luxury items and proof of internal and
external trade.
• Findings: Existed of a dyeing industry and a glass bead industry; Construction of houses was based on the use
of bricks.
8. PM RECALLS THE NOBLE TEACHINGS OF BHAGWAN

MAHAVIR ON MAHAVIR JAYANTI
EMERGENCE OF HETERODOX THINKERS
• In sixth and fifth centuries BCE, in North India number of heterodox philosophies challenged the pre-existing
philosophy.
• Philosophers: Gosala, Gautama Buddha, Mahavira, Ajita Kesakambalin.
CAUSES OF INTELLECTUAL AWAKENING

• Rigidity of the Vedic religion and state creation: limited people’s freedom.
• Socio-political and economic changes. Disenchanted with the existing order, the wealthy class started to act in
opposition to the Orthodox faiths.
• Vedic religion was not yet fully organised, making it easy for individuals to adhere to the newly forming religious
sects.
• New classes of merchants and bankers like sethis sought higher social status in line with their economic
standing as a result of urbanisation and the rise of trade.
• Kshatriyas were upset because the Vedic writings only allowed Brahmins to live a staged life in ashramas.
JAINISM (Vardhamana Mahavira’s sect)

• Buddhist writings refer to as Nigantha Nataputta.
• Risabha is credited as the sect’s founder in Jaina mythology. He is regarded as the original Tirthankara.
• Three of the Tirthankaras: Risabha, Ajitanatha, and Aristanemi, are mentioned in the Yajur veda.
• Mahavira (Jina/the conqueror of the soul) organised his followers into secular and monastic groups.
LIFE OF MAHAVIRA
• 540 BCE, Mahavir was born in Vajji (a democratic kingdom/Ganarajya).
o In ganarajya, ruler was chosen through popular vote.
• Son of the King Siddharth of Kundalgrama and Queen Trishala (Ikshvaku dynasty).
o His mother was a princess of the Lichchavi and Chetaka’s (chief of Lichchavi) sister.
o Mahavira was related to the rulers of Magadha, Anga, and Videha through his mother.
• At the age of 30, he left his home and spent 12 years wandering as a mendicant and engaged in strict penance.
• Met Gosala, but they later parted ways because of differences.
• Gained Nirvana (enlightenment), in the thirteenth year of his wandering.
• Attained Tirthankara status and came to be known as Jina or Mahavira (the Great Conqueror).
• He passed awayin Pavapuri, close to Rajgriha, around 468 BCE; fasted unto death (Sallekhana) according to Jaina
ideals.
SECTS OF JAINISM
• Split happened roughly 500 years after Mahavira’s departure, around 79 or 82 CE.
• Severe famine in Magadha occurred and some of Jaina monks under Bhadrabahu left for south and maintained
rigorous discipline; remained without garments; known as ‘Digambaras’ (space-clad or naked).

o Rejects the authority of the Jain Agama compiled by Sthulabhadra.

o Wrote Shatkhandagama, one of the oldest scriptures of the digambara sect.
o Present mainly in Southern India, Bundelkhand region (Madhya Pradesh, Rajasthan, Uttar Pradesh, etc.)
o Major sub sects: Mula Sangh, the original community and Bispanthi, Terapanthi and Taranpanthi, the
modern community
o TERAPANTHI VS BISPANTHI
 Digambara Terapanthis worship the idols with ashta-dravya just like the Bispanthis; but Digambara Tera
Panthi sect opposes Bhattarakas and worship only tirthankaras.
 The Bispanthis worship tirthankaras as well as Yaksha and Yakshini.
 Bhattarakas are their dharma-gurus and they are concentrated in Rajasthan and Gujarat.
• ‘Svetambaras’ (white-clad) remained under Sthulabhadra’s leadership, chose a white clothing.
o Three sub-sects include:
 Sthanakavasi: Believe in praying to Saints rather than to an idol in a temple; wear a muhapatti near their
mouth to cover it unlike Murtipujakas.
 Murtipujaka (Deravasi): Keep idols of the tirthankaras at their temples and worship them; do not wear
a muhapatti.
 Terapanthi: Pray to saints rather than to an idol; wear a muhapatti near their mouth to cover it.
JAINA COUNCILS
In Pataliputra, Patronised by Headed by Resulted into
First 300 BC
Bihar Chandragupta Maurya Sthulabhadra compilation of 12 Angas
Headed by Resulted into final

In Vallabhi,
Second 512 AD ---- Devardhi- compilation of 12 Angas
Gujarat
Kshmasramana and 12 Upangas
TENETS OF JAINISM
• Strong emphasis on nonviolence.
• Rejects the idea of a creator.
• Did not initially worship any deities.
• Mahavira disapproved of Vedic rule.
• No beginning or end to the world.
• Promoted dualism:
o Universe is composed of ever-lasting souls (jivas) and substance (ajivas).
o When jiva and ajiva combine, karma (action) is produced, causing a never-ending cycle of birth and
reincarnation.
o Severe penance and austerity must be practised in order to release oneself from karma, as a result, only
monks in Jainism were able to break free from the cycle of rebirth and birth.
• Against any form of inequality based on birth. Birth-based status is regarded as a sin.
• Monastic order accepted women.
• But a woman to find salvation need to be reborn as a man.
THREE GEMS: Three principles called Triratnas

(1) Right faith (samyag-darshana/samyak-shadha);
(2) Right knowledge (samyag-jnana);
(3) Right conduct (samyag-mahavrata/Samyak-karma/samyak-acharana)

FIVE GREAT VOWS/PANCHA MAHAVRATAS: Monks have to undertake the five great vows
(1) Not to kill or injure (ahimsa);
(2) Not to steal (asteya);
(3) Not to lie (satya);
(4) Celibacy (brahmacharya);
(5) Not to possess property (aparigraha)
o The first four vows were laid down by Parshwanath and the fifth one was added by Mahavira.
FIVE TYPES OF KNOWLEDGE

(1) Mati jnana: Perception through activity of sense organs, including mind.
(2) Shruta jnana: Knowledge revealed by scriptures.
(3) Avadhi jnana: Spiritual perception
(4) Manahparyaya jnana: Telepathic knowledge
(5) Keval jnana: Temporal knowledge
SYADVADA/ANEKANTAVADA THEORY IN JAINISM

• The “theory of perhaps” holds that all of our judgements must necessarily be conditional and relative.
• Seven different types of prediction are conceivable, according to Syadvada (Saptabhangi Nayavad).
• Both absolute affirmation and negation are incorrect.
JAINA LITERATURE
• Sacred literature of the Svetambaras in a type of Prakrit called Ardhamagadhi (language of the common people:
12 Angas, 12 upangas, 10 parikarnas, Chhedasutras, Mulasutras and Sutra-Granthas.
• 14 purvas/parvas- part of 12 Angas and the oldest text of Mahavira’s preachings.
• Other mportant Jain texts are:
o Kalpasutra (Sanskrit)- Bhadrabahu
o Parishishta Parvan (an appendix Trishashthishalaka Purusha)- Hemachandra.
JAIN COMMUNITY HAS SURVIVED TEST OF THE TIME

• When Buddhism, was on the decrease, Jains were successful in maintaining their own identity.
• Countered the bhakti movement by appropriating its key cult figures by creating alternate versions of the
Ramayana and Mahabharata.
• Spiritual leaders and wealthy traders of the Jain community of medieval India had relatively peaceful
relationships with the Mughal ruling class. Example: Akbar and Jahangir farmans, prohibiting the killing of
animals on specific days, like the Jain festival of Paryushan.
• Jains attempted to avoid those ways of life that obviously and consistently injure the living.
• Many popular jobs including farming and transporting animals were disapproved of almost from the beginning
for the Jain practitioners. Jains came to be specialised in mercantile occupations, like jewellery making and
money lending being. Historical wealth assisted its member in maintaining relevance.
• Fourfold division of society known as the Chaturvidhasangha, as per which the Jains are organised, creates a
very strong emotional connection between the Jain ascetic community and Jain layman.
9. 11TH CENTURY JAIN SCULPTURES DISCOVERED IN

VARUNA
• Location: Mysuru district, Karnataka.

JAIN ART AND ARCHITECTURE

• Prominent examples of Jain architecture:
o Gomateshvar in Shravanabelagola, Karnataka (Built in 983 AD): Houses the largest monolithic statue of
Bahubali.
 For the Jains, Bahubali is the first siddha and Mokshagami, the soul that has attained nirvana.
o Dilwara Temple, Mt. Abu, Rajasthan (Built by Chalukyan ruler Bhimadeva in 1031 AD)
o Udayagiri-Khandagiri caves in Odisha: Comprising 35 Jain caves, notable for the Hathigumpha inscription
of Kharavela.
o Khajuraho temple complex, Madhya Pradesh: Features Jain temples dating back to the 10th and 11th
centuries, with the Parshwanath temple holding particular significance.
o Ellora Caves: Encompassing Jain caves, including the renowned Indrasabha cave.
• JAIN SCULPTURE
o The Ayagapata, a votive slab central to Jain worship, is adorned with symbols like the stupa, dharmacakra,
and triratna.
o Mathura school of sculptures:
 Depict Jina in various poses, including seated and standing.
 School contributed reliefs, known as Ayagapata, depicting scenes like Jina stupa, swastika, and twin fish
symbols.
o Examples of Jain sculptures:
 Lohanipur Torso (Patliputra, Bihar): A polished sandstone statue of a Jain Tirthankara.
 Gopachal Rock-Cut Jain Monuments (Gwalior Fort, Madhya Pradesh): Depict Tirthankaras in seated
Padmasana and Kayotsarga postures.
 Vasantgarh Hoard (Rajasthan): Discovery of 240 Jain bronze idols, showcasing Tirthankaras and Jain
deities of Shwetambara sect
10. INDIA TO HOST MAIDEN GLOBAL BUDDHIST SUMMIT

Recently, India, as chair of the Shanghai Cooperation Organization (SCO), hosted a meeting on Buddhist heritage
that included all countries.
ABOUT BUDDHISM
• Belongs to the Shramana school of religious movements, which means one who performs acts of austerity and
ascetic.
BASIC DETAILS OF BUDDHA

• Born at Lumbini village of Kapilavastu Nepal in 563 BC in the Shakya Kshatriya clan.
• His clan considered themselves to be descendants of Ikshvaku dynasty.
• Mahabhiraskramana or the Great Going Forth: Gautam Buddha left his home and discarded worldly life.
• Mahaparinirvana: Died in 483 BC near Kushinara (Kushinagar, UP).
• Chief disciple: Upali and Ananda.
• Contemporary to King Bimbisara and King Ajatashatru of Haryanka Dynasty.
• Predecessor of Buddha under Buddhism was Kassapa Buddha.
• Successor will be Maitreya.
PLACES VISITED BY BUDDHA

• Vaishali: learnt Sankhya darshan (Dualistic school of Hindu philosophy; views reality as composed of two
independent principles, Puruṣa and Prakṛti).
• Rajgriha: learnt yoga.

• Uruvela: attained enlightenment; event is known as Sambodhi.

• Sarnath: delivered his first sermon ‘Dharmachakrapravartana’.
• Maximum sermons from Shravasti.
• Magadha was his promotional centre.
• Ashta-mahasthana/eight significant places associated with the life of Buddha: Lumbini, Bodh Gaya, Sarnath,
Kushinagar, Shravasti, Sankissa, Rajgriha and Vaishali.
RELIGIOUS TEACHINGS
• Triratnas i.e., Buddha (the enlightened one); Dhamma (teachings of Buddha-doctrine) and Sangha (the monastic
order).
• Tenets of Buddhism/four major Noble truths.
o The truth of suffering (Dukkha)
o The truth of the origin of suffering (Samudāya)
o The truth of the cessation of suffering (Nirodha)
o The truth of the path to the cessation of suffering (Magga) i.e., Life is full of suffering (dukkha).
• All aspects of life contained the seeds of sorrow. Sorrow was caused by desires, keeping us caught in saṃsara,
the endless cycle of repeated rebirth, dukkha and dying again.
• To get rid of desire and gain liberation, follow the ‘Noble Eightfold Path’/ the Middle Path/Madhyam
Marg/Ashtangik Marga:
o Kind, truthful and Right speech
o Honest, peaceful and Right action
o To find the right livelihood which does not harm any being
o Right effort and cultivating self-control
o Right mindfulness
o Right meditation and concentrating on the meaning of life
o The worth of the sincere and intelligent man is through right thoughts
o One should avoid superstition and cultivate right understanding.
• Rejects the authenticity of the Vedas.
• Rejects the concept of existence of Soul (atman) unlike Jainism.
• Silent on the discussion of the existence of God but believed in rebirth.
• Against caste system; opened the gates of Buddhism for all castes; allowed women to be admitted in sangha.
• When desires are conquered, nirvana will be attained: free from the cycle of birth and rebirth.
• Social world is creation of humans rather than of divine origin.
BUDDHIST COUNCILS
1. First Buddhist Council
• Place: Rajgriha, Bihar
• Ruler: Ajatshatru
• Accomplishment: Buddha’s teachings were compiled into Sutta Pitaka (Ananda) and Vinaya Pitaka (Upali)
2. Second Buddhist Council
• Place: Vaishali
• Ruler: Kalashoka (Shishunaga dynasty)
• Accomplishment: Buddhist sangha was divided into schools i.e., Theravada or Sthavira and Mahasanghik or
Sarvastivadin.
• Theravada is the oldest Buddhist school with its main centre in Kashmir.

• Mahasanghik’ s main centre was in Magadha.

3. Third Buddhist Council
• Place: Pataliputra
• Ruler: Ashoka
• Accomplishment: Compilation of the third pitaka i.e., Abhidhamma Pitaka which explains the tenets of
Dhamma.
4. Fourth Buddhist Council
• Place: Kashmir
• Ruler: Kanishka
• Accomplishment: Compilation of Vibhashashastra by Vasumitra, a commentary in Sanskrit on the difficult
aspects of Buddhist texts.
• Buddhists again broke into 2 schools i.e., Theravadi or Sthavira became Hinayana and Sarvastivadin or
Mahasanghik became Mahayana schools.
SECTS IN BUDDHISM
• Buddhist texts mention about 64 sects.
• Debates took place in the Kutagarashala: a hut with a pointed roof or in groves where travelling mendicants
halted.
• If a philosopher succeeded in convincing one of his rivals, the followers of the latter also became his disciples.
PROMINENT SECTS OF BUDDHISM

1. Hinayana School (Lesser Vehicle)/Shravakayana.
• Buddha is a great soul but not God.
• Orthodox
• Believed in helping themselves over others to attain salvation.
• Did not believe in idol worship.
• Scriptures in Pali.
• Patronised by Ashoka
• Sub-schools of Hinayana:
o Staviravadin or Thervadins: earliest school from which all other schools of Buddhism originated; followed
original doctrines of Buddha; believe only in the three Pitakas.
o Sarvastivada: originated during the time of Ashoka (Separated from Sthaviravadins); popular in Kashmir;
broadly divided into- Vaibhasika and Sautantrika.
o Mahasanghika: came into existence after the 2nd Buddhist Council; separated from the Staviravadis over
the differences in following monastic practices; Sub-sects are- Lokottarvada, Kukkutika and Caitika.
o Sammitiya: believes that though an individual does not exist independently from the five skandhas/
components that make up his personality, he is something greater than the mere sum of his parts; important
centre of learning was at Valabhi, Gujarat during the7th century.
2. Mahayana School (Greater Vehicle)
• Prime centre: Andhra Pradesh.
• Scriptures in Sanskrit.
• Buddha is incarnation of God.
• Started his idol worship.
• Attaches importance to role of Bodhisattvas: delay their own salvation to help others to its path.
• Believed in the concept of transmigration of soul and rebirth.
• Later divided: Shunyavaad (Founder: Nagarjuna) and Vigyanvaad.

• Patronised by Emperor Kanishka of Kushana dynasty in 1st century AD.

• In 8th century AD, Vajrayana School developed as an offshoot in which Tara is considered as wife of Buddha.
• In early medieval period, Mantrayana came up in which Bodhisattva Avalokiteshwar began to be worshipped.
• Sub-Schools of Mahayana:
o Yogachara School: Important scholars, Asanga and Vasubandhu; attaches importance to meditation as a
means of attaining the highest goal.
o Madhyamaka School: Founded by Nagarjuna; Idea of Shunyata is important feature-means that
appearances are misleading, and that permanent selves and substances do not exist; Important scholars-
Buddhapalita, Bhavaviveka and Chandrakirti.
BODDHISATVAS IN MAHAYANA BUDDHISM

• Bodhisattva Avalokitesvara (Bodhisattva of compassion):
o One of the three protective deities around Buddha.
o Holding Lotus flower and is also known as Padmapani.
o Painting can be found at Ajanta Caves.
o Most acknowledged among all the Bodhisattvas.
• Manjushri Boddisattva of awareness and wisdom:
o Most famous in Tibetan and Bhutanese Buddhism; regarded as a second buddha there.
o One of three protective deities around Buddha.
o Depicted in Ajanta Caves.
o Male Bodhisattva with a wielding sword in his hand.
• Vajrapani
o An early bodhisattva in Mahayana.
o Vajra means weapon.
o virtues of success in work and achievements.
o One of three protective deities around Buddha.
o Depicted in Ajanta Caves.
o Contemplated to manifest all the powers of Buddha, as well as the power of all five tathagatas namely
Vairocana, Akshobhya, Amitabha, Ratnasambhava and Amoghasiddhi.
BUDDHIST LITERATURE
• Tripitakas are the oldest source.
• Sutta Pitaka: Buddhist thought and Buddhas religious ideas; divided into five groups or Nikayas; contain
popular works such as Theragatha and Therigatha and Jataka tales.
• Vinaya Pitaka: Rules of Buddhist Sangha; contains two main sections-Sutta Vibhanga and Khandaka; Sutta
Vibhanga contains Patimokka, a set of monastic rules, Patimokka was recited by congregations of monks in the
fortnightly Uposatha ceremony held on the full moon and new moon days.
• Abhidhamma Pitaka: Buddhist principles and concept of dhamma
• Vishuddhimarga written by Ashvaghosha; key composition to tripitakas.
• Mahavastu (by Hinayana sect) and Lalitvistara (by Mahayana sect) are biographies of Buddha.
• Pragyaparimita Sutra-text for Mahayana sect; written by Nagarjuna.
BUDDHIST SANGHA
• Eight personal possessions allowed to a monk: three robes, an alms bowl, razor, needle, belt and water
strainer.
• Senior monks held authority within a monastic community.

• Four most serious offences (known as parajika): (i) Sexual intercourse, (ii) killing someone (iii) Stealing (iv)
Making false claims of spiritual attainment.
BUDDHIST LAITY
• First lay followers of Buddha were two merchants, Tapassu and Bhallika.
• Laity was a person taken refuge in Buddha, dhamma and sangha but had not taken monastic vows.
• Male followers: upasaka and female followers: upasikas.
• Growing differentiation (social stratification) amongst people engaged in agriculture.
o Buddhist literature refers to landless agricultural labourers, small peasants and large landholders.
o Term Gahapati was used in Pali texts to refer to small peasants and large landholders.
BUDDHISM AND WOMEN

• Initially, only men were allowed into the sangha.
• Later women also came to be admitted. (In Buddha’s lifetime only).
• Made possible through the mediation of Ananda (Buddha’s dearest disciple).
• Buddha’s foster mother, Mahapajapati Gotami: first woman to be ordained as a bhikkhuni.
• Therigatha: collection of verses composed by bhikkhunis (part of Sutta Pitaka); provides an insight into
women’s social and spiritual experiences.
REASONS FOR DECLINE OF BUDDHISM

• Sanghas became centres of corruption.
• Rites and rituals of Hinduism were simplified; accepted Buddha as a Hindu incarnation.
• Lost royal patronage (received during the period of Asoka, Kaniska, and Harshavardhana); Gupta rulers were
great patrons of the Brahmanical religion.
• Divided into several groups and ultimately, it lost its originality.
• Later monks Gave up Pali and took up Sanskrit, the language of intellectuals; rarely understood by the common
people.
• Image worship by Mahayana violated Buddhist doctrines, which opposed the critical rites and rituals of
Brahmanical Hinduism.
• Northern India ruled by the Rajputs from the eight to twelfth century; discarded the Buddhist principle of non-
violence.
11. BENOY K BEHL’S SHOW REVEALS THE HIDDEN GEMS OF

THE AJANTA CAVES TO THE WORLD
ABOUT AJANTA CAVES
• Situated in the Sahyadri ranges along the Waghora river near Aurangabad in Maharashtra.
• Recognized as a UNESCO World Heritage Site.
• Of the total 29 caves, 25 served as Viharas or residential caves; remaining 4 functioned as Chaitya or prayer
halls.
• All the caves at Ajanta are associated with Buddhism.
• Developed during the period from 200 B.C. to 650 A.D.
• Buddhist monks, supported by the Vakataka kings, particularly Harishena, inscribed the Ajanta caves.
• Figures were created using fresco painting.
• Themes revolves around Buddhism; scenes from the life of Buddha and Jataka stories.
• Five caves developed during the Hinayana phase; 24 were created during the Mahayana phase.

• Chinese Buddhist travellers Fa Hien (during the rule of Chandragupta II; 380-415 CE) and Hieun Tsang (during
the reign of Emperor Harshavardhana; 606-647 CE) mentioned about the Ajanta caves.
• Notable sculptures from the Ajanta Caves include: Mahaparinirvana of Buddha in Cave No. 26; Depiction of
a Naga king and his consort in Cave No. 19.
ABOUT AJANTA CAVE PAINTINGS

• Ajanta Cave Paintings were carved from volcanic rocks.
• Murals in cave no. 9 and 10 belong to the Sunga period.
• Remaining caves date back to the Gupta period.
• Medium of painting: use of vegetable and mineral dyes, with red ochre outlining the figures and contours in
shades of brown, black, or deep red.
• Cave 1: paintings of various Bodhisattvas in a tribhanga pose, including Vajrapani, Manjusri and Padmapani
(Avalokitesvara).
• Cave 16: depiction of the Dying Princess; scenes from the Shibi Jataka and Matri-Poshaka Jataka.
12. INDIA TO DISPLAY RELICS OF LORD BUDDHA IN

THAILAND
• Relics of Lord Buddha and two of his disciples, Sariputta and Maudgalyayana (or Maha Moggallana) preserved
in Madhya Pradesh’s Sanchi are being sent.
• These relics (known as Kapilavastu relics) were excavated from Piprahwa in the Siddharthnagar, Uttar Pradesh.
o Siddharthnagar, is an ancient city of Kapilavastu region.
o Kapilavastu, where Buddha is believed to be born in 563 BC (in the Sakya Kshatriya clan).
• The collection of sacred relics has been earlier taken to Sri Lanka in 1976 and 2012, Mongolia in 1993 and 2022,
Singapore in 1994 and 2007, South Korea in 1995 and Thailand also in 1995.
• These relics are categorised as ‘AA’ (rare) antiquities, which means they are not meant to be lent for exhibitions,
within India or in foreign nations.
o However, the exposition in Thailand was being held upon a ‘special request’ by the Thai Government.
RELICS ASSOCIATED WITH BUDDHA

• Mahaparinibbaṇa Sutta (in Digha Nikaya) mentions that after attaining Parinirvana, the body
of Buddha was cremated and the ashes divided among his lay followers.
• First it was considered that ashes should go to Sakya clan, to which the Buddha belonged.
• However, a Brahmin named Drona divided the ashes of the Buddha into eight portions:
o to Ajatasattu, king of Magadha;
o to the Licchavis of Vaishali;
o to the Sakyas of Kapilavastu;
o to the Bullis of Allakappa;
o to the Koliyas of Ramagama;
o to the Brahmana of Veṭhadipa;
o to the Mallas of Pava;
o to the Mallas of Kushinagara.
• Stupas erected over the bodily relics of Buddha (Saririka stupas) are the earliest surviving Buddhist shrines.
• Two other important relics were distributed:
o Drona (the Brahmin who distributed the relics) received the vessel in which the body had been cremated;
o Moriyas of Pipphalivana received the remaining ashes of the funeral pyre.

• Mahavaṃsa and Ashokavadana mentions that Mauryan emperor, Ashoka, collected seven of the eight relics of
Gautama Buddha, and redistributed them; stupas were constructed around the world.
• As per the 5th century scholar, Buddhaghosha, the Theravada tradition of Buddhism, believes that, a proper
Buddhist monastery was that which possessed the relics.
• Relics of Buddha's noble disciples, Sariputta and Maudgalyayana (or Maha Moggallana) are preserved in Sanchi,
Madhya Pradesh.
SOME OF THE SACRED RELICS IN INDIA

• Kapilavastu relics:
o Archaeological Survey of India has identified Piprahwa as Kapilavastu)
o The inscription on the lid, refers to the relics of Buddha and his community, the Sakya.
• Buddha Relic Stupa was built by Lichhavis in Vaishali (Bihar) as a mud stupa in the 5th century BCE.
• Devni Mori, Gujarat (a Buddhist archaeological site): Mortal remains of the Buddha belonging to the third
or fourth century were found.
• Dhamma Vinaya Monastery Pune, Mahrashtra, a was constructed and relics of Gautam Buddha's and Arhat’s
were enshrined.
o An Arhat is one who has gained insight into the true nature of existence and has achieved nirvana (spiritual
enlightenment).
• Global Vipassana Pagoda was constructed in October 2006 in Mumbai: relics of the Buddha were
enshrined; making it the world's largest structure containing relics of the Buddha.
• Lalitgiri, Odisha: casket was discovered, believed to contain bones of Buddha.
13. MAHABODHI TEMPLE COMPLEX, BODH GAYA

• Sujata Stupa and Sujata Temple, both dedicated to the milkmaid who offered kheer to Buddha is situated
nearby.
• Gaya and Bodh Gaya are situated along River Phalgu (in ancient texts known as Niranjana River). It is a right
bank tributary of River Ganga.
• Near Phalgu, Prince Siddhartha achieved enlightenment and became the Buddha.
• ‘Ashtashtanas/mahashtanas’ signifies the Eight Great Places connected with Lord Buddha: Lumbini, Bodh
Gaya, Sarnath, Kusinagar are the foundational four sites; additional four sites are: Sravasti, Rajgriha, Vaishali,
Sankasya.
MAHABODHI TEMPLE
• UNESCO World Heritage status; located in Bodh Gaya (during Buddha’s time it was known as Uruwela), Bihar,
India.
• History traces back to the time of Ashoka (around 232 BCE).
• Houses a descendant of the original Bodhi Tree, under which Buddha is believed to have attained
enlightenment.
ASSOCIATION WITH BUDDHA

• Siddhartha Gautama (the Buddha), embarked on his spiritual journey around 589 BCE.
• Curiosity led him to the forested banks of the Phalgu river.
• Meditated beneath a peepul tree and attained enlightenment.
• Buddha stood in unwavering contemplation of the Bodhi tree; precise location is now marked by the
Animeshlocha Stupa, a shrine to the north-east of the Mahabodhi Temple complex.
• Here, Emperor Ashoka built the Mahabodhi Temple around 260 BCE.

CONSTRUCTION OF MAHABODHI TEMPLE

• Around 260 BCE, King Ashoka visited Bodh Gaya to establish a monastery and shrine, although the monastery
no longer exists; diamond throne, which Ashoka erected at the base of the Bodhi tree, remains as a historical
relic.
• Sunga Period (185 – 73 BCE)-additional structures were added; a railing encircling the Mahabodhi temple.
• Gupta period (4th – 6th Century CE): temple's railing was extended and adorned with coarse granite.
• 13th century: faced attacks by Turkish invaders, leading to a loss of control by Buddhism's followers.
• Restoration of Mahabodhi Mahavihara was initiated by Sir Edwin Arnold in 1885.
ARCHITECTURAL STYLE
• UNESCO acknowledges the Mahabodhi Temple as "one of the earliest and most imposing structures built
entirely in brick from the Gupta period" (300 600 CE).
• Newer stone railings, fashioned from unpolished coarse granite, are attributed to the Gupta period; image of
lotus flowers is also a common motif.
• Sculptural representations of significant Buddhist figures: Avalokiteshvara (Padmapani), Vajrapani, Tara,
Marichi, Yamantaka, Jambhala, and Vajravaraha.
• Current pyramidal structure dates from the Gupta Empire, in the 5th–6th century CE.
• Design of pyramid is thought to have been influenced by Gandharan stepped stupas, containing Buddha
images, alternated with Greco-Roman pillars and then topped by a stupa.
DECLINE
• After the Pala Empire's defeat by the Sena dynasty, Buddhism's prominence waned and Mahabodhi Temple fell
into disrepair.
• 13th century, Muslim Turk armies invaded Bodh Gaya, resulting in further neglect.
• Last patron of the temple, Sariputra, left for Nepal in the 15th century.
14. MURAL IN NEW PARLIAMENT

• Representation of extent of ancient Ashokan empire.
ABOUT MURAL PAINTINGS

• Murals are artworks displayed on solid structures, such as walls; found predominantly within natural caves &
rock-cut chambers.
Examples: Ajanta, Ravan Chhaya Rock Shelter, Bagh caverns, Sittanavasal caves, and Kailasanatha temple in
Ellora.
ABOUT ASHOKA (MAURYAN EMPEROR)

• Third emperor of Mauryan Empire from 268 to 232 BCE.
• During his father's reign (Bindusara), Ashoka served as governor of Ujjain; suppressed a rebellion in Taxila.
• Credited with construction of various stupas and viharas: Sanchi and Bharhut stupa in Madhya Pradesh;
Dhamek Stupa in Sarnath, Uttar Pradesh; Mahabodhi Temple, Barabar Caves and Nalanda Mahavihara in Bihar
and Sannati Stupa in Karnataka, India.
• Crucial role in the dissemination of Buddhism throughout ancient Asia.
• Edict 13 of Ashokan Rock inscriptions: deep remorse experienced by the Ashoka upon witnessing devastation
in the Kalinga war.
• Third Buddhist Council; Pataliputra, under the patronage of Ashoka (250 BC).
o Aimed to unite various Buddhist schools and purify the Buddhist movement.
o Moggaliputta Tissa presided over the council.
o Sthaviravada sect was established as an orthodox school.

o Abhidhamma Pitaka was compiled.
15. ODISHA’S MODERN CAPITAL SWALLOWS ITS ANCIENT

URBAN HUB
• 2,700-year-old Sisupalgarh, a fort city on the outskirts of Bhubaneswar, in Odisha.
ABOUT SISUPALGARH AND ITS FORT

• Location: Sisupalgarh or Sisupalagada, on the banks of Mahanadi Delta.
• Duration: 7th Century BC.
• Excavated in 1948 by Braj Basi Lal.
• Shola Khamba, a constellation of 16 monolithic (now 13) pillars, and the western gateway has survived; proves
the presence of ancient city and fort.
• Laterite stones were used for construction.
ABOUT KALINGA AND VARIOUS EMPIRES

• According to the Puranas, 32 Kshetriya kings ruled over Kalinga after the Mahabharata War up to the time of
Mahapadmananda who ascended the throne of Magadha in 362 BC.
• Nanda rule:
o Mahapadmananda undertook irrigation projects to eradicate famine.
o Pre-Mauryan black polished potteries and punch marked coins having four symbols found in plenty;
flourishing economic condition during the time of the Nanda rule.
o Last Nanda king, Dhana Nanda, was overthrown by Chandragupta Maurya.
• Mauryan rule:
o Ashoka invaded Kalinga in 261 B.C. and succeeded in occupying Kalinga.
o Seeing the massive loss of life, Ashoka converted to Buddhism.
o Kalinga became one of the administrative provisions in Magadha empire; headquarters of a Kumara (Viceroy)
located at Tosali.
o Became a headquarter of highest judiciary of Mauryan rule.
o Edicts in Dhauli and Jaugada rocks engraved, to inculcate his administration and religious principles to the
people.
• Kharavela rule:
o Early part of the 1st century BC: Kalinga became independent under the Chedi Chief Mahameghavana.
o Third ruler of this dynasty was Kharavela (second half of the 1st century B.C.): Kalinga flourished.
 Hatigumpha inscription in Udayagiri near Bhubaneswar: about the life and activities of Kharavela till
his 13th regnal year.
 Repaired the fort at Sisupalgarh (Kalinganagari).
 Excavated number of cave dwellings in the Kumari hills for the Jain monks; bestowed them with
endowments. Jainism greatly flourished in Kalinga under the sincere patronage of Kharavala.
 Inscriptions of Guntupalli, Velpuru in Andhra Pradesh.
 Velpuru inscription also talks about Mahamegahavahana dynasty.
16. IMAGE OF DHANVANTARI IN THE LOGO OF NATIONAL

MEDICAL COMMISSION
ABOUT DHANVANTARI
• Puranas has mentioned Dhanvantari as the father of the Ayurveda.

• During his incarnation on earth, he reigned as the king of Kashi, presently known as Varanasi.
HISTORY OF MEDICINE
• India’s contributions: techniques of algebra and algorithm, the concept of zero, the technique of surgery, the
concepts of atom and relativity, the herbal system of medicine.
• Practitioners of medicine during the Vedic times: Ashwini Kumars (accorded divine status).
• Atharva Veda: first book that has mentioned about the diseases, its cure and medicines; mentioned cure for
diarrhoea, sores, cough, leprosy, fever and seizure.
• 600 BC.: practical and more rational cure to diseases emerged.
• Two centres for medicinal learning: Takshila and Varanasi.
• Greeks were influenced by the Indian medicines during the Indo-Greek rule in India in 180 BC-10 AD.
• Varahamihira: mentioned about metallic preparations for the purpose of the medicine; references have been
made about the use of mercury.
• Navanitakam: gives manual of recipes, formulation and prescriptions.
• Palakapya authored Hastyayurveda (on veterinary science): exemplifies the advances made during the
Gupta period.
• Sarangdhara Samhita written in 13th century: use of opium in medicines.
• Rasachikitsa system: treatment of diseases using mineral medicines.
• Unani system of medicine came to India from Greece with the book Firdausu hikmat written by Ali-bin-Rabban.
• Charak Samhita (dealing in Ayurveda) and Sushruta Samhita (dealing in Surgery) emerged as the two important
treatises during this time.
• Atreya and Agnivesa had dealt with principles of Ayurveda way back in 800 BCE.
CHARAK SAMHITA
• Deals Ayurveda as a science, which have the following eight components: Kaya Chikitsa (General Medicine)
Kaumara-Bhrtya (Paediatrics) Shalya Chikitsa (Surgery) Salakya Tantra (Ophthalmology/ENT), Buta Vidya
(Demonology/Psychiatry) Agada Tantra (Toxicology) Rasayana Tantra (Aphrodisiacs).
• Extensive note on digestion, metabolism and immune system and the author, Charaka has put more emphasis
on prevention rather than cure; mentions about Genetics.
• Charaka, lived during the reign of Kanishka (King of Kushan dynasty) and regarded as the “Father of Indian
Medicine”.
SUSHRUTA SAMHITA
• Deals with the practical problems of Surgery (Sastrakarma) and Obstetrics.
• Sushruta studied anatomy with the aid of a human dead body; achieved expertise in Rhinoplasty (plastic surgery
of mutilated nose) and Ophthalmology (ejection of Cataract).
• Sushruta, first Indian surgeon; known for his work on medicine during the Gupta period.
17. THIRUVALLUVAR
• Ancient saint, poet, and prominent philosopher in the Tamil region.
• Significant contributions are particularly evident in his 'Thirukurral’ work.
o Comprising 1330 couplets.
o Was the last work of the third Sangam.
Three Sangam Councils, held in the Pandiyan Kingdom.

1. First Sangam, Madurai, attended by legendary sages. No book or literary work of this Sangam is available.
Sage Agastya chaired the first Sangam.

2. Second Sangam, Kapadapuram; only surviving literary work is Tolkappiyam by Tolkappiyar.

3. Third Sangam, Madurai; literary works provide useful sources to reconstruct the history of Sangam period.
• Valluvar is regarded as the 64th Nayanmar of the Saivite tradition by several communities.
o Mylapore temple (early 16th century) known for reverence for Valluvar; situated in Ekambareeswara-
Kamakshi in Chennai.
• Valluvar's presented views on ethical, social, political, philosophical, spiritual and economic domains.
• Earliest known textual reference to the legend of Valluvar is found in the Shaivite Tamil text Tiruvalluva Maalai.
• Some scholars argue that Valluvar's writings align more closely with Hinduism
ABOUT TIRUKKURAL
• Three parts: Aram (virtue), Porul (wealth), and Inbam (love).
• Does not explicitly cover vitu (moksha or release).
• Concept of turavaram (renunciation) is explored. Hence, vitu is indirectly discussed within the Kural text.
• Couplets organized into 133 sections, each containing 10 couplets.
o Book I (Aṟam): moral values of an individual and essentials of yoga philosophy.
o Book II (Poruḷ): socio-economic values, polity and statecraft, and administration.
o Book III (Inbam): psychological values and the theme of love.
• Theory of the state included six key elements: Army (Patai), Subjects (Kuti), Treasure (Kul), Ministers (Amaiccu),
Allies (Natpu), and Forts (Aran).
• While sharing similarities with the teachings found in Arthasastra, Valluvar's perspectives differ in some crucial
aspects. Example: Army (patai) emerges as the most vital element, in contrast to Kautilya's emphasis on King.
PHILOSOPHY
• Tirukkural is centred on the comprehensive understanding of human relationships and is renowned for its
concept of 'Pragmatic idealism.'
• Valluvar's philosophy places the 'common man' at its core.
• On Religion and Spirituality:
o Glorifies significant divine attributes without specifying a particular deity by name; people perceive the
teachings in the Kural text as not being attributed to any specific God or religion.
o Advocated for a monotheistic divinity.
o Avoided discussing moksha or liberation.
o Emphasized importance of living a virtuous and honest life on Earth.
• On Administration and Governance:
o Democracy: did not endorse democracy; accepted Royalty with ministers bound by a code of ethics.
o Governance: “just as living beings thrive with good rainfall, citizens flourish when a king governs justly”.
 It is ruler's duty to protect the realm from terrorism and maintaining peace.
 Role of ministers is crucial to assist in the smooth administration of the kingdom; offer advice to the
King.
 Maintaining good relationships with neighbouring countries through envoys.
18. APPOINTMENT OF ARCHAKAS IN AGAMIC TEMPLES

ABOUT ‘ARCHAKAS’ AND ‘YAJAKAS’
• "Yajis”, term used for those who actively were involved in worship or sacrificial rites.
• "Yajanam": act of worship.
• "Yajamana": individual who sponsors and hosts the ritual with their patronage.

• Practice of yaja dates back to the Vedic era.

• Yajurveda: given sacrificial prayers or formula; second most significant Veda after the Rigveda.
• Yajaka: Anyone who engages in ritualistic worship of God
• "Archaka": who worships an "arca," which means an image of God.
• Become Archaka:
o Individuals typically receive initiation or "Deekshai”.
o Undergo sacred rituals, guided by their Guru or Acharya.
o Occurs at a tender age, typically between five and seven years.
o Rigorous Vedic education spanning a minimum of three years.
o Archakas are considered an incarnation of Hari (God).
o Ensure the proper worship of deities in accordance with scriptural guidelines.
AGAMAS AND TANTRAS

• Agamas:
o compilation of diverse Tantric texts and scriptures from various Hindu schools.
o Translates to tradition or passed-down knowledge.
• Agamic and Tantric texts fall into three primary categories: Vaishnava Agamas, Saiva Agamas, and Sakta Tantras,
though this classification is not exhaustive.
• Vaishnava and Saiva texts are typically called Agamas, while Tantra is often associated with Sakta texts.
• They are available in both Tamil and Sanskrit languages.
• Origin and chronology:
o Some scholars suggest they date back to over 1100 BCE
o Epigraphical evidence indicates their existence during the Pallava dynasty era (middle of the 1st millennium
CE).
• Hindu Agama texts contain passages challenging the authority of the Vedas.
• Agamic literary genre can also be found in Sramaṇic traditions such as Buddhism and Jainism.
• Agamas outline three essential requirements for a place of pilgrimage:
o Sthala (temple location),
o Tirtha (temple water tank), and
o Murti (deity image)
• Give detailed rules for Silpa, ‘the art of sculpture’.
19. GEO HERITAGE SITES

• Draft Geo-heritage Sites and Geo-relics (Preservation and Maintenance) Bill, 2022 aims to protect India’s
geological heritage such as fossils, sedimentary rocks, and natural structures.
• It vests powers entirely in the Geological Survey of India (GSI) that comes under the Ministry of Mines.
• NEED OF SUCH A BILL:
o India is party to UNESCO Convention on Protection of the World Cultural and Natural Heritage.
o International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) has adopted a Resolution [2015] that affirmed Geo-
diversity and Geo-heritage as integral parts of Natural Diversity and Natural Heritage.
o India does not have any specific and specialized policy or law to conserve and preserve the geo heritage sites
and geo-relics for future generations.
o Geo-diversity of the Indian subcontinent ranges from 4.5 billion years and records some of the world’s
greatest geological events.

• Geo-heritage sites: sites of rare and unique geological and geomorphologic significance having the
geomorphological, mineralogical, petrological, paleontological significance including caves, natural rock-
sculptures of national and international interest.
• Geo-relics: any relic or material of geological significance or interest like sediments, rocks, minerals, meteorites
or fossils.
• Total number sites: 32 (as per GSI)
o Total states: 13 (no UTs)
o Maximum number of sites: Rajasthan
GEOLOGICAL HERITAGE SITE / NATIONAL GEOLOGICAL MONUMENT

ANDHRA PRADESH
1. Volcanogenic bedded Barytes, Mangampeta, Cuddapah Dist.

2. Eparchaean Unconformity, Chittor Dist.
3. Natural Geological Arch, Tirumala Hills, Chittor Dist.
4. Erra Matti Dibbalu- the dissected and stabilized coastal red sediment mounds located between
Vishakhapatnam and Bhimunipatnam.
KERALA
5. Laterite near Angadipuram PWD rest house premises, Malapuram Dist.

6. Varkala Cliff Section, Thiruvanatapuram Dist.
TAMILNADU
7. Fossil wood near Tiruvakkarai, South Arcot Dist.

8. National fossil wood park, Sattanur, Tiruchirapalli Dist.
9. Charnockite, St. Thomas Mount, Madras.
10. Badlands of Karai Formation with Cretaceous fossils along Karai – Kulakkalnattam Section, Perambalur
District.
GUJARAT
11. Sedimentary Structures – Eddy Markings, Kadan Dam, Panch Mahals Dist.
RAJASTHAN
12. Sendra Granite, Pali Dist.

13. Barr Conglomerate, Pali Dist.
14. Stromatolite Fossil Park, Jharmarkotra Rock Phosphate deposit, Udaipur Dist.
15. Gossan in Rajpura-Dariba Mineralised belt, Udaipur Dist.
16. Stromatolite Park near Bhojunda, Chittaurgarh Dist.
17. Akal Fossil Wood Park, Jaisalmer Dist.
18. Kishangarh Nepheline Syenite, Ajmer Dist.
19. Welded Tuff, Jodhpur Dist.
20. Jodhpur Group – Malani Igneous Suite Contact, Jodhpur Dist.
21. Great Boundary Fault at Satur, Bundi Dist.
MAHARASHTRA
22. Lonar Lake, Buldana Dist.
CHATTISGARH

23. Lower Permian Marine bed at Manendragarh, Surguja Dist.
KARNATAKA
24. Columnar Lava, St Mary Island Udupi Dist.

25. Pillow lavas near Mardihalli, Chitradurga Dist.
26. Peninsular Gneiss, Lalbagh, Banglore
27. Pyroclastics & Pillow lavas, Kolar Gold fields, Kolar Dist.
HIMACHAL PRADESH
28. Siwalik Fossil Park, Saketi, Sirmur dt.,
ODISHA
29. Pillow Lava in lron ore belt at Nomira, Keonjhar dist.
JHARKHAND
30. Plant Fossil bearing Inter-trappean beds of Rajmahal Formation, upper Gondwana sequence around
Mandro, Sahibganj dist.
NAGALAND
31. Nagahill Ophiolite Site near Pugno,
SIKKIM
32. Stromatolite bearing Dolomite / Limestone of Bua Formation at Madley, near Namchi, South district.

2
MEDIEVAL HISTORY OF
Chapter INDIA
 EARLY MEDIEVAL INDIA (650-1206 AD); Dynasties; Events;
Contributions to Art and Architecture
1. PARROT LADY
Sculpture known as Parrot Lady: belongs to Khajuraho, Chhatarpur district in Madhya Pradesh.
ABOUT PARROT LADY

• Sandstone sculpture of a woman holding a parrot.
ABOUT THE KHAJURAHO GROUP OF TEMPLES

• Period: Chandela dynasty (950 and 1050 AD).
• Most temples were built during the reigns of the Hindu kings Yashovarman and Dhanga. Yashovarman's legacy
is best exhibited by the Lakshmana Temple.
• Vishvanatha temple best highlights King Dhanga's reign.
• It is a world Heritage site under UNESCO since 1986.
• In 1838, discovered by Captain T.S. Burt and reported findings in the Journal of the Asiatic Society of Bengal.
• Nagara Style of Temple Architecture.
• Only about 23 temples remain; belong to two religions: Hinduism and Jainism.
• Kandariya Mahadev temple (Built by King Vidhyadhar) is decorated with a profusion of sculptures.
• Built in sandstone; temple is elevated by a highly ornate terraced platform, or jagati; on jagati stands the body,
or jangha; sanctum is topped by a tower, or shikhara, of a type unique to Nagara, i.e., verticality of the principal
spire atop the sanctum is accentuated by a series of miniature spires flanking it, symbolizing Mount Kailasa.
• Larger temples had an additional pair of transepts and were accompanied by subsidiary shrines on the four
corners of its Jagati.
• Sculptures depicting acts of worship, clan and minor deities, and couples in union, all reflect the sacred belief
system.
• Other themes mirror social life through depictions of domestic scenes, teachers and disciples, dancers and
musicians, and amorous couples.
• In 1022 CE, Khajuraho was mentioned by Abu Rihan-al Biruni, the Persian historian who accompanied Mahmud
of Ghazni in his raid of Kalinjar; he mentions Khajurahoas the capital of Jajabuti.
• In 14th century, Ibn Batuta also wrote about these temples in Rihla.
• JAIN TEMPLES
o Located on east-southeast region of Khajuraho monuments
o These temples are used by the devotees and priests for regular worshipping.
• Chausath yogini temple features 64 yoginis, while Ghantai temple features bells sculptured on its pillars.
• Most important temple is Parsvanatha Temple: contains an inscription dating from 954 AD by its builder
Pahila; mentions Chandella Dhanga as the reigning king.
• Other temples are Adinath Temple, Shantinath Temple etc.

MEDIEVAL HISTORY OF INDIA
2. MARTAND TEMPLE
• Hindu temple dedicated to Sun God located near Anantnag in Kashmir Valley of Jammu and Kashmir (Union
Territory), India.
• Kalhana’s Rajatarangini mentions that Martand Sun Temple was commissioned by Lalitaditya Muktapida in the
eighth century AD. (Karkota dynasty).
• Destroyed by Sikandar Shah Miri to Islamise the society under the advice of Sufi preacher Mir Muhammad
Hamadani.
• Other Sun Temples in India: Sun Temple at Konark (Odisha), Sun Temple at Modhera (Gujarat).
• Blended Gandharan, Gupta and Chinese forms of architecture; Lime mortar; grey limestones used.
KARKOTA DYNASTY (625 − 855 CE)

• Region: Kashmir Valley
• Founder: Durlabhavardhana
• Succeeded by: Utpala dynasty (Avanti Varman was the founder)
• Patronised both Hinduism (Vaishnavite) and Buddhism (ruins of Stupa, Chaitya and Vihara could be found).
• Sources for the dynasty: Kalhana’s Rajatarangini, Nilamata Purana, Vishnudharmottara Chronicles of
Xuanzang, Purana.
• Coins: based on the Kushan style (image of king standing or Gods on obverse) with Sharada script; always
inscribed in the name of Kidara I on the reverse; mixed metals used.
3. UTTARAMERUR MODEL OF DEMOCRACY

• Uttaramerur village, situated: Kanchipuram district, Tamil Nadu.
• Established during the reign of Nandivarman II, a Pallava king who ruled around 750 A.D.
• Uttaramerur was successively governed by the Pallavas, Cholas, Pandyas, Sambuvarayars, Vijayanagara Rayas,
and Nayaks.
• Three significant temples: Sundara Varadaraja Perumal temple, Subramanya temple, and Kailasanatha
temple.
• Uttaramerur contains multiple inscriptions: most important one dating back to the rule of Parantaka I (907-
953 AD); on the walls of the village assembly (mandapa), provides information about the functioning of the
elected village assembly.
• Village assemblies (Sabha) might have existed before the time of Parantaka Chola, but it was during his rule that
the village administration became a well operating system through the implementation of elections.
LOCAL ELECTIONS
• Sabha consisted exclusively of brahmans.
• Constituting Sabha: 30 wards, and individuals residing in these wards would gather to choose a representative
for the village assembly.
• QUALIFICATIONS
o Brahman Male, above 35 but below 75
o Possession of Land and a house
o Knowledge of mantras and Brahmanas from the Vedic corpus.
o If the person had learned at least one Veda and four Bhashyas, exception was made regarding land
ownership.
• DISQUALIFICATIONS
o Not submitting accounts while previously serving in a committee.

o Committing any of the first four of the five 'great sins' (killing a brahman, drinking alcohol, theft, and adultery),
associating with outcastes, and consuming 'forbidden' dishes.
• ELECTION PROCESS
o Under the guidance of priests; conducted through a lottery draw in the inner hall of the assembly building
(mandapa).
o Names of qualified candidates from each ward were written on Palm leaf tickets and placed in a pot
(Kudavolai).
o Oldest member of the assembly assigned a boy to randomly select a slip.
• RESPONSIBILITIES
o Several important committees within the Sabha, each with its specific functions:
 Annual committee (an executive committee that required prior experience and knowledge)
 Committee for supervision of justice (overseeing appointments and addressing wrongdoings)
 Gold committee (responsible for the village temple's gold)
o Assignments of the committees lasted for 360 days, after which the members retired.
o Member had to maintain accurate accounts, as any discrepancies could disqualify Sabha members.
• RIGHT TO RECALL
o The villagers had the right to recall elected representatives who failed in their duties.
o Committee for Supervision of Justice: responsible for this duty and with the assistance of an arbitrator, it
conducted another selection.
IMPERIAL CHOLAS (C. 850 – 1200 CE)

• After the Sangam age, the Cholas remained as the subordinates of the Pallavas in the Kaveri region.
• Vijayalaya (850-871 CE), conquered the Kaveri delta from the Muttariyar Dynasty; founded the city of Thanjavur
and established the Kingdom.
• Copper plate inscriptions of Vijayalaya’s successors trace the Cholas’ lineage back to Karikala (Chola ruler during
the Sangam age).
• ‘Muvarula’ and ‘Kamba Ramayanam,’ the great epic, providing valuable cultural insights
SUCCESSORS OF VIJAYALAYA
• Parantaka I (907–955 CE): initiated territorial expansion and governance reforms; suffered a defeat at the
hands of the Rashtrakutas in the famous Battle of Takkolam.
• Rajaraja I (985–1014): Victorious naval expeditions along the West Coast, Sri Lanka, and the Maldives; conquest
led to the Chola authority's control over northern and eastern Sri Lanka; Defeat of the Cheras in Battle of
Kandanur Salai; Constructed the iconic Rajarajeswara temple in Tanjore in 1010 A.D; A devout follower of
Saivism, he earned titles like Mummidi Chola and Sivapadasekara.
• Rajendra Chola I (1012-1044 A.D.): defeated Mahipala I of Bengal; Established the city of
Gangaikondacholapuram and constructed the renowned Rajesvaram temple; a naval expedition to Kadaram
(Sri Vijaya, Indonesia), annexing Sri Lanka in the process; Established educational institutions, earning the title
‘Pandita Chola’.
CHOLA ADMINISTRATION
• Governance was led by a hereditary monarchy.
• Titles: Peruman or Perumagan (great man), Chakkaravarti (emperor) and Tiribhuvana Chakkaravarti (emperor
of three worlds).
• Kings established their legitimacy by asserting that they were comrades of the gods (thambiran thozhar).
• Rulers appointed Brahmins as spiritual mentors or rajagurus; patronizing Brahmins was seen to enhance their
prestige and legitimacy.
• Chola kings granted vast land estates to Brahmins known as brahmadeyams and chaturvedimangalams.

• Provinces:
o Regions under the rule of local chiefs commonly referred to as Feudatories.
o Rajaraja I: integrated these territories; appointed Viceroys to govern these regions; Chola-Lankeswara in Sri
Lanka and Chola-Ganga in the Gangavadi region of southern Karnataka.
LEGACY AND DECLINE:

• Kulathunga Chola I: abolished taxes; united the Vengi kingdom with the Chola Empire.
• Rajendra III: last Chola king, defeated by Jatavarman Sundarapandya II.
• Fall of the Cholas: Pandya and Hoysala kingdoms emerged on the stage of South Indian history.
4. GURJARA PRATIHARA DYNASTY

ABOUT MIHIR BHOJA (836 TO 885 CE)
• Gurjara-Pratiharas: dominion stretched from Kashmir to Gujarat.
• Mihir Bhoja: succeeding his father, Ramabhadra; expanded his influence by conquering regions in the Deccan
and Malwa.
• Tripartite Struggle:
o 9th century: political struggle centred around gaining control of Kannauj; it was believed whoever ruled there
would become the emperor of the country.
o Conflict among: Gurjara-Pratihara, Rashtrakutas of Deccan, and Palas of Bengal.
o Mihir Bhoj emerged as the most successful; secured territories of Gujarat and Malwa from the Gujarat-
Rashtrakutas; expanded his realm by conquering areas of Gorakhpur from the Palas of Bengal.
• Follower of Vishnu and used the title of Adivaraha, which was inscribed on some of his coins.
• Rule spanned a vast territory, from the foothills of the Himalayas to the Narmada River.
• Capital: Kannauj (was then known as Panchala).
• His son Mahendrapala I succeeded him.
MILITARY CAREER
• Consolidated his territories by crushing the rebellious feudatories in Rajasthan.
• Invaded the Pala Empire of Bengal but was defeated by Devapala.
• Launched a campaign to conquer the territories to the south of his; Malwa, Deccan, and Gujarat were
conquered.
• Pratiharas were defeated in a large battle in Ujjain by Rastrakutas of Gujarat; retribution followed on the part
of the Pratiharas; Bhoja had successfully destroyed the Gujarat Rashtrakuta dynasty.
• Feudatory: Guhilas chief Harsha of Chatsu defeated the northern rulers; presented to Bhoja ‘Shrivamsha’ breed
of horses, which could easily cross seas of sand.
• Some of the Kingdoms which were conquered, acknowledged his suzerainty: Travani, Valla, Mada, Arya,
Gujaratra, Lata Parvarta, and Chandelas of Bundelkhand.
• Bhoja's Daulatpura-Dausa Inscription, confirms his rule in the Dausa region.
• Kalhana's Rajatarangini: territories of Bhoja extended to Kashmir in the north; Bhoja conquered Punjab by
defeating the ruling ‘Thakkiyaka’ dynasty.
COINS OF MIHIRA BHOJA

• He was commonly known as ‘Srimad-Adivaraha’ (primeval boar incarnation of Vishnu).
• Coins feature a depiction of Adivaraha on the obverse side; also noted by Thakkar Pheru in the 13th-century
text ‘Dravya-Pariksha,’ who served as a mint master under Alauddin Khilji.
• According to Alexander Cunningham coins were found in both silver and copper.

• Copper coins were originally coated with silver to circulate as silver coins.
GURJARA-PRATIHARA EMPIRE
• Origin in the southwestern region of Rajasthan, referred to as Gurjaratra or Gurjaradesa.
• Inception attributed to Nagabhatta I (730-760 CE).
• Arab incursions from Sindh: Pratiharas confronted the challenges; emerged victorious against the Arabs in
the Battle of Rajasthan in 738 CE.
• Rashtrakuta rulers Dhruva and Gopala III thwarted the Pratihara's attempts to extend their influence over the
upper Gangetic valley and Malwa regions.
• Al-Masudi of Baghdad visited Gujarat between 915 and 916; referred to the Gurjara Pratihara realm as Al Juzr;
detailed the conflicts waged by the Pratiharas, including those with the ruler of Multan in the north, the
Rashtrakutas in the south, and the Palas in the east.
PATRONS OF ART AND CULTURE

• Rajashekhar, a Sanskrit poet and dramatist, resided at the court of Mahipala (Bhoja's grandson).
• Kannauj: numerous temples built under the Pratiharas'.
• Pratiharas dispatched Indian scholars to the Caliph of Baghdad; Indian mathematics and sciences were
introduced to the Arabs; knowledge eventually spread to Europe via the Moors.
REGARDING THE GURJARA-PRATIHARA ADMINISTRATION

• Certain territories of the empire were under direct administration, while others were governed by vassal chiefs.
• Vassal-chiefs maintained autonomy in internal affairs, but were obligated to offer fixed tributes and provide
troops to the Pratihara King.
• Bhukti (provinces) Mandalas or Visayas (districts) Pattala was the unit below Visaya in the Pala kingdom.
• The Governor of Bhukti was known as 'Uparika', responsible for revenue collection and maintaining law and
order with the support of the army.
• The head of mandala or visaya was 'Visayapati', who shared similar duties with the uparika but on a larger
territorial scale.
• Village administration was conducted through the village headman and village accountant, roles often passed
down hereditarily.
• Compensation for their services came in the form of grants of rent-free lands.
• The headman was occasionally assisted by a village elder known as the grama-mahajana or grama-mahattara.
• Smaller chieftains emerged called samantas or bhogapatis, who held dominance over multiple villages.
• Visayapatis and these minor chiefs merged, and the term "Samanta" eventually encompassed both positions.
DECLINE
• 915 and 918 CE: Rashtrakuta king Indra III attacked Kanauj, devastating the city during the reign of Mahipala I.
• Also lost Gujarat to the Rashtrakutas, severing their access to maritime trade and leading to economic setbacks.
• 963 CE: Rashtrakuta ruler Krishna III invaded northern territories and defeated the Pratiharas.
• Gradual declaration of independence by their feudatories.
• By the 11th century CE, the Ghaznavids completely erased the Pratiharas from the political landscape.
• Smaller Rajput clans like the Chauhans/Chahamanas (Rajputana), Paramaras/Pawars (Malwa),
Solankis/Chalukyas assumed prominence.
TRADE AND COMMERCE

• Trade and commerce in northern India faced stagnation and decline from the 7th to 10th centuries.
• Factors: internal conflicts, absence of gold and silver coins due to the collapse of the Western Roman Empire.
• Merchant Guilds were present: Manigraman and Nanadesi in South India.

• Tamralipti (Tamluk, East Midnapore, West Bengal): primary port for voyages to Java, Sumatra, and other
southeast kingdoms.
5. QILA RAI PITHORA

HISTORY
• Lal Kot/ Qila Rai Pithora, is a fortified complex situated in Delhi.
• ‘First city of Delhi’: prevailing belief is that it was initially erected by the Tomar dynasty to encircle the iron
pillar, which Anangpal II is said to have transported from Udayagiri (present-day Madhya Pradesh) around 1050
CE.
• Tomar dynasty strategically chose the Aravalli Hills as the location for their headquarters due to its military
advantages; to safeguard against frequent raids and attacks launched by Mahmud of Ghazni on Kannauj.
• Tomars were ousted by the Chahamanas, leading to the renaming of Lal Kot as Qila Rai Pithora in honor of
Prithviraj Chauhan.
• According to the Archaeological Survey of India (ASI), the fort was captured by Chahamana Prince Vigraharaja
IV and later fortified with ramparts by Prithviraja III.
• The Chahamanas were eventually defeated by Qutbu’d-Din Aibak in 1192 CE.
• The decline of Qila Rai Pithora occurred when the Khilji Dynasty succeeded the Mamluks in the late 13th century
and relocated the capital to the well-fortified city of Siri; to protect against Mongol invasions.
• Firoz Shah Tughlaq established the Firoz Shah Kotla on the Yamuna River's banks to meet the city's growing
water needs, Qila Rai Pithora was left abandoned.
ABOUT PRITHVIRAJ CHAUHAN-III

• Prithviraja III/Prithviraj Chauhan/ Rai Pithora, reigned from 1177 to 1192 CE.
• Prominent king of the Chauhan (Chahamana) dynasty.
• Ruled over the Sapadalaksha territory, with his capital located in Ajmer (present-day Rajasthan).
• Expanded through military campaigns against neighbouring kingdoms; achieved victory over the Chandelas.
• 1191 AD: Prithviraj successfully defeated the Ghurid army under the leadership of Muhammad Ghori near
Taraori.
• 1192 CE: Ghori defeated the Rajput army on the same battlefield.
• His defeat at Tarain is regarded as a significant event in the Islamic conquest of India; depicted in Prithviraj Raso.
(Chand Bardai, his court poet).
ABOUT CHAHAMANAS/CHAUHAN DYNASTY

• 8th century: Durlabharaja I served the Gurjara-Pratiharas as their vassal.
• 10th century: Vakpatiraja I made a bold attempt to break free from Gurjara-Pratihara suzerainty; took the title
of Maharaja.
• Subsequent Chahamana rulers continued to consolidate their power; conflicts with neighbouring territories,
including the Chaulukyas of Gujarat and the Tomaras of Delhi.
• Earliest surviving inscription from the Chahamana dynasty, dating to 973 CE, is associated with the reign of
Vigraharaja II.
• Ajayaraja II, who ruled from approximately 1110 to 1135 CE, successfully repelled a Ghaznavid incursion; played
a pivotal role in the relocation of the kingdom's capital from Shakambhari to Ajayameru, known today as Ajmer.
• Arnoraja, conducted raids into Tomara territory and thwarted a Ghaznavid invasion; Vigraharaja IV, son of
Arnoraja, expanded the Chahamana domain, capturing Delhi from the Tomaras.
• One of the most celebrated rulers of the Chahamana dynasty was Prithviraja III, better known as Prithviraj
Chauhan.

6. ENSEMBLES OF HOYSALAS INSCRIBED ON UNESCO

WORLD HERITAGE LIST
• Hoysala Temples (Karnataka) constructed during the 12th and 13th centuries are dedicated to deities Shiva and
Vishnu.
BELUR CHENNAKESHAVA TEMPLE COMPLEX

• Situated along the banks of the Yagachi River; Construction commenced in the year 1117 AD; dedicated to Lord
Vishnu; there are also representations of Lord Shiva.
HOYSALESHWAR TEMPLE OF HALEBID

• Halebid (Dorasamudhra) emerged as the capital of the Hoysala empire; constructed in the year 1121 CE during
the reign of King Vishnuvardhana Hoysaleshwara; dedicated to Lord Shiva.
• Three Jaina basadi (temples) are also present, dating back to the Hoysala period; testament to the religious
diversity and harmonious coexistence of different faiths.
ABOUT KESAVA TEMPLE OF SOMNATHPURA

• Boasts a Trikuta architecture; dedicated to Lord Krishna in three distinct forms (Janardhana, Keshava, and
Venugopala).
THE HOYSALA EMPIRE

• Hoysalas were vassals or feudatories of the Chalukyas of Kalyani.
• Capital was situated in Dwarasamudra (Halebeedu).
• Foundation was credited to Sala, and his successors included Vinayaditya and Balalla I.
• Climax of Hoysala power came under the reign of Vishnuvardhana, also known as Bittideva; he commissioned
the construction of the Kirtinarayana Temple and the Chennakesava Temple.
• Renowned patrons of Shaivism, Vaishnavism, and Jainism.
• Vishnuvardhana converted to Srivaishnavism; under the influence of Sri Ramanujacharya.
• Literary Contributions, in both Kannada and Sanskrit: "Harihara" and "Raghavanka's Harishchandracharite"
in Kannada, as well as "Nemichandra's Leelavati Prabhanda" in Sanskrit.
ARCHITECTURE
• Vesara style developed under the patronage of the Badami Chalukyas in the 7th century; reached its zenith as
an independent and distinct style during the reign of the Hoysalas in the 13th century.
• Hoysala architectural style is often described as "temple-centric," reflecting their deep devotion to Hindu deities.
• Hallmark features of Hoysala architecture is the star-shaped ground plan (known as Stellate plan) employed in
many of temples.
• Temples erected on a raised platform called Jagati.
• Hoysalas favoured soapstone (chloritic schist) as primary construction material; soft stone allowed for exquisite
carving.
• Mantapa: incorporate both open (outer mantapa) and closed mantapa (inner mantapa).
• Cella (Vimana): are plain on the inside but profusely elaborated on the outside.
• Shrine: temples are classified based on the number of shrines, such as ekakuta (one shrine) or dvikuta (two
shrines).
• Development of Kalasa: vase-shaped water pot placed atop.
• Salabhanjika: mythical female figure found in brackets on top of the pillars.
• "Sthambha buttalikas" pillar image in Hoysala art exhibits influences from Chola and Chalukya artistic traditions.

7. DISCOVERY OF TEMPLES IN TELANGANA SHOWS SPREAD

OF CHALUKYA REIGN
CHALUKYAS OF BADAMI
• Chalukyas ruled over the Deccan plateau in India for over 600 years.
• Ruled as three closely related, but individual dynasties.
o Chalukyas of Badami (also called Early Chalukyas), who ruled between the 6th and the 8th century.
o Chalukyas of Kalyani (also called Western Chalukyas or Later Chalukyas)
o Chalukyas of Vengi (also called Eastern Chalukyas).
BADAMI CHALUKYAS:
• 6th century: Decline of the Gupta dynasty and their immediate successors in northern India led to major
changes in the areas south of the Vindhyas; age of small kingdoms had given way to large empires in this region.
• Established by Pulakeshin I in 543.
• Ruled over: entire state of Karnataka and most of Andhra Pradesh in the Deccan; At peak, ruled a vast empire
stretching from the Kaveri in the south to the Narmada in the north.
• Pulakeshin I took Vatapi (modern Badami in Karnataka) under his control and made it his capital.
• Pulakeshin II, most well-known emperor of the Badami dynasty:
o Extended the Chalukya Empire up to the northern extents of the Pallava kingdom.
o Stopped southward march of Harsha by defeating him on the banks of the river Narmada.
o Pallava Narasimhavarman, in 642, attacked and occupied Badami temporarily; Pulakeshin II, died in the
battle.
o Aihole inscription/prashasti: Sanskrit inscription at Meguti Jain temple in Aihole, Karnataka; eulogy dated
634–635 CE, was composed by the Jain poet Ravikirti in honour of his patron king Pulakesin Satyasraya
(Pulakeshin II).
• Badami was occupied by the Pallavas for a period of thirteen years.
• Recovered during the reign of Vikramaditya I: succeeded in pushing the Pallavas out of Badami
Vikramaditya I; took the title ‘Rajamalla’.
• Vikramaditya II (733–744).
o Repeatedly invaded territory of Tondaimandalam (historical region located in the northernmost part of Tamil
Nadu and southernmost part of Andhra Pradesh).
o Defeated Pallava Nandivarman II; engraved a Kannada inscription on the victory pillar at the Kailasanatha
Temple, in Kanchipuram.
o Overran traditional kingdoms of Tamil country, the Pandyas, the Cholas and the Cheras in addition to
subduing a Kalabhra ruler.
• Last Chalukya king: Kirtivarman II, was overthrown by the Rashtrakuta king Dantidurga in 753.
Architecture:
• Style is called ‘Chalukyan architecture’ or ‘Karnata Dravida architecture’.
• Used primarily reddish-golden Sandstone.
• Temple building activity was concentrated in: Aihole, Badami, Pattadakal and Mahakuta in modern
Karnataka state.
• Cave temples developed at Aihole (one Vedic, one Jain and one Buddhist), followed by four developed cave
temples at Badami (of which cave 3, a Vaishnava temple, is dated accurately to 578 CE); Vedic temples sculpted
images of Mahishasuramardhini, Varaha, Vishnu seated on Anantha (the snake) and Nataraja (dancing Shiva).
• 70 structures exist at Aihole and has been called one of the cradles of Indian temple architecture; Lad Khan
Temple; Meguti Jain Temple are examples.

• Temples in Pattadakal, built in the 8th century and now a UNESCO World Heritage Site; six temples are in
southern dravida style and four in the northern nagara style; Virupaksha Temple (740–745) and the
Mallikarjuna Temple (740–745) in the southern style are prominent examples.
8. JAGANNATH TEMPLE CORRIDOR

Bharat Gaurav Tourist Train ‘’Shri Jagannath Yatra” was flagged off from Delhi on very special tour covering some
of the very prominent pilgrimage and heritage destinations of Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, Jharkhand and Orissa. The
destinations are: Varanasi, Baidyanath dham Jyotirling (Jharkhand) temple; Jagannath temple, Puri; Sun temple at
Konark; Vishnupad temple, Gaya (Bihar).
ABOUT JAGANNATH TEMPLE

• Dedicated to Jagannath, a form of Vishnu.
• Location: Puri, Odisha (eastern coast of India).
• Jagannath, Subhadra and Balabhadra are dieties worshipped at the temple.
• One of the 108 Abhimana Kshethram of the Vaishnavite tradition.
• Vaishnava saints: Ramanujacharya, Nimarkacharya, Vallabhacharya and Ramananda were closely associated
with the temple.
• Ramanuja established the Emar Matha in the south-eastern corner of the temple.
• Significant to the followers of Gaudiya Vaishnavism, whose founder was Chaitanya Mahaprabhu.
• Worship is performed by the Bhil Sabar tribal priests, as well as priests of other communities in the temple.
• Image of Jagannath is made of wood (neem wood, known as Daru) and is ceremoniously replaced every 12 or
19 years by an exact replica.
• One of the Char Dham pilgrimage sites, the other being Rameshwaram, Badrinath and Dwarka.
Construction:
• Rebuilt by the King of the Eastern Ganga dynasty, Anantavarman Chodaganga, in the 10th century CE; described
by the Kendupatna copper-plate inscription of his descendant, Narasimhadeva II.
• The temple complex was further developed during the reigns of the subsequent kings, including those of the
Ganga dynasty and the Gajapati dynasty (1434-1541).
• The temple is built in the Kalinga Architecture; temple has distinct sectional structures: Deula, Vimana
or Garbhagriha (sanctum sanctorum).
• Temple is a Pancharatha with well-developed pagas; is a perfect example Nagara Rekha style.
• Miniature shrines are on the three outer sides of the main temple.
RATH YATRA
• Ratha Jatra or chariot festival, held annually in Puri, Odisha.
• Oldest and largest chariot festival in the Hindu tradition.
• Three deities are ceremoniously pulled in massive wooden chariots from the Jagannath Temple to the Gundicha
Temple; deities reside in the Gundicha Temple for a week and then return to their abode in the Jagannath
temple (Bahuda Yatra).
EASTERN GANGA DYNASTY

• They ruled over the modern region of Odisha unfolded in three distinct phases: Early Eastern Gangas (493
1077), Imperial Eastern Gangas (1077–1436), and Khemundi Gangas (1436–1947).
• The nomenclature ‘Eastern Gangas’ was adopted to differentiate them from the Western Gangas, who governed
Karnataka (Mysore).
• Odia became the official court language which evolved from Odra Prakrit.

ABOUT THE RULE

• Earliest capital: Dantapuram; shifted to Kalinganagara (modern Mukhalingam); then to Kataka (modern
Cuttack), and finally to Paralakhemundi.
• Eastern Ganga dynasty was first established when Indravarma-I defeated Vishnukundin king, Indrabhattaraka.
• Indravarma-I established his rule with Kalinganagara (or Mukhalingam) as the primary capital and Dantapuram
as a secondary capital.
• After the decline of the early Eastern Gangas, the Chalukyas of Vengi assumed control of the region.
• At the end of 11th century, the Chodaganga dynasty emerged, named after its founder, Anantavarman
Chodaganga; Anantavarman ruled from the Ganges River in the north to the Godavari River in the south and
laid the groundwork for the Eastern Ganga Dynasty.
• In 1198, Rajaraja III ascended the throne; Khalji dynasty of Bengal invaded Odisha during his reign in 1206.
o His son Anangabhima III repelled the invaders and to mark the victory erected the Megheswara Temple at
Bhuvaneshvara.
o Narasimhadeva I, (son of Anangabhima) launched a military campaign into southern Bengal in 1243 and
defeated the Muslim ruler of the Delhi Sultanate and captured the Bengal capital Gauda; Constructed the
Sun Temple at Konark to commemorate victory.
• Firuz Shah Tughlaq: invaded Odisha between 1353 and 1358 and imposed tribute on the Ganga king.
• 1356: Musunuri Nayaks defeated the Odishan powers.
 SULTANATE PERIOD (1206-1526 AD); Important Rulers;

Significant Events; Contemporary Kingdoms; Contributions
to Art and Architecture of the Indian Subcontinent
9. ESTIMATE OF GHIYAS-UD-DIN BALBAN (1216-1287)

• Ninth sultan of Mamluk dynasty (Slave dynasty) of Delhi and an Ilbari Turk, reigned from 1266 AD to 1287 AD.
• Sold as a slave to the then-ruler Iltumish in 1232 CE; served as the Sultan's personal attendant or Khasdar;
became one of the most distinguished members of Chalissa, a group of forty Turkic nobles in Delhi (Dal Chalisa
or Turkan-i-Chahalgani).
• Razia Sultan's reign: held the significant position of Amir-i-Shikar, responsible for both military and political
duties.
• Relied on Turkish nobility for support; also raised a massive army encompassing individuals from various castes.
• Identified four main problem areas: Vicinity of Delhi, Ganga-Yamuna doab, trade routes, especially the one
to Awadh, and rebellions in Rohilkhand.
• Successfully lifted Mongol siege of Uch under Masud Shah in 1246.
• Defeated the governor of Bengal, Tughral Khan in 1275 and reclaimed the region and eliminated Tughral.
• Led military campaign against Meo people of Mewat; implemented his ‘Blood and Iron’ strategy; secured the
region with construction of forts and granted control to Iqtedar holders.
• Implemented an efficient espionage system; with the use of spies or barids to monitor his officials.
• Addressed the threat of Mongols; reorganized military; restructured revenues of Iqtedar holders and
discontinued revenues for older Muqtas, who could not serve as military commanders.
• Referred himself as representative of God on Earth; adopted the title 'Zillullah' (shadow of God).
• Theory of kingship: king's power emanated solely from God, making his actions beyond public scrutiny.
• introduced Persian festival of Nowruz and enforced customs like 'Sijda' and 'Paibos' in his court to instil a sense
of wonder among ordinary people.

• Broke up the 'Chahalgani,' and promoted junior Turkish officers to positions of equality with the members of
the Chalisa Dal.
10. TUGHALQABAD FORT

• Built by Ghiyasuddin Tughluq, the founder of the Tughlaq dynasty.
• Third extant city of Delhi, after Lal Kot (built in mid-eleventh century by the Tomars) and Siri (built by the second
ruler of the Khalji Dynasty, Alauddin Khalji).
• Consists of massive stone fortifications surrounding the ground plan of the city.
• Sloping rubble-filled city walls are a typical feature of monuments of the Tughluq dynasty.
• Divided into three parts:
o Wider city area with houses built along a rectangular grid.
o Citadel with a tower at its highest point known as ‘Bijai-Mandal’.
o Adjacent palace area containing the royal residences.
• The major portion of the tomb-building is made with red sandstone, including the dome, made of white marble.
• Exterior portion resembles that of the structure of the Alai Darwaza constructed earlier; similarity lies in the
presence of pointed arches.
• Tudor arch: customized into a "Tudor" outline and decorative double curve.
• Combining of the arch and the beam in the tomb was used for the first time in the architecture during the
Tughlaq dynasty.
ADILABAD FORT
• Southeast of Ghiyasuddin Tomb.
• Built by Muhammad Tughluq (1325 1351)
• Nai ka kot: south-east of Adilabad; built by Muhammad bin Tughlaq as a private residence.
TUGHLAQ DYNASTY
• Third Dynasty of Delhi sultanate.
• Tughlaq dynasty took over from the Khaljis in 1320.
• Ghazi Malik assumed the throne under the title of Ghiyasuddin Tughlaq.
• Had strong allies such as Turks, Afghans, and South Asian Muslim warriors.
• Reached pinnacle: 1330 and 1335 AD, during a military campaign led by Muhammad Bin Tughlaq.
• Ended: 1413.
GHIYAS-UD-DIN TUGHLAQ OR GHAZI MALIK (1320 1325 AD)

• Fortified the North-Western frontiers to defend the sultanate against Mongol invasions.
• Muhammad Jauna Khan, son of Ghiyas-ud-din Tughlaq defeated Prataparudra-Deva II (Kakatiya ruler of
Warangal).
• Established: Tughlaqabad.
• Ghiyasuddin Bahadur's rebellion in Bengal was suppressed during his rule.
• Ghiyasuddin Tughlaq constructed Qutub-Badarpur Road, connecting the new city to the Grand Trunk Road, now
recognized as Mehrauli-Badarpur Road.
ARCHITECTURE
• Elements of Indo-Islamic style dominated the architectural developments.
• Emphasis on vastness in place of decoration of the buildings of the Khilji period.
• Dark appearance characterised the buildings.
• Both arch and lintel method of entrance design.

• Introduced “batter” which was characterised by sloping walls to give more strength to the building.
• MOHAMMED BIN TUGHLAQ (1325-1351)
o Built fourth city of Delhi with fortified walls named Jahan-Pannah; double storied bridge of seven spans
named Sath Pul, Bijai Mandal, the presumably part of a "Palace of a Thousand Columns”; city was deserted
during the year 1340 due to the unpredictable policy of Muhammad Tughlaq to change the capital from Delhi
to the city of Daulatabad.
o Ibn Batutah arrived in India and was appointed as the chief Qazi of Delhi by Muhammad-bin Tughlaq.
• FIROZ SHAH TUGHLAQ (1351-1388)

o Constructed Delhi as the capital.
o Revived the Islamic style of architecture; represented the suppression of the indigenous impulse.
o Ferozshah Kotla, the fifth city of Delhi, and three other fortress cities named as Jaunpur, Fathabad, and Hissar.
o Khirki Masjid at Jahanpanah: small quadrangle shaped mosque; covered entirely by a roof, which is an
unusual thing for building of mosques; presence of several domes on the roof; latticework or jali on the
windows.
11. KHILJI DYNASTY ARCHITECTURE

ABOUT SIRI FORT (1303)
• Alauddin Khilji (second ruler of Khilji Dynasty), established Siri as the second city of Delhi.
• Construction aimed to counter the frequent Mongol invasions.
• An oval shaped layout; houses the grand Hazar Sutan palace with its marble floors and stone decorations.
• Additions: flame-shaped battlements; bastions showcased innovative architectural style of the Khilji’s.
• Hauz Khas village was an extension of the fort; designed to meet the water needs of the army.
• Also known as ‘Darul Khilafat’ or ‘Seat of the Caliphate.’
• Strength and grandeur attracted the attention of Timur, the Mongol ruler who invaded Delhi in 1398.
• Decline of Siri Fort began with the removal of its stones and artefacts by local rulers for their buildings.
• Sher Shah Suri used materials from Siri to construct his city.
KHILJI DYNASTY ARCHITECTURE

• Alauddin Khilji expanded Qutb-mosque.
• Proportions of the minaret were doubled compared to those established a century earlier.
• Alai Darwaza, completed in 1305; known for inventive arches; dome support systems.
• Jamaat Khana Masjid: built at the tomb of Nizam ud-din Auliya, towards the end of Khilji rule.
• Tomb of Ala-ud-din Khilji and Madrasa (part of Qutb Complex).
12. FUSION OF ROCK ART

Rudragiri hillock located in the Guntur district of Andhra Pradesh, is known for remarkable archaeological
monuments; site unveils a fascinating combination of prehistoric rock paintings from the Mesolithic period and
exquisite artwork from the Kakatiya dynasty.
EARLY KAKATIYA DYNASTY RULERS

• Kakatiya dynasty, ruled over the eastern Deccan region from the 12th to the 14th centuries.
• Roots traced back to Venna (reigned from 800 to 815 AD); a descendant of Durjaya, a legendary chieftain of the
Andhra kingdom.
• Kakatiya lineage continued with Gunda I and Gunda II.
• Early days: Kakatiyas served as vassals to the powerful Rashtrakuta dynasty. (Rashtrakutas held significant
influence over much of India during the 6th to 10th centuries AD).

• Collapse of the Rashtrakuta kingdom: Gunda IV saw an opportunity to establish his family's independent
rule; declared Kuravi as an independent principality; leading the Kakatiya dynasty towards self-governance.
• Capital: Orugallu (Warangal).
• Rudrama Devi: succeeding Ganapati; continued her predecessor's fortification efforts; repelled an attempted
invasion by the Seuna dynasty (Yadava Dynasty); married an Eastern Chalukyan prince, Virabhadra, and later
handed over the throne to her grandson, Prataparudra II.
• Prataparudra II: faced challenges from the Delhi Sultanate under Alauddin Khalji; initially submitted to
Alauddin but later asserted his kingdom's independence; probably at this time that the Koh-i-Noor diamond
passed from Kakatiya ownership to that of Alauddin.
13. QUTUB MINAR AND ITS MONUMENTS

ALAI DARWAZA
• First building to incorporate Islamic construction and ornamentation principles.
• First instance of red sandstone and white marble used in conjunction.
• One of the earliest examples of a true dome constructed according to arcuate (curved or arched) architectural
principles.
• Domed gateway is adorned with inscriptions in Naskh script; latticed stone screens.
THE QUTUB MINAR COMPLEX

• Comprises a collection of historical monuments and buildings dating back to the Delhi Sultanate era, in
Mehrauli, Delhi, India.
• Qutb Minar and Quwwat-ul Islam Mosque, Alai Darwaza gate, the Alai Minar, and the Iron pillar; tombs of
Iltutmish, Alauddin Khalji, and Imam Zamin.
QUTUB MINAR
• Significant example of early Afghan architecture; tallest minaret worldwide constructed from bricks; design
encompasses five distinctive storeys, each having a projecting balcony.
• UNESCO World Heritage Site.
• Constructed as a Victory Tower: To commemorate Muhammad Ghori's triumph over the Rajput king,
Prithviraj Chauhan, in 1192 AD; was initiated by Qutb-ud-din Aibak (first Sultan of the Mamluk dynasty).
• Use of red sandstone and marble; Aibak could only complete the first storey.
• Subsequent three floors were added by his son in-law and successor, Iltutmish.
• 1368 AD: Minar was struck by lightning; Firoz Shah Tughlaq (1351 to 1388), replaced the missing section with
the current two floors; adorned it with white marble and sandstone.
• Inscriptions: displayed in bold and cursive Thuluth script of calligraphy, distinguished by thicker strokes at the
top compared to the earlier Kufic script during the initial construction.
• Further repairs conducted by Sultan Sikander Lodi in 1503.
• The strength of the structure has been attributed to the use of lime mortar and rubble masonry, which absorb
seismic tremors.
QUWWAT-UL-ISLAM MOSQUE
• Construction commenced in 1193 CE under the patronage of Qutb-ud-din Aibak.
• First mosque built in Delhi following the Islamic conquest of India.
• Aibak chose the central region of the captured Rajput citadel of Qila Rai Pithora as the site for this mosque.
• Design bear similarities to the Adhai-din-ka Jhonpra or Ajmer Mosque in Ajmer, Rajasthan, also constructed by
Aibak.
• Constructed in a Corbel style, evident in the variations in the arch patterns.

• Iltutmish, Qutbuddin's successor, expanded the original prayer hall.
IRON PILLAR
• One of the most remarkable metallurgical wonders globally.
• Originally erected by Chandragupta II Vikramaditya (375–414 AD) in front of a Vishnu Temple complex at
Udayagiri around 402 AD.
• 11th century CE: relocated to its current location by Anangpal.
• An inscription in Sanskrit, written in the Brahmi script dating back to the 4th century AD; reveals that the pillar
was originally set up as a Vishnudhvaja, on a hill known as Vishnupada.
ALAI MINAR
• Alauddin Khalji initiated the construction following his expansion of the Quwwat ul-Islam Mosque, which had
been built before 1300 AD.
• Construction of the Alai Minar came to an abrupt halt shortly after Alauddin's demise in 1316.
• Only the first storey of the Alai Minar remains.
 MUGHAL PERIOD (1526-40 AND 1555-1857); Important

Rulers; Significant Events; Contemporary Kingdoms;
Contributions to Art & Architecture of the Indian
Subcontinent
14. PURANA QILA: THE GRAND OLD FORT OF DELHI

• Location: South-eastern Delhi.
• Patronage: built by the Mughal Emperor Humayun (started in 1533 CE) as a part of his new city of Dinpanah.
(reference in the Ain-i-Akbari of Abul Fazl)
• Sher Shah renamed Din Panah as Sher Garh.
• Also known as Pandavon ka Qila (it is at the site of Indraprastha, the capital of Pandavas as given in the epic of
Mahabharata).
• Archaeological Survey of India and headed by BB Lal, revealed a few shards of pottery belonging to the Painted
Grey Ware (PGW) variety, that historians trace to the Mahabharata period (1500-1000 BCE).
o Also revealed existence of stratified layers belonging to 8 periods starting from the 4th century CE
• Three majestic gateways: Bada Darwaza (large arch), Humayun Darwaza and Talaqi Darwaza.
• Use of red sandstone.
• Qila-e-Kuhna Mosque: built by Sher Shah in 1542 CE (it has a rectangular domed structure built in grey
quartzite with profuse use of red and yellow sandstone); indigenous Hindu stylistic motifs such as the Kalash
and the lotus is visible.
• Sher Mandal: octagonal structure built in red sandstone and sparingly decorated with white and black marble
inlay; built by Sher Shah but later changed into a library by Humayun.
• Other structures: water harvesting systems (Baoli); Khairul Manazil was commissioned by Maham Anga,
Akbar’s nurse, around 1561-62 CE .
15. KHOONI DARWAJA

Book 'Delhi': Unknown Tales of a City’: Ronald Vivian Smith.
• Khooni Darwaza, Delhi, constructed during Sher Shah Suri's reign in the 16th century (1540-45).
• Initially known as Lal Darwaza; later renamed Khooni Darwaza due to a tragic event that took place in 1857.

• Lieutenant Hodson shot and killed Bahadur Shah Zafar's sons and grandson there.
• Design showcases a combination of Mughal and Afghan influences.
• Quartzite stone used.
• Three arched entrances, with the central one being the largest.
• Balconies known as jharokhas are present.
• Rectangular windows with decorative over hanging edges known as chajjas, supported by carved brackets.
• KANGURA STRUCTURE: Kangura/ Kungura: serves both military and aesthetic purposes; Petal shaped roof
boundary also served as a place for soldiers to guard and defend the building.
• DAMAAGA: three hole like openings; structure built for defence and could be used to pour boiling oil on
enemies scaling the gate.
• PISHTAQ: two wonderfully carved pishtaq, or niches; could be used to keep lamps to light up the entrance in
the dark; frames of the window are made from red sandstone.
16. KHAN-E-KHANA (RAHIM KHAN’S TOMB) AND THE

HUMAYUN’S TOMB
ABOUT RAHIM KHAN
• Early Life: Born in 1556 to Bairam Khan, the uncle and tutor of Akbar.
• Career:
o One of the Navratans in Akbar’s court; served also in the court of Jahangir.
o Political and military career began with Akbar’s Gujarat campaign.
o 1575: appointed by the emperor as the Governor of Gujarat.
o Composer couplets based on Lord Krishna as Akbar’s wife, Jodha, worshipped Lord Krishna.
o Given the title of Mirza Khan by Akbar.
o Wrote in Persian, Hindi and Sanskrit; 700-odd couplets became important part of Hindi school textbooks.
o Translated Babur’s autobiography from Turkish to Persian language.
KHANE-E-KHANA
• Patronising the construction of beautiful buildings, canals, tanks, gardens.
• Built tomb for his wife: Mah Banu in 1598.
• First Mughal tomb of its kind built for a woman.
• Material used: red sandstone, buff sandstone and marble.
• Arch-shaped structure; include- niches, bulbous domes, canopies and Charbagh pattern.
• Ornamented with diverse motifs; also include motifs found in Hindu monuments; like the peacock and Swastika.
HUMAYUN’S TOMB
• Built in 1570; first garden-tomb on the Indian subcontinent.
• Documented as the first ever tomb built for a Mughal emperor.
• The monument was built by Emperor Akbar.
• Abd al-Qadir Badauni mentioned it was designed by Mirak Mirza Ghiyas, an architect of Iranian descent.
• Designated as a World Heritage Site by the United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization
(UNESCO) in 1993.
• First structure in which the slightly bulbous and double dome, a feature borrowed from Persia and Samarkand,
was introduced in India;
• Char-Bagh (Four Gardens), a quadrilateral garden is also built.

• Topping off the mausoleum is the Persian double dome, flanked by pillared kiosks, or chattris, which are a
distinct Indian architectural feature.
• While the rest of the building is made up of red sandstone, with white and black marble and yellow stone
detailing, the exterior dome is of purely white marble.
• A central domed chamber with the emperor’s tomb in the middle and four corner rooms comprise the first
floor.
• Over 150 Mughal family members are buried there.
MUGHAL ARCHITECTURE
• ‘Indo-Islamic Architecture’ was developed by the Mughals in the 16th, 17th and 18th centuries.
• Architectural styles of earlier Muslim dynasties in India and from Iranian and Central Asian architectural
traditions, particularly Timurid.
• Further incorporated influences from wider Indian architecture during the reign of Akbar (1556–1605).
• Large bulbous domes, slender minarets at the corners, massive halls, large vaulted gateways, and delicate
ornamentation.
• Babur took considerable interest in erecting buildings, though few have survived.
• Akbar built Agra Fort, the fort-city of Fatehpur Sikri, and the Buland Darwaza; the principal feature of the
constructions during Akbar’s reign was the use of red sandstone; also introduced the use of ‘Tudor arch’ (four
centred arch).
• Jahangir commissioned the Shalimar Gardens in Kashmir; white marble became the chief building material,
replacing red sandstone which had been used till now.
• Reached its zenith during the reign of Shah Jahan; constructed Taj Mahal, the Jama Masjid, the Shalimar Gardens
of Lahore.
• Aurangzeb built the Badshahi Mosque, Bibi Ka Maqbara, Moti Masjid etc.
• Features:
o Use of white marble and red sandstone was common.
o Delicate ornamentation work, including ‘pachin kari’ decorative work, ‘jali-latticed screens’ , decorative
chhatris and jalis and jharokhas.
o Persian and Arabic calligraphic inscriptions.
o Large bulbous onion domes were sometimes surrounded by four smaller domes.
o Buildings were surrounded by gardens on all four sides.
o Large gateways were built that led up to the main building.
o Influenced Indian architectural styles, including the Indo-Saracenic style of the British Raj, the Rajput style
and the Sikh style.
Examples of Monuments
• Agra Fort:
o UNESCO world heritage site, Uttar Pradesh.
o Major part built by Akbar from 1565 to 1574.
o Indicates the free adoption of the Rajput planning and construction.
o Important buildings: Jahangiri Mahal built for Jahangir, the Moti Masjid, and Mena Bazaars.
• Tomb of Itimad-ud-Daulah:
o Mausoleum in the city of Agra.
o Sometimes called the "Bachcha Taj", as the tomb of Itimad-ud-Daulah is often regarded as a draft of the Taj
Mahal.
o First use of the pietra dura (floral design made up of semiprecious stone).
• Taj Mahal:

o World Heritage Site; built between 1632 and 1653 by the emperor Shah Jahan in memory of his wife Mumtaz
Mahal.
o White marble structure standing on a square plinth; symmetrical building with an iwan (an arch-shaped
doorway) topped by a large dome.
o Parchin kari, a method of decoration on a large-scale inlaid work of jewels and Jali work has been used.
• Shalimar Gardens:
o Lahore, Pakistani.
o Date from the period when the Mughal Empire.
o Construction began in 1641 during the reign of Emperor Shah Jahan, and was completed in 1642.
o UNESCO World Heritage Site.
• Bibi ka Maqbara:
o Mausoleum built by Emperor Aurangzeb, in the late 17th century.
o Tribute to his first wife, Dilras Bano Begum in Aurangabad, Maharashtra.
o Replica of the Taj Mahal, and was designed by Ata Ullah, the son of Ahmed Lahori (principal designer of the
Taj Mahal).
17. FATEHPUR SIKRI

• Between 1571 and 1585 AD, the Mughal emperor Akbar chose Fatehpur Sikri as his capital.
• Employed red sandstone in its construction.
• Designated a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 1986.
• City derives its name from the pre-existing village of Sikri, and archaeological evidence indicates a settlement in
the region dating back to the Painted Grey Ware period.
• Historians suggests that the area prospered under Sunga rule and later under Sikarwar Rajputs.
• The Sikarwar Rajputs, who controlled the region from the 7th to the 16th century, constructed a fortress that
stood until the Battle of Khanwa in 1527.
• 1527, Battle of Khanwa:
o Babur's Timurid forces clashed with the Rajput Confederation led by Rana Sanga.
o Significant battle for introducing extensive gunpowder use in Northern India.
o Concluded with a decisive victory for Babur.
o Babur, called the place Shukri, after its large lake that was used by Mughal armies.
o He constructed a garden here called the ‘Garden of Victory'.
• Construction of Khanqah of Sheikh Salim Chishti (saint who predicted the birth of Akbar’s son Jahangir) with
white marble, commenced after Jahangir’s birth in the village of Sikri in 1569.
• Eventually named Fatehpur Sikri, translating to the ‘City of Victory,’ in honour of Akbar's successful Gujarat
campaign in 1573.
o Emperor Akbar seized control of the Gujarat Sultanate; defeated Gujarat Sultan, Muzaffar Shah III.
o Buland Darwaza, was erected.
• Influences from Gujarat are evident in the decor of the palaces within Fatehpur Sikri.
• Gates: Delhi Gate, Lal Gate, Agra Gate, Birbal's Gate, Chandanpal Gate, Gwalior Gate, Tehra Gate, Chor Gate,
and Ajmeri Gate.
IMPORTANT BUILDINGS IN THIS CITY, BOTH RELIGIOUS AND SECULAR ARE:

JAMA MASJID
• Diwan-i-Aam: Hall of Public Audience, where the ruler meets the general public.

• Diwan-i-Khas: Hall of Private Audience; here Akbar had representatives of different religions discuss their faiths
and gave private audience.
• Ibadat Khana: (House of Worship) was a meeting house built in 1575 CE by the Mughal Emperor Akbar, where
the foundations of a new Syncretistic faith, Din-e-Ilahi were laid by Akbar.
• Jodha Bai Mahal: place of residence of Akbar's chief Rajput wife, Mariam-uz-Zamani, shows Rajput influence;
there is also a Hindu temple and a tulsi math.
• Panch Mahal: five-storied palatial structure, with a single large-domed chhatri.
18. MUGHAL RULER AURANGZEB

HISTORY KASHI VISHVANATH TEMPLE
• Dedicated to Lord Shiva, in Varanasi, Uttar Pradesh.
• It is one the twelve Jyotirlinga shrines in India.
• Built in Nagara style of temple architecture; characterized by its towering spire (shikhara)
• Original temple (also known as Adi Vishveshwara Temple) was destroyed by the Ghurids in 1194,
when Muhammad ibn Sam defeated Jayachandra of Kannauj near Chandawar and razed the city of Kashi.
• 1230: rebuilt near the Avimukteshwara Temple, during the reign of Iltutmish (Delhi Sultanate ruler, 1211–1266).
• Demolished again during the rule of Sikandar Lodi (1489–1517).
• Raja Man Singh built the temple during Akbar's reign, however the orthodox section in Hindus boycotted it as
Man Singh’s sister was married to Mughal ruler Akbar; Raja Todar Mal completed the reconstruction of the
temple in 1585.
• 1669: Mughal Emperor Aurangzeb destroyed the temple and built the Gyanvapi Mosque in its place.
• 1780: Ahilyabai Holkar rebuilt the present temple adjacent to the mosque.
• 1835: Maharaja Ranjit Singh of the Sikh Empire donated gold for plating the temple's dome.
ABOUT MUGHAL RULER AURANGZEB

• Viceroy of the Deccan in 1636-1637 and the governor of Gujarat in 1645-1647.
• Shahjahan in 1657, nominated Dara Shikoh as his successor. This was not accepted by Aurangzeb. He
proclaimed himself as emperor in 1658. Thus, began the war of succession.
• 1658: allied army of Dara Shikoh and the kingdom of Marwar was defeated by Aurangzeb at the battle of
Dharmat.
• Decisive battle of Samugarh in 1658: Aurangzeb’s sovereignty and suzerainty was cemented and was
acknowledged throughout the empire. He imprisoned Shahjahan (his father) in the Agra fort.
• ‘Fatwa Alamgiri’ was imposed successfully by Aurangzeb as the principal regulating body of the empire and
prohibited religiously forbidden activities in Islam.
• Aurangzeb retained Shahjahanabad (Old Delhi) as his capital; after two decades the capital was shifted to
wherever Aurangzeb would set up camp during his long military campaigns.
• 1681: Prince Akbar, rebelled in Deccan. Aurangzeb from this time onwards was continuously engaged in the
region and mainly the “Deccan Ulcer” kept him engaged.
• He died at Ahmadnagar, Maharashtra in 1707.
RELIGIOUS POLICY OF MUGHAL STATE UNDER AURANGZEB

• Aurangzeb banned the Zoroastrian festival of Nauroz, and reinstated the jizya tax on non-Muslims in 1679.
• Aurangzeb's emphasis on Sharia conflicted with his acknowledgment that secular decrees (Zawabit) could
override Sharia law.
• Forbade the Kalima (Islamic confession of faith), on his coins, as he believed, the holy words might be desecrated
under foot or defiled by the non-believers.
• Appointed a Censor of Morals (Muhktasib) to enforce Islamic laws.

• Imposition of Jizya in 1679, other taxes and conversions: Akbar had abolished this tax on the Hindus but
Aurangzeb again levied this tax. However, Brahmins, women, children, elders, the handicapped, the unemployed,
the ill, and the insane were all perpetually exempted.
• Discriminatory toll/tax: enforced a higher tax burden on Hindu merchants at the rate of 5% (as against 2.5%
on Muslim merchants); a sharp turn from Akbar's uniform tax code; Later on Muslim traders were totally
exempted from the payment of this tax.
• However, imperial bureaucracy employed a higher percentage of Hindus compared to his predecessors.
Between 1679 and 1707, the number of Hindu officials in the Mughal administration increased by half,
representing 31.6% of Mughal nobility.
• Results:
o Conflict with the Jats (1669-1670): Jats organised a rebellion (especially in Tilpat region); were led by Gokula;
by 1670, rebellion was quelled.
o Conflict with the Satnamis, 1672: Aurangzeb’s army crushed the Satnami rebellion
19. RANI DURGAVATI

• Born in Kalinjar.
• Ruled over the Gondwana kingdom (1550 until 1564).
• Her father, Raja Salbahan was a descendant of the famous Chandelas.
• Advisors: Diwan Adhar Kayastha and Man Thakur, advised on managing administration.
• She moved capital from Singorgarh Fort to the strategically important Chauragarh Fort (in Satpura hill range);
this further fortified her position and prepared her kingdom for potential conflicts.
• Undertook developmental projects: construction of reservoirs like Ranital, Cherital, and Adhartal.
• Patron of learning; allowed Acharya Bitthalnath to establish a seat of the Pushtimarg Cult at Garha.
• Boundaries of her kingdom were consolidated; led army to quell rebellions.
• Most of the population consisted of Gond tribesmen.
• Army comprised of cavalry, war elephants, and a large infantry.
• Repulsed the attacks of Baz Bahadur (1555-1560) leading a Mughal army.
GARHA-MANDALA/KATANGA KINGDOM
• Distinction of being the first major kingdom established by the Gond tribe (Central Indian region).
• Founded by Jadurai, a Gond leader; ascended to the throne after overthrowing the Kalchuri Rajputs of Garha-
Mandala.
• Kharji (1440-1460) expanded the kingdom's army, and his grandson Sukhandas (1480-1500) incorporated
Rajputs into both the military and administration.
REIGN OF SANGRAM SHAH

• Rapid expansion under the reign of Sangram Shah; conquered territories of Narmada Valley, Bhopal, Sagar,
Damoh, and most of the Satpura hills.
• Sangram Shah constructed Chouragrh Fort in Narsinghpur.
• Patronised art and literature; had extensive knowledge of Sanskrit; notable work ‘Rasratnamala’
• Capital of the Garha kingdom: Singhorgarh.
20. LACHIT BARPHUKAN

• Born 1622 in Assam.
AHOM BATTLES AGAINST MUGHALS

• Invasion by Mir Jumla: acting on the orders of Mughal ruler Aurangzeb.

• Mughals captured Garhgaon, capital of Ahom Dynasty, leading to signing of treaty of Ghilajharighat in 1663;
imposed territorial concessions, war indemnities and annual tribute.
• Chakradhwaj Singha initiated extensive preparations by training soldiers.
• 1667: Lachit, was entrusted with leading the Ahom army, holding the rank of Barphukan.
• Ahom army, under Lachit's command, destroyed Mughal outposts until reaching the pivotal target of Guwahati.
• Subsequent siege culminated in a frontal attack in 1667, resulting in a victory for Ahoms and expulsion of
Mughal forces beyond the river Manas.
• 1669: Mughal troops, led by Ram Singh (Battle of Alaboi), arrived to launch an attack; Despite Ahom army not
being fully prepared, Lachit Barphukan faced the potential threat; Ahom forces suffered losses, but Lachit,
remained undeterred; Utilized the natural advantage of hillocks along the Brahmaputra, earthen ramparts were
erected.
• Battle of Saraighat in March 1671: final stages of the Battle of Saraighat, as Mughals attacked from the river;
Lachit, confronted the Mughal fleet; Lachit's courageous leadership proved triumphant; Mughals were forced
to retreat from Guwahati.
• Lachit Barphukan gold medal was instituted in 1999: awarded to the best cadet from the National Defence
Academy.
21. BABA BANDA SINGH BAHADUR

• Also known as Lachman Dev emerged as a prominent Sikh warrior and the commander of the Khalsa army.
• Devout disciple of Guru Gobind Singh, who bestowed upon him the name Gurbaksh Singh.
• In Khanda, Sonipat, assembled a military force and started a struggle against the Mughal Empire.
• Initiated a series of reforms in Punjab: abolished the oppressive Zamindari system, an exploitative land
revenue system, and ensured that property rights were granted to the tillers of the land; introduced the Nanak
Shahi coins.
• First major confrontation with Mughals, took place at the Battle of Sonipat.
• 1709: achieved victory in the Battle of Samana, leading to the capture of the Mughal city of Samana.
• Sikh expanded influence into the Cis-Sutlej areas of Punjab.
• Established capital in Mukhlisgarh, renaming it as Lohgarh, and issued his own currency.
MUGHAL RESPONSE AND THE PERSECUTION

• Organized a formidable force to subdue and eliminate Banda Singh Bahadur.
• Banda Bahadur made a strategic move to Lohgarh to prepare for the battle; the Sikh army found themselves
besieged by an overwhelming Mughal army.
• Banda Singh Bahadur tried to recoup and reorganise and therefore, issued Hukamnamas (decrees) to the Sikhs,
urging them to join him.
• As the Mughal Empire was facing succession wars for the throne, Banda Singh Bahadur managed to recapture
Sadhaura and Lohgarh in 1712.
• In 1715, Mughal army moved to besiege Banda Singh Bahadur and his Sikh forces which led to the capture of
Banda Singh.
• 1716: Mughal Emperor Farrukhsiyar ordered execution of Banda Singh Bahadur in Delhi.
22. HISTORY AND SIGNIFICANCE OF THE SIKH ASSEMBLY

Sarbat Khalsa (Sikh assembly) has been demanded by some religious groups in Punjab.
ABOUT SARBAT KHALSA

• Sarbat means 'all', and literally, the Sarbat Khalsa is an assembly of all factions of Sikhs (Khalsa); Idea of a
deliberative assembly of Sikhs dates back to the 18th century.

• After Guru Gobind Singh’s death (10th guru), the Sikh misls (military units) began to convene the Sarbat Khalsa
to discuss political, social, and religious issues.
o Meetings called twice a year on the occasion of Baisakhi and Diwali; had the power to issue directions to all
Sikhs.
• Establishment of the Sikh kingdom by Maharaja Ranjit Singh in 1799 ended the era of the Sikh misls, and also
the primary need for the institution of the Sarbat Khalsa.
• 1920: Sarbat Khalsa was called to discuss control over gurdwaras and subsequently, the SGPC was born.
• 20th century: formation of the Shiromani Gurdwara Parbandhak Committee (SGPC) further reduced the need
for an institution like the Sarbat Khalsa.
• After the Army action at the Golden Temple in 1984, some organisers called the Sarbat Khalsa, but prominent
Sikh bodies including the SGPC were not part of the call.
23. JANTAR MANTAR

• Jaipur, Rajasthan
• Compilation of nineteen architectural astronomical instruments, built by the Rajput King Sawai Jai Singh II.
• Completed in 1738 CE.
• Purpose of this observatory was to compile astronomical tables and predict the time and movements of the
sun, earth, and planets.
• Has the largest stone sundial of the world.
• Symbol of royal authority, through its urban dimensions, its control of time, and its rational and astrological
forecasting capacities.
• Designated a monument of national importance in 1968.
• Maharaja Jai Singh II of Jaipur constructed five Jantar Mantar in total- in New Delhi, Jaipur, Ujjain, Mathura, and
Varanasi.
• World heritage site since 2010.
• Jantar Mantar of Jaipur is built with Pink Sandstone; is a series of nineteen geometric gadgets for measuring
time and area for astronomy.
24. AHMEDNAGAR OF MAHARASHTRA TO RENAMED AFTER

AHILYADEVI HOLKAR
AHILYADEVI HOLKAR
• Born in present-day Ahmednagar district, Maharashtra.
• Belonged to Holkar dynasty of Maratha; Holkars ruled from Indore.
• Came to power after passing of her husband Khande Rao Holkar and father-in-law Malhar Rao Holkar.
• Rebuilt the Kashi Vishwanath temple which was destroyed by Aurangzeb to build Gyanvapi Mosque in Banaras.
• Current structure of Vishnupad Temple, Gaya, Bihar was built by Ahilya Bai Holkar in 1787.
ABOUT HOLKARS OF MARATHA CONFEDERACY

• Subedar under Peshwa Baji Rao I (Pune seat).
• Founded by Malhar Rao, who joined the service of Peshwas of Maratha Empire in 1721, and rose to the rank of
Subedar.
• 1720s: Malhar Rao led Maratha armies in Malwa region.
• 1733: was granted 9 Parganas in the vicinity of Indore by the Peshwa.
• 1747: started the construction of his royal palace, the Rajwada.

• He ruled much of Malwa; acknowledged as one of the five virtually independent rulers of the Maratha
Confederacy.
• Succeeded by Ahilyabai Holkar (r. 1767–1795), his daughter-in-law; moved the capital to Maheshwar, south of
Indore on the Narmada River.
• Due to internal feud, Holkar became independent and remained so till 1818.
• After this they were under the protectorate of British Empire (Treaty of Mandsaur, 1818).
25. MARATHA FORTS NOMINATED FOR UNESCO WORLD

HERITAGE LIST
India has nominated the ‘Maratha Military Landscapes’, comprising of 12 forts, for UNESCO World Heritage List (2024-
2025).
ABOUT THE NOMINATED FORTS

• Salher, Shivneri, Lohagad, Khanderi, Raigad, Rajgad, Pratapgad, Suvarnadurg, Panhala, Vijaydurg and
Sindhudurg forts are situated in Maharashtra.
• Gingee fort is in Tamil Nadu.
Salher:
• Salher boasts the highest fort in the Sahyadri mountains, the second highest peak in Maharashtra.
• Shivaji ultimately secured victory in the Battle of Salher against Mughals.
Shivneri Fort:
• Birthplace of Chatrapati Shivaji Maharaj, the founder of the Maratha Empire.
• Originally under the Yadavas of Devagiri.
• Shivaji recaptured it in 1670, surrendering briefly in 1665 due to the Treaty of Purandhar.
Lohagad:
• Shivaji Maharaj captured it in 1648 but temporarily surrendered it in 1665.
Khanderi:
• Officially Kanhoji Angre Island, with its fort, is located off the coast of Maharashtra.
• Crucial role in Shivaji's time, securing the coastline against opponents like the Siddis.
Raigad:
• Situated within the Sahyadri range.
• Chhatrapati Shivaji Maharaj chose it as his capital in 1674.
Rajgad:
• Hill fort located in the Pune district.
• Initially known as Murumbdev; served as the first capital of the Maratha Empire under the rule of Chhatrapati
Shivaji. Later, the capital was shifted to Raigad Fort; Shivaji's son Rajaram I was born here.
• Rajgad was one of the 12 forts retained by Shivaji in the Treaty of Purandar in 1665.
Pratapgad:
• Situated in the Satara district, near the Mahabaleshwar hill station.
• Constructed in 1656 under the supervision of Moropant Trimbak Pingle, Shivaji's prime minister.
• Battle of Pratapgad in 1659: between Shivaji and Afzal Khan; fort served as a key defence point for the Nira
and Koyna rivers.
• Surrendered to the East India Company during the Third Anglo-Maratha War in 1818.
Suvarnadurg:
• Located between Mumbai and Goa on a small island in the Arabian Sea.

• Built by Chhatrapati Shivaji Maharaj in 1660.

• Connected to another land fort called Kanakadurga; housed a shipbuilding facility.
Panhala Fort:
• Panhalgad/Panhalla/Panhala, is located near Kolhapur.
• Positioned strategically to overlook a pass in the Sahyadri mountain range.
• Central role in skirmishes involving the Marathas, Mughals, and the British East India Company.
Vijaydurg:
• Oldest fort on the Sindhudurg coast.
• Restructured by Chhatrapati Shivaji Maharaj; served as a significant base for Maratha warships and earned the
nickname ‘Eastern Gibraltar’ for its impregnability.
• Ultimately fell under British control in 1818.
Sindhudurg Fort:
• Commissioned by Chhatrapati Shivaji between 1664 and 1667.
• Situated near the Konkan region.
• Countered the influence of European merchants along the Konkan coast.
Gingee Fort/Senji Fort, Tamil Nadu:
• Fortified extensively by Shivaji; ‘most impregnable fortress in India’ by Shivaji; title ‘Troy of the East’ by the British.
• Originally built by Ananta Kon around 1190 AD; later modified in the 13th century; saw various rulers, including
the Marathas, Mughals, Carnatic Nawabs, French, and the British.
• situated on three hillocks, Krishnagiri, Rajagiri, and Chakilidurg.
26. NAWAB WAJID ALI SHAH

200th anniversary of Nawab Wajid Ali Shah, the final ruler of Awadh.
NAWAB WAJID ALI SHAH

• Mirza Wajid Ali Shah, held the position from 1847 to 1856.
• Second wife Begum Hazrat Mahal, played a significant role in the Indian Rebellion of 1857, acting as the regent
of Awadh.
• Kingdom had been safeguarded by the East India Company under a treaty; was annexed by the company in
1856.
• Nawab was exiled to Metiabruz, a suburb of Kolkata.
AS A RULER OF AWADH
• East India Company annexed a significant portion of Awadh through a treaty signed with the Nawabs in 1801.
• Company's actions impacted the Awadh economy; burdened with costs of maintaining the Bengal Army.
• Wajid Ali Shah upon ascending the throne, actively participated in the administration of justice, implemented
reforms, and reorganized the military.
• British Resident of Lucknow, General William Sleeman, submitted a report highlighting alleged
"maladministration"; provided the British with the justification for the annexation under the Doctrine of Lapse
by Governor-General Lord Dalhousie.
PATRONAGE TO MUSIC
• Bahadur Hussain Khan, was one of Wajid Ali Shah's favorite musicians; Nawab honored him with the title Zia-
ud-Daulah.
• Adopted the pseudonym ‘Akhtarpiya’ for his musical compositions.
• Collections of Gazals: Diwan-i-Akhtar and Husn-i-Akhtar.

• Text composed during Nawab: Madanul Moosiqui ('The Mine of Music'), gives details about the music in
Nawabi Lucknow.
• Complex ragas like hori and dhrupad were less emphasized; easier raginis like tilak, pilu, sendura, khammach,
bhairvi, and jhanjhauti gained popularity; these were easily understood by all sections of society.
• Wajid Ali Shah was the creator of the light classical form known as thumri.
PATRONAGE TO DANCE
• Ancient times: Kathak was performed as part of temple rituals.
• During Nawab’s period, Kathak was extensively performed by courtesans; this style of Kathak differed from the
court style, often incorporating playfulness known as nakhra.
• He introduced two distinct forms of Kathak: Rahas and Raas.
• Rahas was a choreographed dance form that incorporated acting, dancing, and music.
• Raas was a religious form of Kathak. Dhrupad, a form of classical music, was primarily sung during Raas.
• Lucknow Gharana of Kathak emerged; characterized by graceful movements, elegance, natural poise, and a
focus on abhinaya (expressions).
• Made Kathak the official court dance.
CONTRIBUTIONS TO LITERATURE
• Mirza Ghalib received patronage from Wajid Ali Shah.
• Wajid Ali Shah himself was a prolific writer, often incorporating Awadhi, the local dialect.
• Works: Sawat-ul-Qalub, comprises a collection of 44,562 couplets; autobiographical Huzn-i-Akhtar, portrays the
unfavourable and unceremonious treatment he faced at the hands of British authorities; Bani, serves as a
treatise on Music and Dance, offering insights into mushairas (poetic gatherings) held at Matiya Burj (Calcutta).
AWADH-HISTORIC REGION OF NORTHERN INDIA

• Located in northern India (presently forms northeastern segment of the Uttar Pradesh state).
• Name: originates from the ancient kingdom of Ayodhya (capital of Kosala).
• Became part of the Mughal Empire in the 16th century.
• 18th century: British had subjugated it as part of colonial holdings.
• The suba (province) of Awadh gained independence in 1722 AD: Saadat Khan was appointed as its governor by
the Mughal Emperor Muhammad Shah.
• Significant Nawabs:
o Saadat Khan Burhan-ul-Mulk (AD 1722-1739): established Awadh as an autonomous state and played a
crucial role in imperial affairs during Nadir Shah's invasion; took his own life.
o Safdar Jung/Abdul Mansur (AD 1739-1754): Saadat Khan's son-in-law, participated in the Battle of Manpur
against Ahmed Shah Abdali in 1748.
o Shuja-ud-daula (AD 1754-1775): son of Safdar Jung, allied with Afghan Ahmed Shah Abdali and incorporated
Rohilkhand into Awadh in 1774 with British assistance.
o Asaf-ud-daula: promoted Lucknow's culture; constructing landmarks like the Imambara and Rumi Darwaza;
signed the Treaty of Faizabad (AD 1755) with the British.
o Wajid Ali Shah: Jaan-i-Alam and Akhtarpiya.

 RELIGIOUS MOVEMENTS IN MEDIEVAL INDIA; Bhakti

movement; Sufi Movement; Other Social Reforms &
Important Personalities Associated with the Movement
27. BHAKTI MOVEMENT

'Sant Mirabai Janmotsav,' was recently celebrated.
MIRABAI (1498 1546)

• Born into Rathore Rajput royal family in Kudki, located in the present-day Pali district of Rajasthan.
• Great granddaughter of Rana Jodhaji, founder of Jodhpur.
• Unwillingly married to Bhoj Raj, crown prince of Mewar, and faced various challenges in her marital life.
• Became a devoted follower of Lord Krishna.
• In her later years, she is said to have lived in Dwarka or Vrindavan.
• Advocated for the inclusion of all, irrespective of factors like birth, poverty, age, and sex, in receiving divine
grace.
• Her devotional songs and lyrics, constitute a rich cultural heritage; her most popular composition is ‘Payoji
Maine Naam Ratan Dhan Payo.’
BHAKTI MOVEMENT IN INDIA

• Originated in Tamil region during 6th and 7th centuries AD; gained prominence through the poetic expressions
of Alvars (Vaishnavites) and Nayanars (Shaivites).
• 12th century: Basavanna initiated a significant phase of Bhakti movement in Kannada region.
• Maharashtra: gained momentum in late 13th century, led by Varkaris; Influential figures like Jnanadev, Namdev,
and Tukaram played a pivotal role; Tukaram, rebelled against societal norms; Tukaram wrote in Marathi rather
than Sanskrit and faced opposition from the orthodoxy.
EXPANSION OF BHAKTI MOVEMENT TO THE NORTH

• Ramanuja (Vaishnava Saint), introduced the doctrine of Vishistadvaita (qualified monism).
• Reached zenith during the 15th and 17th centuries.
CAUSES FOR THE ORIGIN OF BHAKTI MOVEMENT

• Rigid caste system, irrelevant rituals, economic disparities due to casteism; Monopolization of religion by
Brahmins.
• Islam presented a formidable challenge; characterized absence of caste system, and monotheism, attracted
oppressed classes.
• Sufi saints like Hazrat Khwaja Moinuddin Chisti fostered a spirit of reconciliation between Hindus and Muslim,
contributing to the development of Bhakti ideals.
• Complexity of Vedic and Upanishadic philosophy led common people to seek a simpler form of worship and
religious practices; Bhakti marga was perceived as a simple way of devotion.
• Medieval period witnessed various revivalist movements in Hinduism under different sages and saints.
SOME OF THE IMPORTANT PROPONENTS OF THE BHAKTI MOVEMENT

Kabir: disciple of Ramananda; emphasized on the universality of God; denounced narrowness of both Hindu and
Islamic sectarianism; criticized polytheism, idolatry and caste divisions.
Chaitanya Mahaprabhu (1485–1533): focused on the superiority of Krishna over other deities; movement was
revivalist and centred on the worship of Vishnu, particularly in the form of Krishna; did not seek to reform
Hinduism but stressed devotion to Krishna.

28. SHRINE OF SAINT SHEIKH AHMED KARIM

SAINT SHEIKH AHMED KARIM (PEER KI GALI)
• Location: Jammu and Kashmir, a revered religious figure known as Alamdaar-e-Kashmir, Sheikh Noor u-Din
Noorani (RA) (1378 to 1441).
• Sacred site acquired its name due to the presence of Sheikh Ahmed Karim, a Hindu saint who converted to
Islam.
• Site is not a Mazar or the grave of a saint; but a place where Sheikh Ahmed Karim used to meditate.
• Francoise Barnier, 1665, visited, as part of the caravan accompanying the Mughal emperor Aurangzeb and
stated "The saint had been residing here since the time of Mughal emperor Jahangir’; also documented visits of
both Aurangzeb and Shahjahan.
• Aliabad Sarai, historical site near the Shrine:
o Initially constructed by the Mughal emperor Akbar; commissioned its construction to provide amenities for
travellers; restored by emperor Shahjahan, who named it after his loyal governor, Ali Mardan Khan.
• Peer: A distinguished title bestowed upon a Sufi spiritual guide, also known as Sheikh; Peer provides guidance
through general teachings’ Suhbas’.
• Murid: A student who takes a solemn oath of allegiance, known as Baiat or Bayaah.
SUFISM MOVEMENT
• Emphasizing the importance of religious experiences and direct perception of God rather than strict adherence
to formal practices alone.
• Acknowledged the significance of the Shariat (Islamic law), they placed great emphasis on cultivating personal
religious experiences.
• Influenced by Christianity, Zoroastrianism, Buddhism, as well as the Indian philosophical systems of Vedanta
and Yoga.
• Sufi path: could only be undertaken under the strict guidance of a spiritual mentor known as a ‘pir’;
• Sama: musical recital, which aimed to induce a mystical state of ecstasy; opposed by the religious scholars
(ulema).
• Silsilahs: different orders of Sufis; example: Suhrawardi, Qadiri, and Chishti; activities of a Sufi order revolved
around a hospice or khanqah; khanqahs were sustained through endowments and charitable contributions.
ADVENT OF THE SUFIS TO INDIA

• Even before the Delhi Sultanate was established, early Sufi saints had already arrived in India.
• Development of Sufism in India was primarily shaped by the Indian environment rather than non-Indian forms
of Sufism.
• Early Sufi saint: Al Hujwiri, also known as Data Ganj Baksh, arrived in India around 1088 AD; authored the Sufi
manual titled ‘Kashf ul-Mahjub.’
• With the establishment of the Delhi Sultanate, various Sufi orders found a new home in India.
• Mid-14th century: Sufi activities had spread throughout most parts of the Indian subcontinent.
• According to Abul Fazal, there were fourteen Sufi orders that arrived in India, but only two of them, namely the
Chishti and Suhravardi silsilahs, established strong roots.
CHISHTI SILSILAH
• Originated in Ajmer; spread to other regions such as Rajasthan, Punjab, Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, Bengal, Orissa,
and the Deccan.
• Khwaja Muinuddin Chishti introduced the Chishti order in India; arrived in India during the Ghori conquest in
1190 and settled in Ajmer around 1206; earning respect from both Muslims and non-Muslims; not actively
involved in conversion efforts;

• Tomb in Ajmer became a renowned pilgrimage site.

• Incorporated certain ethical values from the nathpanthi yogis and their communal way of life.
SUHRAVARDI SILSILAH
• Shaikh Bahauddin Zakariya, introduced Suhravardi silsilah in India (1182-1262); aligned himself with Iltutmish
during the conquest of Multan against Qubacha and received state patronage.
• Iltutmish gave him the title of Shaikh-ul Islam (Leader of Islam).
• Order maintained connections with the ruling establishment and actively participated in political activities.
• Concentrated in Sindh, Multan, Punjab and Bengal.
• Did not advocate a life of poverty, extreme austerity, and self-mortification; engaged with the government and
willingly accepted official positions.
• Primarily associated with the upper classes of Muslim society.
• Held rigid and uncompromising views on various religious and social matters.
29. ADI SHANKARA STATUE UNVEILED IN MADHYA

PRADESH
A 108-foot statue of 8th century spiritual leader Adi Shankara was unveiled recently in Madhya Pradesh’s
Omkareshwar.
ADI SHANKARA/SHANKARACHARYA
• Born in Kaladi, Kerala in 788 CE.
• Propounded Doctrine of Advaita (Monism); philosophy of Adi Shankara is part of Vedanta (One of the six schools
of Aastik Hindu Philosophy).
o Advaita Vedanta refers to the non-dualistic school of Hindu philosophy, which is derived mostly from the
Upanishads.
o Eminent scholars: Adi Shankaracharya and Gaudapada, spread it
o Dvaita means duality, and Advaita means nonduality; means absence of the duality between subject and
object.
• Commentaries: Vedic canon (Upanishads, Brahma Sutras and Bhagavad Gita) in Sanskrit.
• Work: Brahmasutrabhasya (Bhashya or commentary on the Brahma Sutra), Bhajagovinda Stotra and Nirvana
Shatakam.
• Established four Mathas (Hindu Monastaries) at Shingeri, Puri, Dwaraka and Badrinath– for propagation of
Sanathana Dharma in four corners of India.
• Opposed to Buddhist philosophers.
OMKARESHWAR TEMPLE
• Dedicated to Shiva; on an island called Mandhata; in the Narmada River in Madhya Pradesh, India.
• One of the 12 revered Jyotirlinga shrines of Shiva.
• Madhya Pradesh has two Jyotirlingas, the second one, Mahakaleshwar Jyotirlinga, is situated north of
Omkareshwar Jyotirlinga.
OTHER TEN JYOTIRLINGA IN INDIA

• Somnath in Gujarat, Mallikarjuna at Srisailam in Andhra Pradesh, Kedarnath in Himalayas, state, Bhimashankar
in in Uttrakhand Maharashtra, Viswanath at Varanasi in Uttar Pradesh, Triambakeshwar near Nashik in
Maharashtra, Vaidyanath Temple, Vaidyanath Jharkhand, Nageshwar at Dwarika in in Gujarat, Rameshwar at
Rameswaram in Tamil Nadu and Grishneshwar near Aurangabad, Maharashtra in Maharashtra.

30. LORD BASAVESHWARA & NADAPRABHU KEMPEGOWDA

BASAVESHWARA [1105-1167]
• Born: Karnataka in 1105 CE.
• Statesman, poet in the Kannada language, and social reformer during the time of King Bijjala I of the Kalachuri
dynasty.
• As the Kalachuri kingdom’s chief minister, he established ‘Anubhava Mantapa’, in 12th century (hall of spiritual
experience), accepted people from all socio-economic classes. Women too were welcomed.
o Ardent followers of Shiva would share their accomplishments and spiritual poems written in the vernacular
language.
• Resurrected Shaivism; recognising and promoting ascetics known as Jangamas.
• Basavarajadevara Ragale, by Kannada poet Harihara (about 1180), is the earliest account of Basaveshwara.
Harihara was contemporary of the Basavanna.
• Vachana Sahitya in Kannada is a literary work of the Basavanna.
• Credited as the founder of Lingayats’ tradition; however, modern scholars, based on Kalachuri inscriptions
assert that Basava revived and improved a previously existent tradition.
PHILOSOPHY
• A new devotional movement named Veerashaivism.
• Discussed about gender equality, community spirit and refraining from wars for any cause.
• “God is one with himself, self-born,” challenging externalisation of God, rituals, dualism.
• Opposed rituals, but supported icons and symbols such as wearing an Istalinga (necklace with a personal linga)
and applying Vibhuti (sacred ash on the forehead).
• Advocated for the use of the vernacular language, Kannada, in spiritual conversations.
• Holy trinity included: guru (teacher), a linga (a lingam that belonged to Shiva), and jangama (constantly moving
and learning).
SOCIAL REFORMS
• A true saint and Shaiva bhakta was determined by behaviour rather than by birth.
• Anti-caste movement in the 12th century A.D. in Karnataka.
• Saints from the untouchable caste: Channiah and Kakkaih; Akkamahadevi and Allama Prabhu, participated
in Anubhava Mantapa.
• Organised an inter-caste marriages.
• Stayed away from wearing the sacred thread (upayana).
• Followers of Basavanna currently identify as Lingayats; powerful castes in Karnataka.
LINGAYATISM
• Emphasizes qualified monism (Vishishtadvaita).
• Rejects any form of social discrimination including the caste system and authority of Vedas and Puranas.
• Five Panchacharyas: Darukacharya, transmitted by Renukacharya, Ekorama, Panditharadhya, and
Vishweswara.
• Lingayatism Basava Purana was completed in 1369 during the reign of Vijayanagara ruler Bukka Raya I.
ABOUT NADAPRABHU KEMPEGOWDA

• 16th century chieftain of Vijayanagar Empire. He is credited to have built around 1000 lakes throughout the city.
• From Vokkaliga community.
• In 1526, Kempe Gowda conquered Sivaganga principality and later conquered Domlur.

• With imperial permission of the Vijayanagar Emperor Achyutharaya (an inscription at Dasarahalli records the
decree date as 1532), he built Bangalore Fort in 1537, and moved his capital from Yelahanka to the new
Bengaluru Pete, the foundation of present-day Bangalore city.
31. GURU RAVIDAS

To commemorate the 647th birth anniversary of Sant Guru Ravidas, Prime Minister unveiled a statue in Varanasi.
ABOUT GURU RAVIDAS

• Born: 1377 CE in Govardhanpur near (Varanasi) Uttar Pradesh; now known as Shri Guru Ravidas Janam Asthan.
• Revered as a guru in regions such as Punjab, Rajasthan, Maharashtra, and Madhya Pradesh.
• At the age of 12, he married Lona Devi, and together they had a son named Vijay Dass.
• Ravidas redirected his focus towards spiritual pursuits along the banks of the Ganga.
• Took extensive pilgrimage travels to Andhra Pradesh, Maharashtra, Gujarat, Rajasthan, and the Himalayas.
• He became a disciple of the bhakti saint-poet Ramananda.
• He adhered to the Nirguna sampradaya (without attributes, formless God) and rejects the Saguna (with
attributes, believes in forms of God) form of Bhakti.
• Teachings: resistance against untouchability, confronting discrimination by higher-caste individuals against
those from lower castes.
In Literary works/traditions:
• His devotional verses have found a significant place in Sikh scriptures:
o Scholars suggest that Ravidas had interactions with Guru Nanak, the founder of Sikhism.
o 41 of his poems are included in the Adi Granth.
o Premambodha, a Sikh hagiography written over 170 years after his death, portrays him as one of the
seventeen saints in the Indian religious tradition.
• Dadu Panthi tradition within Hinduism incorporates numerous poems attributed to Ravidas in the Panch Vani
text.
• Anantadas Parcai, one of the earliest surviving biographies of poets from the Bhakti movement, narrates the
birth of Ravidas.
• Bhaktamal, propose that he was a disciple of the Brahmin bhakti-poet Ramananda (1400-1480 A.D); thus was
the contemporary of Sant Kabir.
• Ravidas's hagiographies were penned long after his demise, present various legends, including Ravidas's
interactions with Hindu Brahmins and the Delhi Sultanate ruler Sikander Lodi (1458-1517).
Guru Ravidas and Meera Bai:
• In Chittorgarh, Rajasthan, adjacent to Mirabai’s temple, a chhatri (pavilion) having the engraved footprints of
Ravidas is found.
• As per the legend, Ravidas was a guru to Mirabai. Mirabai, as a respect to her Guru, wrote: ‘Guru Miliya Ravidasji’.
Philosophy:
• ‘Sahaj’: mystical state characterized by the union of diverse truths into a singular reality.
• While, Kabir advocates for a monistic Oneness; Ravidas argues from the premise that the Brahman can be both
a monistic Oneness and a separate anthropomorphic incarnation.
• His concept of Beghumpura:
o Signifies a ‘city without sorrow.’
o His vision encompassed a utopian world free from discrimination and inequality.
o Aiming to eradicate the evil of untouchability.
o Emphasizing the significance of labor (Kirat).

• Ananya bhakti: emphasises on the devotion that transcends the sense of duality between the worshipper and
the object of worship.
• Rejected formal devotion and advocated for personal bhakti through meditative meditation.
• Disapproved of rituals, pilgrimages, and penances as the optimal paths to realize God.
32. GURU NANAK PARAB

• Guru Nanak was born in 1469, in the village of Talvaṇḍi (present-day Nankana Sahib) in Lahore province of Delhi
Sultanate.
• Founder of Sikhism and stands as the first among the ten Sikh Gurus.
• Late fifteenth century: established the Sikh faith.
• Four significant journeys, Udasis: preached the message of God.
• Influenced by teachings of Kabir.
• Believed that married life and secular pursuits did not hinder spiritual progress.
• Philosophy: oneness of God, truth, fraternity of humanity, righteous living, dignity of labor, and charity;
asserting that salvation came through one's actions, regardless of sectarian identity.
• Opposed caste system and challenged the spiritual monopoly of higher castes.
• Teachings, delivered in language of the people, gained popularity attracting followers from both Hindu and
Muslim communities.
• Followers: Kartaris (residents of Kartarpur).
• Appointed Bhai Lehna as his successor and renamed him Guru Angad.
ABOUT BHAI MARDANA (1459-1534)

• Despite his Muslim heritage, Bhai Mardana accompanied Guru Nanak on his travels; embraced the newly
established Sikh religion.
• Played rabab while Guru Nanak recited Gurbani.
• Swami Haridas, teacher of Tansen, was a disciple of Bhai Mardana.
• In Janamsakhis, Mardana represented worldly concerns such as hunger and desires.
• Holds the distinction of being first Sikh, first Kirtania (musician), and first Rababi (rabab player) within the Sikh
community.
ABOUT KALI BEIN

• Stream that joins the confluence of Beas and Sutlej rivers in Kapurthala, Punjab.
• Guru Nanak is believed to have attained enlightenment after immersing himself in the waters of the Kali Bein.
• It is however, not considered sacred by Sikhs in Punjab, as Sikhism reserves sanctity primarily for Sikh Sarovars
(pools within gurdwaras).
Sikh gurus, are the spiritual leaders of Sikhism. They played a crucial role in shaping and establishing the
Sikh religion:
1. Guru Angad: In 1538, Guru Nanak's chosen successor, Lehna (renamed as Angad), became the second Guru;
introduced the Gurmukhi Script; pivotal role in collecting facts about Guru Nanak's life, writing the first
biography, and composing saloks included in the Guru Granth Sahib; expanded the institution of Guru ka
Langar initiated by Guru Nanak.
2. Guru Amar Das: third Sikh Guru; constructed 'Baoli' at Goindwal Sahib; Advocated for equality for women,
opposed the practice of Sati, and expanded the Langar; dividing the Sikh Sangat area into 22 preaching
centres.
3. Guru Ram Das: fourth Guru in 1574; organized the structure of Sikh society; authored Laava, the hymns of
marriage rites.

4. Guru Arjan Dev: In 1581, Guru Arjan Dev, the fifth Guru, took responsibility for building Golden Temple; faced
persecution by Jahangir for refusing to convert to Islam; therefore, known as Shaheedan-de-saraaj or Crown of
martyrs.
5. Guru Hargobind: sixth guru; introduced a dual concept of two swords, marking militarization of Sikhs;
established Akal Sena; fixed two Nishan Sahibs at Akal Bunga to symbolize coexistence of spiritual and temporal
(worldly) power.
6. Guru Har Rai: seventh guru from 1644; maintained armed Sikh Warriors (Saint Soldiers); assisted Dara Shikoh
in escaping Aurangzeb's forces during a war of succession.
7. Guru Har Kishan: eighth Guru in 1661, provided a cure for a smallpox epidemic at Bangla Sahib; Gurdwara
Bangla Sahib in Delhi and Gurdwara Bala Sahib were constructed in his memory.
8. Guru Tegh Bahadur: ninth Guru, Guru Tegh Bahadur sacrificed himself to protect Hindus from forced
conversion by Aurangzeb; was executed in front of Red Fort in Delhi, commemorated by Gurdwara Sisganj.
9. Guru Gobind Singh: tenth and last personal Sikh Guru (1675–1708); created Khalsa in 1699; Guruship
underwent a significant transition when Guru Gobind Singh passed it on to the sacred Sikh scripture, Guru
Granth Sahib in 1708; documented in a Bhatt Vahi (bard's scroll) by Narbud Singh.
GURU GRANTH SAHIB

• Ultimate, sovereign, and eternal Guru, succeeding the lineage of the ten human Gurus in Sikh faith.
• Initial version: Adi Granth was compiled by fifth Guru, Guru Arjan; first enshrined inside Golden Temple in
Amritsar in 1604.
• No hymns were added by subsequent Gurus Hargobind, Har Rai, and Har Krishan.
• Guru Gobind Singh incorporated hymns from Guru Tegh Bahadur into Adi Granth; revised version came to be
known as the Guru Granth Sahib.
• Written in Gurmukhi script and encompasses various languages, including Punjabi, Lahnda, regional Prakrits,
Apabhramsa, Sanskrit, Hindi languages (Braj Bhasha, Bangru, Awadhi, Old Hindi), Bhojpuri, Sindhi, Marathi,
Marwari, Bengali, Persian, and Arabic.
• Incorporates the teachings of Hindu Bhakti movement saints, such as Ramananda, Kabir, Namdev, and one
Muslim Sufi saint, Sheikh Farid.
33. SATTRAS OF ASSAM

Sri Auniati Sattra was established in 1663 in Majuli island.
ABOUT SATTRAS
• Sattras, monastic institution was established during the 16th-century Neo-Vaishnavite reformist movement
initiated by the saint-reformer Sankaradeva (1449-1596).
• Young monks, known as ‘Bhokots’, were initiated into Sattras to carry forward the ideals of the movement.
• Most prominent centres are: Bartadrava Than in Nagaon, the birthplace of Srimanta Sankaradeva;
Letekupukhuri Than in Lakhimpur, the birthplace of Srimanta Madhavdev (disciple of Sankaradeva).
• Each Sattra has its unique identity and historical trajectory within the neo-vaishnavite tradition.
SANKARADEVA’S CONTRIBUTIONS
• Propagated a unique form of Bhakti known as ‘Eka-Sharana-Naam-Dharma’.
• Eka-Sharana-Naam-Dharma, the foundation of this philosophy, rested on four key pillars: deva (God),
naam (prayers), bhokots (devotees), and guru (teacher).
o Asserted that all devotees were equal in the eyes of God, irrespective of caste (jaati).
o Challenged orthodox Brahmanical rituals, and move away from sacrificial practices.
• Use of the Assamese language, rather than Sanskrit, to deliver his preaching, making his ideas more accessible
to a wider audience.

• Developed new folk language called Brajavali, blending Brajbhasha and Assamese, to express his artistic
creations.
• Composed, Kirtana-ghosha (collection of poetical works), praising Lord Krishna.
• Chief disciples: Madhavdeva and Damodardeva.
CULTURAL PERFORMANCES ASSOCIATED WITH SATTRAS

1. Sattriya Dance:
o One of the classical dances of India; emerged in the 15th century A.D. in Assam.
o Roots: ancient text 'Natya Shastra' by sage Bharat Muni; influenced by the Bhakti Movement.
o Incorporates various dance styles prevalent in Assam: Ojapali and Devdasi.
o Encompasses Nritta, Nritya, and Natya.
o Blending graceful Lasya and the vigorous Tandava elements.
o Traditionally performed by male monks known as 'Bhokots'; it has also been embraced by women.
o Instruments used: Khol (drum), Manjira/Bhortals (Cymbals) and flute;
o Compositions: 'Borgeets,' authored by Shankaradeva.
o Two distinct streams are: Gayan-Bhayanar Nach and Kharmanar Nach.
2. Ankia Naat or Bhaona: play or musical drama; Originally written in a mix of Assamese and Maithili called
Brajavali; narrates stories of Lord Krishna.
3. Borgeet: collection of lyrical songs composed by Sankardeva and Madhavdeva in the 15th-16th centuries;
Written in the distinct Brajavali dialect, these songs express religious sentiments.
4. Ojapali: ancient shamanistic folk dance from Assam; evolved from the Kathakata tradition; Performed in a
group, it consists of songs, dialogues, gestures, improvised acting, and dramatization; led by an 'Oja' and
supported by four or five 'palies,' continuously playing cymbals.
5. Gayan-Bayan: religious dance performed by Sattras; involves singers ('gayan') and drummers ('bayan'); Khols
and cymbals are used in this dance.
34. SANT SEVALAL MAHARAJ

• Born in 1739; in Karnataka.
• Travelled across the country with his Ladeniya Troup to serve especially the forest dwellers and nomadic tribes.
• Able to dispel and eradicate myths and superstitions prevalent in the tribal communities:
• Banjara community settled across the country with different names, have abandoned their nomadic lifestyle
and settled in their settlements called Tandas.
• Samadhi Sthal: Washim District of Maharashtra at Pohradevi; known as Banjara Kashi.
ABOUT LAMBADIS/BANJARA
• Banjara also known as Lambadi, Gour Rajput, Labana, are a historically nomadic trading tribe with in Rajasthan.
• Mainly distributed in Maharastra, Karnataka, Telangana, Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu, Gujarat, Madhya
Pradesh, Odisha and West Bengal.
• Language: Gor Boli/Lambadi; belongs to the Indo-Aryan Group of Languages.
• Dance forms: Chari.
• Bards called Bhats recite the Lambadi epic of Sevabhaya.
• ST in five States (Andhra Pradesh, Telangana, Bihar, Odisha, Jharkhand).
• Scheduled Caste in Himachal Pradesh and Karnataka.
• Other Backward Class (OBC) in Chhattisgarh, Daman and Diu, Haryana, Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra,
Rajasthan, Uttar Pradesh, Uttarakhand.

3
MODERN HISTORY &
Chapter POST INDEPENDENCE
 SOCIAL REFORMS MOVEMENT BEFORE INDEPENDENCE
AND PERSONALITIES
1. SWAMI DAYANAND SARASWATI

• Born: February 12, 1824 in Tankara, Gujarat as Mool Shankar to a Brahmin family
SPIRITUAL INDOCTRINATION
• Mool Shankar was attracted towards the spiritual realm after the death of his sister and on being asked to get
married following societal traditions, Mool Shankar ran away from home.
• He met with yogis living in the mountains or forests, asked them of his dilemmas, but nobody could provide
him with the perfect answer.
• He arrived at Mathura and met Swami Virajananda and became his disciple. Here he learnt directly from the
Vedas.
• Swami Virajananda entrusted Mool Shankar with the task of spreading Vedic knowledge throughout the society;
he was rechristened as Rishi Dayanand.
SPIRITUAL BELIEFS
• Believer in Hinduism just as the Vedas have outlined, devoid of any corruption and embellishments.
• Strongly advocated the concepts of Dharma which he believed to be free from any partiality and as an
embodiment of truthfulness.
• Adharma was anything that did not hold true, was not just or fair and was opposed to the teachings of the
Vedas.
• Believed in reverence of human life irrespective; condoned the practice of Ahimsa or non-violence.
• Revoked the practice of idol worship and considered them a contamination introduced by the priesthood.
• Against social evils like superstitions and caste segregation.
• Advocated the concept of Swarajya, meaning a country free of foreign influence.
DAYANAND SARASWATI & ARYA SAMAJ

• 1875: He formed the Arya Samaj at Bombay; a Hindu reforms movement, meaning "society of the nobles".
• Purpose: Move the Hindu religion away from the fictitious beliefs.
• Motto: 'Krinvan to Vishvam Aryam" which means "Make this world noble".
• Tenets of the Arya Samaj:
o God is formless, omniscient, just, merciful, unborn, endless, unchangeable.
o Vedas are the scriptures of all true knowledge.
o Paramount duty of all Aryas to read, teach, and recite Vedas.
o Arya should dispel Avidya (ignorance) and promote Vidya (knowledge).
• Condemned ritualistic practices: idol worship, pilgrimage and bathing in holy rivers, animal sacrifice, offering
in temples, sponsoring priesthood.
• Worked for social reforms: such as widow remarriage and women education; launched programs to support
widow remarriage in the 1880s; opposed child marriage.

MODERN HISTORY & POST INDEPENDENCE
SHUDDHI MOVEMENT
• Introduced by Maharishi Dayanand to bring back the individuals to Hinduism who were either voluntarily or
involuntarily converted to other religions like Islam or Christianity.
EDUCATIONAL REFORMS
• Lack of knowledge was the main culprit behind the adulteration of Hinduism.
• Dayanand set up a number of Gurukuls to teach his followers the knowledge of the Vedas.
• His disciples established the Dayanand Anglo Vedic College Trust and Management Society, after his death in
1883.
• First DAV High School was established at Lahore in 1886 with Lala Hans Raj as its headmaster.
2. MATUA MAHA SABHA

Matua Dharma Maha Mela, Thakurbari, in West Bengal, was organised to celebrate the 212th Birth Anniversary
of Shri Harichand Thakur ji.
MATUA MAHASANGHA
• A religious reformation movement that originated, around 1860 AD, in modern-day Bangladesh.
• A sect of depressed class ‘AVARNA; Hindus who are Namasudras, a Scheduled Caste group.
• Launched as a reformation by the followers of Harichand Thakur.
HARICHAND THAKUR
• Worked among the untouchable people of Bengal Presidency.
• Formed the Matua sect of Hindus and organized downtrodden peoples of his own community under the banner
of ‘Matua religion’.
o They considered him as God (Param Brahma) Harichand.
o Based on only three basic principles: Truth, Love, and Sanity.
• After experiencing Atma darshan or self-revelation, he began to preach his own religious realization which is
only based on Bhakti.
• Doctrine: All traditional rituals, except devotion to God, faith in mankind, and love for living beings, are
meaningless.
3. HUNDRED YEARS OF VAIKOM SATYAGRAHA

• ‘Vaikom’, was a religious town inside Kingdom of Travancore; famous for Vaikom Shiva Temple; city was known
as Varanasi of the South.
• The temple did not permit lower castes to enter it.
• Untouchability was very deep rooted in Travancore Kingdom.
LAUNCH OF VAIKOM SATYAGRAHA

• 1921: T K Madhavan met with Mahatma Gandhi and sought support for launching an agitation.
• Gandhi’s involvement in the struggle proved crucial; it mobilised the educated upper-caste Hindu opinion in
favour of temple entry.
• Madhavan joined the Congress. He was involved with the Sree Narayan Dharma Paripalana (SNDP).
• He participated in the party’s Kakinada session in 1923:
o A resolution was passed for the eradication of untouchability.
o It also stated that temple entry was the birth right of all Hindus.
o It authorised the state Congress to take charge of the struggle.

• Kerala Congress formed an untouchability eradication council led by K Kelappan in February 1924 to take out a
procession through the prohibited roads.
• March 1924: two untouchables and an upper caste Nair community person took the road around Vaikom Shiva
temple.
• Gandhi approved the agitation and suggested civil disobedience and non-violent satyagraha but the banning of
the procession by the local administration led to a change of strategy to satyagraha.
• Ashram of Sree Narayan Guru: camp for the satyagrahis; prominent leaders trying to walk the prohibited
roads were arrested; they did not seek a bail.
o Even Christians and Sikhs supported the Vaikom Satyagraha.
o Akalis led by Lala Lal Singh and Kripal Singh opened a vegetarian mess.
• Contribution of Periyar: President of Madras Congress Committee E V Ramaswamy Naicker arrived at Vaikom
when some leaders were jailed.
• Gandhi organised a peaceful jatha of Hindus from Vaikom to Thiruvananthapuram and back; helped raise social
consciousness against untouchability.
o Gandhi arrived in Kerala in March 1925.
o Met the maharani of Travancore, orthodox Hindus and local Congress leaders.
o Negotiated a settlement by which the government agreed to revoke the prohibitory orders.
o Satyagrahis agreed to not enter the prohibited roads.
• Satyagraha continued for eight more months and forced the government to give further grants.
• The roads around the Vaikom temple were opened to all castes and Vaikom Satyagraha was called off; however,
no right to enter the temple was given.
• It eventually paved way for Temple Entry Proclamation of 1936 that granted lower castes the right to worship
in Hindu temples.
ABOUT E V RAMASWAMY NAICKER ‘PERIYAR’

• Most distinguished leader of Dravidian movement and anti-brahmin movement in South India.
• His speeches in Vaikom against untouchability created a big impact; conferred the title of ‘Hero of Vaikom’.
ABOUT K. KELAPPAN (1889-1971)

• Lead figure of the Congress during India’s Independence Movement in Kerala; known as ‘Kerala Gandhi’.
• Founding member and President of Nair Service Society & Kerala Kshetra Samrakshana Samiti.
• Important figure in lower caste struggle particularly Vaikom Satyagraha and Guruvayur Temple Entry
Movement.
• Led Guruvayur Satyagraha which was an effort for temple entry for untouchables into Guruvayur Temple.
• Undertook a hunger strike for 12 days; abandoned at the request of Mahatma Gandhi.
• Led the Salt Satyagraha in Kerala.
• Led a batch of Congress workers from Kozhikode to the beaches of Payyanur and broke the salt laws.
4. SAVITRIBAI PHULE
• From the Mali community; born on January 3, 1831, in Maharashtra.
• She was married to Jyotirao Phule.
• Jyotirao began to home-school Savitribai and admitted Savitribai to a teacher’s training institution in Pune.
• She was an exponent of female education; took on the caste system with her revolutionary ideals; strived to
dismantle the elite controlled education system.
CONTRIBUTIONS OF SAVITRIBAI PHULE IN EDUCATION

• 1848: Savitribai and Jyotiba established the first ever school for girls in Bhidewada with Savitribai as
headmistress.

• 1853: established an education society; opened more schools for girls and women from all classes.
• Known as modern India’s first female teacher.
• 1852: was declared the best teacher in the state by the British government.
ROLE AS SOCIAL REFORMER

• Started the Balhatya Pratibandhak Griha (‘Home for the Prevention of Infanticide’), a childcare centre for
sexually exploited, pregnant widows, and rape victims facing discrimination.
• 1852: started the Mahila Seva Mandal to fight for the rights of women.
• Organised a strike against barbers in Pune and Mumbai, pressurising on them to stop shaving the heads of
Brahmin widows.
• Referred to as the mother of Indian feminism.
• 1873: Savitribai and Jyotiba started ‘Satyashodhak Marriage’.
o Rejected Brahmanical rituals and marrying couple took pledge to promote education and equality.
• 1868: along with her husband set up a well in their backyard to allow people from the oppressed classes to
drink water.
• 1897: following the Bubonic plague, set up a clinic to address the victims of the plague.
LITERARY WORKS
• Two anthologies of poems: Kavya Phule (Poetry’s Blossoms) in 1854 and Bhavan Kashi Subodh Ratnakar (Ocean
of Pure Gems) in 1892.
• Poem: 'Go, Get Education', intended to encourage women to educate themselves as the best means of fighting
inequality.
5. SANTINIKETAN FINDS ITS PLACE ON UNESCO’S WORLD

HERITAGE LIST
• For the first time in the world, a living university which is functioning got the heritage tag from UNESCO.
• According to UNESCO website: “In 1922, Visva-Bharati was inaugurated as a Centre for Culture with
exploration into the arts, language, humanities and music”.
• The town of Santiniketan was founded by Maharshi Devendranath Tagore, the father of Rabindranath Tagore.
• Maharshi Devendranath Tagore was a follower of the Brahmo Samaj.
• 1863: Maharshi Devendranath Tagore purchased a large piece of land in Bhubandanga, which he renamed
Santiniketan.
• 1888: Debendranath dedicated the property to establish a Brahmavidyalaya through a trust deed.
• The site of Chhatimtala, where Maharishi Debendranath Tagore meditated under the chhatim trees, remains
to the authenticity of this phase.
• 1901: Rabindranath started a Brahmacharyaashrama, which became known as Patha Bhavana in 1925.
• 1921: Rabindranath Tagore founded Visva Bharati; later expanded to include a wide range of disciplines.
o He established other cultural institutions in Santiniketan.
o Kala Bhavan, a school of fine arts, and the Sangit Bhavan, a music school.
• Principles: Ancient Indian Gurukul system, where education was provided in a natural setting.
• Tagore believed in the convergence of two distinct chains of thought, the traditional beliefs of the East and the
progressive ideologies of the West.
• After the death of Gurudev Rabindranath Tagore, his son Rathindranath took over the mantle of his father at
Santiniketan.
• Visva Bharati was recognised as a national level university under an Act of Parliament in 1951.

ABOUT RABINDRANATH TAGORE AND HIS CONTRIBUTIONS

• Titles: Bhanu Singha Thakur, Gurudev, Kabiguru and Vishwakavi.
• Tagore became the first non-European laureate of the Nobel Prize in Literature in 1913, for his literary
masterpiece-Gitanjali.
• Composing national anthems of both India and Bangladesh.
• Literary works: instruments of protest against the prevailing Brahmanical social order, the caste system,
narrow sectarianism, untouchability, and animal sacrifice.
• 1921: Tagore joined agricultural economist Leonard Elmhirst to establish the "Institute for Rural
Reconstruction”.
• Advocated for the expansion of small-scale cottage industries in rural areas.
• Composition: Banglar Mati Banglar Jol (Soil of Bengal, Water of Bengal), served as a unifying anthem for the
Bengali population.
• Initiated the Rakhi Utsav, as a symbol of unity and self-reliance against oppression.
• 1915: awarded knighthood by the British King George V.
• 1919: following the Jallianwalla Bagh massacre, he renounced his Knighthood.
VISION ON NATIONALISM
• Nationalism was inherently tied to the concept of the nation-state, which according to Tagore, was essentially
an embodiment of Western ideals rooted in capitalism and mechanization.
• Central to his belief system was the notion that true nationalism should not transcend the broader scope of
humanity itself.
• In national anthem, he aimed to emphasize that ultimate sovereignty rested with the people of India, as
symbolized by "Jan Gana Man."
• Like other utilitarian scholars of his time, Tagore denounced international warfare.
• He openly criticized forms of patriotism and nationalism that compromised human values, especially after the
devastating First World War.
• He recognized that the primary objective of Bengal's partition was to instigate communal violence.
• During the 1905 unrest, he actively worked to foster Hindu-Muslim unity through patriotic songs like "Banglar
Maati Banglar Jol" (Earth of Bengal, Water of Bengal).
• He vowed not to compromise the priceless value of humanity for the sake of patriotism.
ABOUT INTANGIBLE CULTURAL HERITAGE – or ‘living heritage’

• Inherited from our ancestors and passed on to our descendants.
• Includes: oral traditions, performing arts, social practices, rituals and festive events, knowledge and practices
concerning nature and the universe, and the knowledge and skills related to craftsmanship.
• continuously recreated as it is transmitted from generation to generation.
• As the United Nations specialized agency for culture, UNESCO is tasked with safeguarding living heritage and
ensuring its transmission to future generations
• 2003 Convention by UNESCO General Conference: Safeguarding of the Intangible Cultural Heritage, which
encourages and supports countries to take the necessary measures to ensure that communities can safeguard
their living heritage.
6. SIR SYED AHMAD KHAN (1817-1898)

• Syed Ahmad Khan received education in both religious Scripture, the Quran, and Western sciences.
• Booklet "Asbab-e-Baghawat-e-Hind" (Reasons for the Indian Revolt of 1857), highlighted British ignorance, their
aggressive expansionary policies, and the exclusion of Indians from the Legislative Council of India as major
causes for growing antagonism.

• Interestingly, non-official Indian members were included in the Viceroy's Council from 1861, and Syed Ahmad
Khan was nominated to the Viceroy's Legislative Council in 1878.
• Supported the efforts of Dadabhai Naoroji and Surendra Nath Banerjee in securing Indian representation in
the government and civil services.
• Syed Ahmad Khan emphasized interfaith understanding; highlighted in his work "Commentary on the Holy
Bible."
• Advocated modern scientific education for Muslims; criticized the prevailing superstitions and regressive
customs of society.
• He established the Scientific Society in 1862 to translate English books on science and other subjects into Urdu.
• He established the Muhammadan Anglo-Oriental College (MAOC) in 1875, later evolving into Aligarh Muslim
University.
• In 1886, he set up the Mohammedan Anglo-Oriental Education Congress which was later renamed the
Mohammedan Anglo-Oriental Educational Conference. It aimed to bring together education and culture.
• He believed that active participation in politics at the time would invite the government's hostility toward the
Muslim masses. As a result, he was opposed to Muslim political activity.
• The Aligarh Institute Gazette, initiated by him, campaigned against practices such as female infanticide,
polygamy, child marriage, sati, segregation of widows, and poverty-induced marriages of young girls to older
men.
• Progressive social ideas disseminated through his magazine, "Tahdhib-ul-Akhlaq" (Improvement of Manners
and Morals).
• Syed Ahmad Khan advocated for Hindu-Muslim unity, emphasizing their shared history and common
interests.
o He advocated for the separation of religious and political matters, believing that religious and spiritual issues
should not impede nationalist objectives.
o Syed Ahmad Khan even supported the ban on cow slaughter within the MAOC.
• His perspective on the applicability of Western democracy and nationalism in India underwent a
significant shift.
o He argued that the complex, diverse nature of Indian society, with its diverse castes, religions, and races,
made representative government impractical and could lead to Hindu dominance over Muslims.
o This argument laid the foundation for the two-nation theory, which claimed that Hindus and Muslims were
separate nations with distinct interests.
• Muhammadan Educational Conference:
o All-India Muhammadan Educational Congress in Aligarh, U.P.
o The first session of the congress was held in 1886 in Aligarh and was presided by Maulvi Samiullah Khan.
o Aimed to promote educational development among Muslims through conferences and also to gain
University status for the Anglo Oriental College.
o It was furthered by individuals like Khwaja Altaf Hussain Ali, Maulvi Wazir Ahmed, and Maulvi Shibli Numani.
• Aligarh Muslim University:

o Rooted in a liberal interpretation of the Quran and aimed to harmonize Islam with modern, liberal culture.
o Public central university in Aligarh, Uttar Pradesh.
o Muhammadan Anglo-Oriental College became Aligarh Muslim University in 1920, following the Aligarh
Muslim University Act.
o Mahatma Gandhi for the first time visited Muhammadan Anglo Oriental College in 1916.
 Second time he visited Aligarh and the university was on 12th October, 1920.
 The students then gave him the Lifetime Membership of the Student Union.
 Gandhiji was the first person to get this lifetime membership.

7. MAHIMA DHARMA
EMERGENCE OF REFORM MOVEMENT
• Late 18th century and the early years of the 19th century saw a wave of reform movements that swept through
Hinduism.
• Aim: To bring about significant changes within the religious and societal structures; to eradicate superstitious
beliefs and distorted rituals.
COMPLEX SOCIETAL STRUCTURE IN 19TH CENTURY ODISHA

• Hinduism was dominated by magic, animism, and superstition.
• Lack of education and knowledge hindered human development.
• Colonial rule focused primarily on revenue collection.
• The temple of Jagannath, which used to be inclusive, closed its doors to the low-caste population, which further
intensified the influence of caste rules in the region.
• Mahima Dharma, emerged in the background of these socio-religious-cultural reality.
• Challenged prevalent practices such as idolatry, polytheism, the caste system, priestly dominance, religious
superstitions, animism, and barbaric customs.
• Mahima Dharma, with its simpler philosophy gained popularity among the common people in the villages of
Odisha, thus, transforming into a mass movement.
ABOUT MAHIMA DHARMA

• Started by Mahima Swami or Mahima Gosain (Dhulia Baba/Nirahari Baba) who played a significant role in
the religious landscape.
• He was first mentioned in 1867 in the Orissan Newspaper ‘Utkala Deepika’.
• Contemporary of Raja Ram Mohan Ray, Ramakrishna Paramhamsa, and Swami Dayananda Saraswati.
• Meditated in Kapilas hill in Dhenkanal, Odisha.
• He established the ‘Dharma’, with the emphasis on ‘Advaitabada’ (belief in the oneness of God).
• Disciples came to be known as ‘Abadhutas’, the first 64 Siddhas of Mahima Dharma.
• ‘Mahima Gadi’ (religious seat of the dharma), is located in Joranda, Dhenkanal, where the prominent Magha
Mela is held annually.
• Movement gained wider acceptance among tribal communities and those considered lower in the
Brahmanical hierarchy.
• His preachings included:
o Fused the elements of Hinduism and Buddhism, and positioned itself against established religious norms.
o Adhered to the principles of truth, non-violence, and belief in immortality and rebirth.
o Core philosophy revolves around the idea of Absolute Monism, emphasising the worship of the one
ultimate reality.
o He offered a unique perspective on the creation theory:
 Asserted that the world was not formed by the mixing of atoms, Purusha, and Prakrit.
 It was created by the Alekha Prabhu, pure and without vice, the root of all creations.
o He emphasised on asceticism and a caste-less society.
o The ‘Dharmis’ have to abstain from practices like idol worship, touching Prasad or Tulsi leaf, and
consuming medicines.
ABOUT SANTHA KABI BHIMA BHOI

• Bhima Bhoi, born in Rairakhol/Redhakhol (Odisha) in 1850, was a saint, poet and social reformer.
• Belonged to the less privileged Kondh tribe.

• Devout follower of Mahima Gosain.

• Challenging prevailing caste hierarchy and advocating for social equality.
• Bhima Bhoi, set up his ashram in Khaliapali, Odisha.
• Core element of his teachings: ‘Ekaishwara Brahmavada’: belief in an indescribable, formless, shapeless,
and pure God residing in the void.
• He used a language (characterized by mysticism and musicality), which departed from Sanskritized Odia.
He adopting a vernacular approach with influences from the Sambalpuri dialect.
• His verses were composed orally and later transcribed, which highlights the oral tradition of the movement.
• His famous assertion: let my life rot in naraka if necessary, but let the world be redeemed, shows his
dedication for the upliftment of the socially deprived.
• Important works are: Brahma Nirupana Gita, Stuti Chintamani, Astaka Bihari Gita, Chautisa Madhu Chakra,
and Bhajanamala. Two collections, Atha Bhajan and Bangala Atha Bhajan, are written in Bengali.
BROADER PERSPECTIVE ON BELIEFS AND PRACTICES IN MAHIMA DHARMA

1.Idea of non-dualism:
• The supreme soul (Parameswar) and the creator of the universe, the God is formless (Nirakar), inexpressible
(Avyakta), without body (Adeha), without name (Anam), without any feeling (Nirvikara).
• This god is present in every living being, from insects to humans.
• Emphasized the worship of a single God named Alekha.
2.Supreme role of a Guru:
• Guru is seen as essential for guiding disciples on the path to deliverance, making the practice of dharma
meaningful.
3.Concept of ‘Vasudhaivakutumbakam’:
• One element of this concept is 'Satsanga Gosthi' or 'Common meal for all'.
o Introduced by Mahima Gosain.
o Emphasizes the equality of all souls, as they collectively worship the one Brahman.
o Involves preparation of food by household devotees under the open sky, shared by all participants,
regardless of caste or creed.
PRACTICES
• Act of complete surrender, known as Sarana/Darsana, three times a day.
• A monastic order bears resemblance to Buddhist monks, leading lives of poverty, celibacy, piety, and
constant movement.
• Actively promoted peace and opposed war, practicing ‘Shanti Ahimsa’ in daily life.
• Rejection of animal sacrifice in worship.
• Rejects the worship of Lord Jagannath and emphasizes ascetic practices over idol worship.
o In 1881, followers of Mahima Dharma, seized and reportedly set ablaze the murtis (idols) of Lord Jagannath
in Jagannath Puri, opposing any form of idol worship.
 COLONIAL RULE; TRIBAL REBELLIONS AND WARS;

PERSONALITIES
8. POLITICAL DEBATE HAS STARTED ON WHO KILLED TIPU

SULTAN AMID THE ELECTIONS IN KARNATAKA
ABOUT MYSORE KINGDOM
• Independent state created as a result of the Mughal Empire’s fall.

• Wodeyars were in charge of this region.

• Became a never-ending battleground as a result of several powers’ interest in this land.
• Haider Ali gained control over the state.
HAIDER ALI
• Nanjaraj (the sarvadhikari) and Devaraj Dulwai), reduced Krishnaraja Wodeyar to the status of a puppet.
• Under the leadership of the ministers Nanjaraj and Devaraj, Haidar Ali began his career in the Mysore army.
• Introduced Western training techniques for his army.
• Enlisted assistance of the French to establish a weapons factory in Dindigul (now in Tamil Nadu).
• Involved in the First and Second Carnatic Wars in South India; he witnessed the military superiority of European
troops; Mysore sided with the French in the Carnatic Wars.
• Nizam of Hyderabad, the Marathas, and the English formed an alliance against Haider Ali, the king of Mysore,
in the first Anglo-Mysore war (1767–69); English had to sign the humiliating Treaty of Madras in 1769.
• Treaty of Mangalore, signed in 1784: ended the Second Anglo-Mysore War (1780–1784).
• Tipu Sultan succeeded his father Haider Ali after his death.
TIPU SULTAN
• Last Muslim ruler of the Kingdom of Mysore.
• Navy:
o Defeat in Third Anglo-Mysore War convinced Tipu to take measures to build a navy.
o Issued a Hukmnanah (ordinance) in 1796 for a strong naval force.
o Navy was put under command of 11 Mir Yam (Lords of Admiralty), with headquarters at Seringapatam.
o Naval divisions or Kachehris at Jamalabad (Mangalore), Wajidabad and Majidabad.
• Ammunitions: munitions industry in Nagar, which were regarded as equal in quality to those produced in
Europe.
• Rocket technology: Pioneer of rocket technology; expanded iron cased Mysorean rockets; commissioned a
military manual Fathul Mujahidin.
• Economy:
o Attempted to revive commerce and forged commercial linkages with other parts of India and West Asia
o Built a public sector company with state finance.
o Introduced sericulture.
• Member of the Jacobin club; planted a liberty tree at Seringapatam.

• Agriculture and Revenue Settlement:
o Modified land revenue management.
o Laid down rules for distribution of arable land among old and new ryots;
o Preference given to hereditary ownership of land and rent was fixed.
o These became basis for Ryotwari Settlement introduced by East India Company in South India.
o Captain Alexander Read first introduced Ryotwari Settlement in Baramahal district surrendered by Tipu after
his defeat in 1792.
• Calendar: Introduced a new calendar in 1784; known as Mauludi Era and had 354 days; first year from the year
of birth of Prophet Muhammad.
• Administrative innovations: a new coinage system.
• Deployed rockets during Anglo-Mysore Wars, including the Battle of Pollilur and Siege of Srirangapatnam.
• Third Anglo Mysore war (1790-92): Defeated by EIC and the Treaty Seringapatam was concluded; Under the
treaty, Tipu lost half of Mysore’s territory.

• Fourth Anglo-Mysore war (1799): conclusive; led to falling of Seringapatam; English chose a Hindu boy from
the earlier ruling royal family i.e., Wodeyars, as the Maharaja; imposed subsidiary alliance on him.
9. REINTERPRETING SANTAL REBELLION

Peter Stanley launched his book "Hul! Hul! The Suppression of the Santal Rebellion in Bengal, 1855”.
INTRODUCTION
• In 1793, Governor-General Lord Cornwallis implemented Permanent Settlement System in Bengal and Bihar;
• Granted hereditary and lifelong rights to zamindars, who paid a fixed amount to the British government
annually.
• Resulting into widespread dissatisfaction among the local population and exploitation of peasants.
FACTORS RESPONSIBLE FOR THE REBELLION

• Santhals, an agrarian tribal community, were encouraged to settle in Damin-i Koh region (now part of
Jharkhand) ruled by zamindars and established by East India Company in 1832.
• Company wanted Santhals to meet the demand of labour.
• Santhals faced exploitation by merchants and moneylenders which kept Santhals trapped in cycles of debt
bondage; exploitative system of bonded labor was known as "kamioti" and "harwahi,".
• Tyranny of zamindars and capitalist agriculture such as extraction of exorbitant rents from their meagre
earnings.
• Neglect by British administration.
• Eruption of Social Banditry and Popular Uprising.
SANTHAL REBELLION
• Led by four people from Bhagnadihi village: Sidhu, Kanhu, Chand, and Bhairav Murmu.
• Against the British initially but later also shifted to Indian 'upper' caste zamindars, moneylenders, merchants,
and darogas (police officials), collectively referred to as 'diku’.
IMPACT
• Passage of Santhal Parganas Tenancy Act in 1876, providing some protection to tribal members against
exploitation.
• Region between Bhagalpur and Rajmahal hills in Singhbhum district was separated and designated as Santhal
Pargana.
10. ALLURI SITARAMA RAJU AND RAMPA REBELLION

• Influential Indian revolutionary who played a significant role in the country's struggle for independence.
• Bore in 1897 in Coastal city of Visakhapatnam.
• Dedication to the freedom movement and efforts to improve the lives of the Adivasi communities.
ADVOCATING FOR ADIVASI RIGHTS AND THE FREEDOM STRUGGLE

• Inspired by Mahatma Gandhi's Non-cooperation movement, initially encouraged the tribals to seek justice in
local panchayat courts and boycott colonial courts.
• However, these measures failed; Raju decided to reside in the Adivasi areas of the Eastern Ghats, specifically
the forest region along Visakhapatnam and Godavari districts.
• He provided much-needed support to the Adivasis through education and medical assistance.
• The region became the epicentre of his fight against the British rule.
• Learned from the Adivasis, their time-tested war methods and created a formidable resistance against the
British.

• August 1922: launched the Rampa Rebellion; gained substantial local support; successfully evaded British
authorities for an extended period.
• British Response:
o Frustrated the authorities;
o They offered a reward for his capture, dead or alive.
o British continued to inflict misery on the Adivasis.
o Raju eventually surrendered, hoping for a fair trial in return.
o May 7, 1924: treacherously trapped and shot dead.
• Legacy: bestowed with the title "Manyam Veerudu" (Hero of the Jungle); on July 4th, the Government of Andhra
Pradesh commemorates his birth date as a state festival.
RAMPA REBELLION
• Also known as the Manyam Rebellion.
• August 1922 to May 1924.
• CAUSES:
o Rampa administrative area was home to around 28,000 tribal inhabitants.
o Tribes relied on the ‘podu system’: burned sections of the forest each year for cultivation, ensuring their
food requirements were met.
o British authorities sought to exploit the lands of the Godavari Agency for commercial purposes, and
disregarded needs of the tribal communities.
o Madras Forest Act in 1882: Adivasis' free movement in their forest habitats was restricted
o Tribes faced starvation as their economic situation deteriorated.
o Poor condition was exacerbated by forced labor demands for road construction.
o Perceived biases in the legal system.
o Muttadars (hereditary tax collectors and rulers) experienced discontent due to loss of status.
o Muttadars shared grievances with the tribal hill people.
ALLURI SITARAMA RAJU'S LEADERSHIP

• Harnessed the discontent of the tribal communities; combining anti-colonial zeal with accommodation for
sympathetic muttadars.
• Followers comprised primarily tribal members and also garnered support from influential individuals within the
muttadar class.
11. MADRAS FOUNDATION DAY

August 22 is annually celebrated as Madras Day, to commemorate the foundation day of the city of Madras (now
Chennai).
• In 1639 town of Madrasapatnam, which later expanded and developed into modern-day Chennai, was
purchased by the East India Company (EIC) from local kings.
• After the British rule ended in 1947, the state and the city continued to be referred to as Madras.
• It was carved out of the larger Madras presidency that had covered parts of other South Indian states.
• In 1969, there was an official renaming of the state as Tamil Nadu, and subsequently, in 1996, the city of Madras
was formally transformed into Chennai.
EARLY ORIGINS AND BRITISH ARRIVAL

• East India Company has a decisive victory over the Portuguese at Swally Hole in 1612.
• Acquired Trade Rights through diplomatic negotiations.
• Founded Masulipatnam in 1611 on the eastern coast, facilitating trade with Malaya.

• Birth of Madrasapatnam:
o Francis Day, proposed the establishment of a new settlement, leading to the discovery of Madrasapatnam.
o Damarla Venkatapathy Nayak granted a parcel of land situated between the Cooum and Egmore rivers to
the English in 1639.
o British erected Fort St. George.
INSPIRATION FOR CHENNAI

• The settlement surrounding Fort St. George was christened Chennapatanam as a tribute to Chennappa Nayak,
and this name gradually evolved into 'Chennai,'.
EVOLUTION AND TRANSITION

• During the era of British rule, the city was segregated into Black and White towns, designated for Indian and
European populations respectively.
• Governor Elihi Yale's tenure marked a pivotal moment when a mayor and Corporation were established to
govern the city.
• Following India's attainment of independence in 1947, the name ‘Madras’ remained unchanged for the city.
 ORGANISATIONS, MOVEMENTS AND PERSONALITIES IN

THE INDIAN NATIONAL MOVEMENT
12. SUBHASH CHANDRA BOSE

Netaji Subhas Chandra Bose Jayanti, officially known as Parakram Diwas, is a national event celebrated annually
on 23rd January.
ABOUT SUBHASH CHANDRA BOSE

• Born in 1897, in Cuttack, Orissa Division, Bengal Province.
• 1942: earned the title ‘Netaji’, in Germany from the Indian soldiers of the Azad Hind Fauj.
• Famous slogans: “Give me blood, and I shall give you freedom!” as well as “Jai Hind.”
• First man to call Mahatma Gandhi “Father of the Nation”, in his address from Singapore.
• In 1921, Bose worked under Chittaranjan Das.
• Editor of C.R. Das’s newspaper, ‘Forward’.
• Bose published ‘Swaraj’.
• Mid-1930s: travelled in Europe; researched and wrote the first part of his book, “The Indian Struggle”, covering
India’s independence movement (1920–1934).
• He joined the Indian National Congress in 1927; supported the idea of complete independence (Purna Swaraj).
• Supported Jawaharlal Nehru to pass the resolution of Poorna Swaraj in 1929.
• Elected as Congress President in 1938 annual session at Haripur in Bengal.
• Established the National Planning Committee: Ensure equal distribution of wealth among diverse sections.
o Beginning of an era of economic planning in India.
• Resigned in 1939 due to differences with Mahatma Gandhi.

• Set up the All-India Forward Bloc in 1939.
• Escaped and undertook a long journey escaping through Kabul, then Moscow, and finally reached Berlin in
Germany to get Germans to help him in the independence struggle.
• Germany: Indian community hailed him as ‘Netaji’.
• Made regular broadcasts from the German-sponsored Azad Hind Radio in January 1942; in various languages
English, Hindi, Bengali, Tamil, Telugu, Gujarati, and Pashto.

INDIAN NATIONAL ARMY

• Rash Behari Bose, a revolutionary, had attempted the Gadar conspiracy (an attempt at a pan-India mutiny).
o Leader of the Delhi-Lahore conspiracy of 1912 (failed attempt).
o Persecuted by the British Government; fled to Japan in 1915.
• Rash Behari Bose organized the Indian Independence League in Japan.

o Convened two conferences in 1942: one in Tokyo and the second in Bangkok.
o Revolutionaries, assembled in the conferences wanted to form an Indian National Army (Azad Hind Fauj) for
the liberation of India.
o Army was formed with the Indians in the South East Asian Countries and Indian soldiers of the British Army
captured by the Japanese.
• Capt. Mohan Singh was entrusted with the responsibility of raising the army.
• Rash Behari Bose was made the President of the Council of Action.
• Rash Behari dismissed Mohan Singh due to his disagreements with the Japanese Government; he failed to get
an independent status for the army from the Japanese Government.
• Rash Behari invited Subhas Bose to accept the leadership of the INA in 1943.
• Subhas Bose after taking over the command of the I.N.A., gave his famous battle slogan, “Delhi Chalo” (on to
Delhi).
• Provisional Government of Azad Hind (Free India) was set up in Japanese occupied Singapore.
• Indian national flag was hoisted in Kohima in March 1944 by the INA. But with the retreat and defeat of the
Japanese in Second World War, the INA collapsed.
• INA soldiers were tried for various charges like treason, atrocities and murder at the Red Fort, therefore called
the Red Fort Trials.
• INA leaders: Colonel Shah Nawaz, Major G.S. Dhillon, and Captain Prem Sehgal were initially convicted but later
released.
• Congress' party announced to defend them; Famous lawyers of the time Bhulabhai Desai, Asaf Ali, Sharat
Chandra Bose, Tej Bahadur Sapru, Kailash Nath Katju and Lt. Col Horilal Varma took up their case.
• Fight of the INA soldiers inspired the British Indian Army to burst out in Revolt; inspired the “Royal Indian Navy
Mutiny” or “Bombay Mutiny” of 1946, which was death nail on the British rule in India.
13. RANI VELU NACHIYAR

Known for: Her fierce resistance against colonialism. She is known as ‘Veeramangai’ among the Tamils.
ABOUT RANI VELU NACHIYAR

• Region: Ramanathapuram (Ramnad Kingdom), Tamil Nadu.
• Rani Velu Nachiyar was the first queen to fight against the British colonial power in India.
• She fought against the colonial rulers many years before the Sepoy Mutiny.
• In collaboration with Hyder Ali and Gopala Nayaker, she waged a war against the British and emerged
victorious.
• She went on to produce the first human bomb as well as establish the first army of trained women soldiers
in the late 1700s.
• She was a scholar in many languages having proficiency with languages like French, English and Urdu and was
trained in martial arts like Valari, Silambam (fighting using a stick), horse riding and archery.
14. ASSAM’S FIRST FEMALE FREEDOM FIGHTER

ABOUT MANGRI ORANG
• Mangri Orang (Malati Mem) is said to be the first female martyr of India’s freedom movement.

• She was a tea plantation worker and became one of the leading members of the anti-opium campaign in tea
gardens 1921, while participating in the non-cooperation movement.
NON-COOPERATION MOVEMENT IN THE REGION

• The erstwhile district of Darang formed an integral part of Assam during the colonial period.
• Non-Cooperation movement (NCM), was the first organized mass movement that the district had ever seen.
• About NCM:
o Great unrest prevailed in India during the closing year of World War I.
o Rowlatt Act, Jallianwala Bagh massacre, Martial Law clamped in the Punjab, failure of the Montague-
Chelmsford Reforms announced in the end of 1918 and the dismemberment of Turkey by the British
following the Treaty of Severs in May 1920, created widespread.
o A resolution supporting the programme of non-violent non-cooperation was passed in the special session
the Congress at Calcutta and same was adopted in the session at Nagpur (1920).
• The most remarkable feature of the Non-Cooperation Movement in Assam was its intense mass appeal.
• Students of Assam launched a strong movement for boycott of educational institutions and of foreign goods,
propagation of khaddar and swadeshi and picketing of liquor and opium shops.
• In Darang: movement was led by Chandranath Sarma and Lakshmidhar Sarma; Lakshmidhar Sarma helped
some students to picket a shop dealing in liquors.
BRITISH ANNEXATION OF ASSAM

• Region came to be known as undivided Goalpara district; came under British rule after the transfer of the Diwani
from the Mughal Emperor, Shah Alam II in 1765.
• First Anglo-Burmese War, 1824: British occupied Guwahati, when the Raja of Darrang (a tributary of the Ahom
kingdom) submitted themselves to the British.
• In the war against the Burmese the Ahoms did not help the British.
• 1828: Kachari kingdom was annexed under the Doctrine of Lapse after the king Govinda Chandra was killed.
• 1832: British increased their influence over and in 1833, Assam became a British protectorate under the
erstwhile ruler of the Ahom kingdom, Purandhar Singha.
• 1838: region was formally annexed into the British empire.
BENGAL PRESIDENCY (1826–1873): Included as a part of the Bengal Presidency.
CHIEF COMMISSIONER'S PROVINCE (1874–1905):

• Also known as North-East Frontier, its status was upgraded to a Chief Commissioner's Province, a non-
regulation province, with the capital at Shillong.
• Assamese, which had been replaced in 1837 by Bengali, was reinstated alongside Bengali as the official
language.
• Sylhet was separated from the Bengal Presidency and added to the new province.
EASTERN BENGAL AND ASSAM UNDER LT. GOVERNOR (1906–19)

• Bengal was partitioned and East Bengal was added to the Chief Commissioner's Province of Eastern Bengal and
Assam.
• The new region under Lt. Governor, had its capital at Dhaka.
• This province had a 15-member legislative council in which Assam had two seats.
• The Partition of Bengal was strongly protested in Bengal, and the people of Assam were not in support of
partition either.
• The partition was finally annulled by an imperial decree in 1911, announced by the King-Emperor at the Delhi
Durbar.

15. BHAGAT SINGH’S VASUDHAIVA KUTUMBAKAM

• In his early years, Bhagat Singh was captivated by the concept of Vasudhaiva Kutumbakam, envisioning a world
united as one family bound by love and mutual respect.
• His essay 'Vishwa Prem,' published in the Hindi weekly ‘Matwala’ in 1924, reflects his contemplation on the social
and political hurdles obstructing the realization of this dream.
• Bhagat Singh firmly advocated for the elimination of divisive elements, such as the distinction between the
touchable and untouchable communities.
• In his influential essay 'Why I am an Atheist,' Bhagat Singh showcased his rational and critical thinking.
• He didn't hesitate to criticise prominent figures like Madan Mohan Malviya, questioning their sincerity in
eradicating untouchability.
• Works of Bhagat Singh: ‘Why I Am an Atheist’; ‘Ideas on freedom, liberty and revolution: Jail notes of a
revolutionary’; ‘Ideas of a Nation’; ‘To Young Political Workers.’
ABOUT BHAGAT SINGH

• Born: September 28, 1907, in Lyallpur (Pakistan).
• Education: Dayanand Anglo Vedic High School and National College in Lahore.
• His uncle, Ajit Singh, were actively involved in progressive politics, participating in significant events like the
Canal Colonization Bill agitation in 1907 and the Ghadar Movement of 1914–1915.
BHAGAT SINGH'S CONTRIBUTIONS TO THE FREEDOM MOVEMENT

• Initially, Bhagat Singh aligned himself with Non-Cooperation Movement; his perspective shifted when Gandhi
withdrew the movement; he embraced revolutionary nationalism as a means to achieve India's independence.
• Jallianwala Bagh massacre in 1919 and the violence against unarmed Akali protestors at Nankana Sahib in 1921
deeply affected Bhagat Singh's worldview.
ASSOCIATION WITH REVOLUTIONARY GROUPS

• 1924: became a member of the Hindustan Republican Association, founded by Sachindranath Sanyal.
• Establish the Naujawan Bharat Sabha in 1926, aiming to mobilize peasants and workers against British rule.
• 1928: along with Sukhdev, Chandrashekhar Azad, and others, founded the Hindustan Socialist Republican
Association (HSRA).
• Contributed to the monthly magazine "Kirti" published by the 'Workers and Peasants Party.'
• Arrested in 1927, initially for his association with the Kakori Case and an article published under the pseudonym
Vidrohi.
• Bhagat Singh and his associates assassinated J.P. Saunders, leading to the Lahore Conspiracy Case.
• 1929: Bhagat Singh and Batukeshwar Dutt threw a bomb in the Central Assembly at Delhi.
THE TRIAL AND DEATH OF BHAGAT SINGH

• Execution was carried out on March 23, 1931, a day ahead of the scheduled date, at Lahore Jail.
• March 23 is observed as Martyrs' Day, paying tribute to him and fellow freedom fighters.
16. INDIAN NATIONAL CONGRESS

• The establishment of the Indian National Congress in 1885 did not occur abruptly or accidentally; rather, it was
the outcome of a gradual process of political awakening that gained momentum in the late 1870s and early
1880s.
EARLY INITIATIVES
• Indian Association emerged in 1876 in Bengal under the leadership of Surendranath Banerjea and Anand
Mohan Bose.

• Madras Mahajan Sabha was formed in 1884 by younger figures like M. Viraraghavachariar and G. Subramaniya
Iyer.
• In Bombay, the Bombay Presidency Association came into being in 1885, with militants like K.T. Telang and
Pherozeshah Mehta.
• Establishment of major nationalist newspapers: The Hindu, Tribune, Bengalee, Mahraua, and Kesari.
• Indian Mirror of Calcutta and the All-India National Conference organized by the Indian Association in 1883 and
1885 (led by Surendranath Banerjee and Ananda Mohan Bose).
INDIAN NATIONAL CONGRESS

• Foundation in December 28, 1885 at Gokuldas Tejpal Sanskrit College in Bombay.
• First Congress session, attended by 72 delegates and presided over by Womesh Chandra Bonnerjee.
• Dadabhai Naoroji (thrice president), Badruddin Tyabji, Pherozshah Mehta, and others served as presidents
during the early phases.
• Kadambini Ganguly, the first woman Graduate of Calcutta University, addressed the Congress in 1890.
SAFETY VALVE V/S LIGHTNING CONDUCTOR THEORY

• A.O. Hume established the Indian National Congress with the explicit intention of it serving as a ‘safety valve’ to
alleviate the growing discontent among Indians.
o He successfully convinced Lord Dufferin not to impede the formation of the Congress.
o ‘Safety valve’ notion found favour among extremist leaders like Lala Lajpat Rai, and even Marxist historians
developed a ‘conspiracy theory’ rooted in the idea of a safety valve.
o R.P. Dutt proposed that the Congress was conceived as part of a conspiracy to quell a potential popular
uprising in India.
• However, other historians challenge the validity of the ‘safety valve’ concept.
o Indians attempted to create such an organization independently, they would have faced insurmountable
opposition from officials, hindering its formation.
o Bipan Chandra suggests that early Congress leaders strategically utilized Hume as a ‘lightning conductor,’
acting as a catalyst to bring together nationalistic forces.
Moderates:
• Comprised zamindars and upper-middle classes in towns.
• Ideology derived from Western liberal thought and European history.
• Accepted ‘provisional mission theory’.
• Believed political connections with Britain were in India's social, political, and cultural interests.
• Professed loyalty to the British Crown.
• Demanded constitutional reforms and opportunities for Indians in services.
• Insisted on the use of constitutional methods exclusively.
Extremists:
• Comprised educated middle and lower middle classes in towns.
• Ideology rooted in Indian history, cultural heritage, and Hindu traditional symbols.
• Rejected the 'providential mission theory'.
• Believed political connections with Britain would perpetuate British exploitation of India.
• Faith in the capacity of masses to participate and make sacrifices.
• Demanded swaraj as the remedy for Indian issues.
• Employ extra-constitutional methods like boycott and passive resistance to achieve objectives.
KEY STRUGGLES LED BY THE INDIAN NATIONAL CONGRESS (INC)

• Swadeshi Movement (1905):
o Officially launched on August 7, 1905, at the Calcutta Town Hall in Bengal.

o Response to the British government's decision to partition Bengal.
o Advocated for self-reliance and boycott of British goods.
o Symbolized: passive resistance and unity of the Indian populace against British rule.
• Non-Cooperation Movement:
o Against the Khilafat wrongs; the Rowlatt Act and the Jallianwala Bagh massacre.
o Mahatma Gandhi led the Movement in 1920.
o 1920: INC formed an alliance with Khilafat leaders.
o Advocated for Swaraj (self-rule).
o Demonstrated united front against colonial rule.
• Civil Disobedience Movement (1930-1934):

o Under Mahatma Gandhi's leadership, Civil Disobedience Movement in response to the British government's
lack of response to their demands was launched.
o Emphasizing 11 demands, Gandhi initiated the movement with the Dandi March (12 March, 1930-6 April,
1930) protesting against salt laws.
• Quit India Movement (1942):
o Launched by Mahatma Gandhi on August 8, 1942, at the Bombay session of the All-India Congress
Committee.
o Demanded an end to British rule.
o In his ‘Do or Die’ speech, Gandhi urged for an orderly British withdrawal.
Some facts from the Hindu Quiz Section:

• In Madras, seeds of the Indian National Congress were sown; later hosted eight sessions of the party.
o Idea of an Indian National Congress took shape in late December 1884 at a meeting in Mylapore at the
residence of Dewan Bahadur Raghunatha Rao.
o Raghunatha Rao was one of the founders of the Madras Mahajana Sabha. He was also associated with the
Indian National Social Conference.
o Mahadev Govind Ranade had joined A.0.Hume and others in founding the Indian National Congress with the
intention of utilizing the Congress as a platform for discussing social issues. Kashinath Trimbak Telang and
Raghunath Rao co-operated with Ranade.
o Ranade and Raghunath Rao started the National Social Conference as a subsidiary organ of the Congress
during its third session in Madras in 1887; first meeting was held at the time of Madras Congress in 1887.
• Annie Besant was a Home-Rule activist and campaigner for Indian nationalism.
o First female president of the Indian National Congress in 1917, held in Calcutta.
o Laid the foundation of the Central Hindu College in Benaras in 1898 where both Hindu religion and Western
scientific subjects were taught.
o Annie Besant set up her Home Rule league in September 1916 in Madras.
• 39th Indian National Congress Session was held in Belgaum, Karnataka.

o Belgaum Congress session was a momentous event, as it was the only Congress session in which Gandhiji
presided.
o On the initiative of Gandhi, Swarajists and No Changers came together after this session.
IMPORTANT CONGRESS SESSIONS
PLACE /
PRESIDENT SIGNIFICANCE
YEAR
Bombay, Womesh Chandra

• First Session, Congress stated its objectives
1885 Bonnerjee

Madras, Syed Badruddin • Tyabji became the first Muslim President; an appeal was made to
1887 Tayabji Muslims to join other national leaders.
Allahabad,
George Yule • Yule became the first English President.
1888
Calcutta,
Pherozeshah Mehta • Decision was taken to organise a session of congress in London
1890
Calcutta, • National Song Vande Mataram sang for the first time by Rabindranath
Rahimtullah Sayani
1896 Tagore
Madras,
Anand Mohan Bose • Social reform was set as the main goal
1898
Calcutta,
Dinshaw E. Wacha • First time Gandhiji appeared on the Congress platform.
1901
Benaras, Gopal Krishna

• Formal proclamation of Swadeshi against Government.
1905 Gokhale
Calcutta, • ‘Swaraj’ mentioned for the first time; Four resolutions adopted on-
Dadabhai Naoroji
1906 Swaraj, Boycott movement, National Education and Swadeshi
Surat, 1907 Rash Behari Ghosh • Split in Congress into the Moderates and Extremists
Madras,
Rash Behari Ghosh • The Constitution of Congress was drawn
1908
Madan Mohan • Disapproved the formation of separate electorates based on religion

Lahore, 1909
Malaviya (Indian Councils Act, 1909)
Calcutta,
B.N. Dhar • First-time recital of Jan Gan Man in a Congress session
1911
Lucknow, • Extremists re-admitted into the Congress fold. The pact between
A.C. Majumdar
1916 Congress and Muslim League to build political consensus
Calcutta,
Annie Besant • Mrs Besant became the first woman president of Congress.
1917
Amritsar,
Motilal Nehru • Congress extended support to Khilafat movement
1919
• Gandhian program was adopted.

Nagpur, C.
• Framing of a new constitution for the Congress
1920 Vijayaraghavachariar
• Reconstitution of working committees of congress on a Linguistic basis.
C.R. Das (in prison)

Ahmedabad,
Hakim Ajmal Khan Hasrat Mohani demanded complete independence
1921
(acting president)
Congress-khilafat swaraj party was formed with C.R. Das as president and
Gaya, 1922 C.R. Das
Motilal Nehru as one of the secretaries.

Belgaum,
M.K. Gandhi Swarajists and No Changers came together. Only session headed by Gandhi.
1924
Kanpur,
Sarojini Naidu Sarojini Naidu became first Indian women president of Congress
1925
Madras, The Independence resolution by Nehru and Bose was passed, decision to
M.A. Ansari
1927 boycott the Simon commission
Calcutta,
Motilal Nehru Formation of All India Youth Congress
1928
• Poorna swaraj resolution was passed.

Lahore, 1929 Jawahar Lal Nehru • Pledge for Independence Day on 26, January 1930.
• Civil disobedience movement to be launched for complete Independence
• Gandhi-Irwin's pact was endorsed.

• Resolution for Fundamental Rights, Duties and National Economic
Karachi,
Vallabhbhai Patel Program
1931
• Gandhi was nominated to represent INC in the Second Round Table
Conference.
Bombay, • Formation of Congress Socialist party,

Rajendra Prasad
1934 • Amendment in constitution of Congress
Lucknow,
Jawahar Lal Nehru Nehru urged Congress to adopt socialism through democracy as its goal
1936
• First session to be held in Village.

Faizpur, • Demand for Constituent Assembly.
Jawahar Lal Nehru
1937 • Rejected Government of India Act, 1935
• A Resolution was passed for All-India Agrarian Program.
Haripura, Subhash Chandra • National Planning Committee set under Nehru.

1938 Bose • Purna Swaraj to cover princely states as well
• Bose resigned due to differences with Gandhi.

• Rajendra Prasad became president of INC.
Subhash Chandra
Tripuri, 1939 • Bose formed the Forward Bloc.
Bose
• Resolution was passed where congress gave up its restrained attitude
towards state peoples’ movement
Meerut, • Last session before Independence.

Acharya J.B. Kripalani
1946 • Acharya Kripalani was the president of INC at the independence.
17. WOMEN WHO CONTRIBUTED IN MAKING THE INDIAN

CONSTITUTION
1. Ammu Swaminathan: Formed the Women’s India Association in 1917 in Madras, along with Annie Besant,
Margaret Cousins, Malathi Patwardhan, Dadabhoy and Ambujammal; part of the Constituent Assembly from
the Madras Constituency in 1946.

2. Dakshayani Velayudhan: led the (then titled) Depressed Classes; 1945, nominated to the Cochin Legislative
Council by the State Government; first and only Dalit woman to be elected to the Constituent Assembly in 1946
3. Begum Aizaz Rasul: only Muslim woman member of the Constituent Assembly; with the enactment of the
Government of India Act 1935 joined the Muslim League and entered electoral politics; in the 1937 elections
elected to the UP Legislative Assembly; elected to the Rajya Sabha in 1952.
4. Durgabai Deshmukh: participated in the Non-Cooperation Movement; along with Andhra Kesari T Prakasam,
participated in the Salt Satyagraha movement in Madras city in May 1930; In 1936, established the Andhra
Mahila Sabha, an institution of education and social welfare in the city of Madras.
5. Hansa Mehta: Wrote many books for children in Gujarati; translated many English stories including the
Gulliver’s Travels; elected to the Bombay Schools Committee in 1926; became President of the All-India Women’s
Conference in 1945-46.
6. Kamla Chaudhary: Moving away from her family’s loyalty to the imperial government, she joined the
nationalists and was an active participant in the Civil Disobedience Movement launched by Gandhi in 1930; vice-
president of the All-India Congress Committee in its 54th session; elected as a member of the Lok Sabha in the
late seventies.
7. Leela Roy: graduated from Bethune College in 1921 and became an assistant secretary to the All-Bengal
Women’s Suffrage Committee; In 1923, with her friends, she founded the Dipali Sangha and established schools;
in 1926, the Chhatri Sangha, an association of women students in Dacca and Kolkata, was founded; editor of a
journal, ‘Jayashree’.
8. Malati Choudhury: In 1921, was sent to Santiniketan where she got admitted to Viswa-Bharati; During the Salt
Satyagraha, she joined the Indian National Congress and participated in the movement.
9. Purnima Banerjee: secretary of the Indian National Congress committee in Allahabad, Uttar Pradesh; arrested
for her participation in the Satyagraha and Quit India Movement; known for her steadfast commitment to a
socialist ideology; she was secretary for the city committee and responsible for engaging and organising trade
unions and Kisan meetings.
10. Renuka Ray: submitted a document titled Legal Disabilities of Women in India and A Plea for a Commission of
Enquiry’ in the year 1934, as legal secretary of the All-India Women’s Association; 1943 to 1946, she was a
member of the Central Legislative Assembly, then of the Constituent Assembly and the Provisional Parliament.
11. Sarojini Naidu, also known as the Nightingale of India: first Indian woman to become the president of the
Indian National Congress; first woman to be appointed as an Indian state governor.
12. Sucheta Kriplani: remembered for her role in the Quit India Movement of 1942; established the women’s wing
of the Congress party in 1940; Post independence, served as an MP from New Delhi; Minister of Labour,
Community Development and Industry in Uttar Pradesh’s state government.
13. Vijaya Lakshmi Pandit: sister of India’s first Prime Minister, Jawaharlal Nehru imprisoned by the British on
three different occasions, in 1932-1933, 1940, and 1942-1943; elected to the Allahabad Municipal Board; In
1936, she was elected to the Assembly of the United Provinces, and in 1937 became minister of local self-
government and public health; first Indian woman ever to become a cabinet minister.
14. Annie Mascarene: first woman to be part of the Travancore State Congress Working Committee; one of the
leaders of the movements for independence and integration with the Indian nation in the Travancore State.
 EVENTS IN THE POST INDEPENDENT INDIA
18. LIBERATION OF BANGLADESH

December 16 is celebrated as Vijay Divas (liberation of Bangladesh and India’s military victory over Pakistan in the
1971 war).
BACKGROUND
• Partition of India under the Independence of India Act, 1947 resulted into creation of two countries. One was
India and the second was Pakistan divided on religious lines.

• Pakistan consisted of two divisions (between 1947 1971), West Pakistan and East Pakistan (East Bengal),
geographically separated by India in between. East Pakistanis were known as "Pakistani Bengalis".
• Urdu was made the only federal language of united Pakistan. Bengali the language of East Pakistan was
marginalised.
• Bengalis were under-represented in the government of Pakistan. Bengali nationalist leader, Sheikh Mujibur
Rehman, announced his six-point program for regional autonomy for East Pakistan.
• A violent crackdown launched in March 1971 by West Pakistan. Awami leaders fled to India to seek safety and
there was a major influx of refugees to India.
• Indira Gandhi appealed to international community for assistance in the crisis. India sponsored Mukti Bahini
and provided training in refugee camps to East Pakistani Bengali nationals.
• In December 1971 India defeated Pakistan and more than 93000 Pakistani soldiers were arrested.
• Bangladesh was created. Mujibur, who became the first President of Bangladesh, was liberated by Pakistan.
• In 1972, the Shimla Agreement between India and Pakistan was signed, acknowledging the independence of
Bangladesh.
o Indian Prime Minister Indira Gandhi and President of Pakistan, Zulfikar Ali Bhutto in 1972 signed the Shimla
Agreement to withdraw soldiers.
o Decided to work towards the establishment of permanent peace, friendship, and cooperation.
o Relations between two countries shall be regulated by the principles and purposes of the United Nations
Charter.
o Commitment by both countries to peaceful coexistence, respect for each other's territorial integrity and
sovereignty, and non-interference in each other's internal affairs.
19. OPERATION POLO IN HYDERABAD

INTRODUCTION
• In the wake of World War II, the British government came up with a series of diplomatic measures to
break the deadlock with the Indian Congress:
o Cripps Mission (1942): British government had no intention of transferring the paramountcy of the Crown
to any other entity within India.
o Wavell Plan (1945)
o Cabinet Mission (1946)
o Prime Minister Attlee's Statement (February 1947)
o Princely States' demand for Sovereignty: considered forming their own union, conceiving themselves as
either sovereign entities or as an influential third force in India's political arena.
• June 3rd Plan of Mountbatten: determined that the states had the freedom to choose between joining either
of the two dominions, India or Pakistan. Lord Mountbatten did not grant sovereign status to the princely states
during this time.
• Sardar Patel: oversaw the states' ministry within the interim cabinet; worked to secure the allegiance of the
princely states to the Indian dominion; Assisted by V.P. Menon, the ministry's secretary.
o Patel appealed to the princely rulers, particularly in matters of defence, communication, and external affairs.
• By August 15, 1947, a total of 136 princely states had joined the Indian Union.
BRIEF HISTORY OF HYDERABAD

• Quli Qutb Shah took control from the Bahamani kingdom in 1512 and laid the foundation of the fortified city of
Golconda.
• 1591: Mohammed Quli Qutub Shah, the fifth sultan of the Qutb Shahi dynasty founded Hyderabad.
• Aurangazeb successfully captured Golconda in 1687.

• Asaf Jah I, the viceroy of Mughal empire declared himself the Nizam and established an independent rule over
the Deccan and established the Asaf Jahi dynasty.
• 1798: a subsidiary alliance, forged between the Nizam and British East India Company.
ACCESSION OF HYDERABAD TO INDIAN UNION

• Despite a predominantly Hindu population, comprising 87%, Hyderabad was under the rule of Nizam Osman
Ali Khan, a Muslim ruler.
• June 1947: Nizam Osman Ali Khan issued a declaration (firman) expressing Hyderabad's desire to regain its
independence upon the transfer of power.
• The Government of India, however, rejected this declaration.
• As a provisional measure, a temporary Standstill Agreement was established, although Hyderabad had not yet
agreed to accede to India and the agreement only assured that Hyderabad would not join Pakistan.
• Negotiations were initiated through intermediaries, with K.M. Munshi representing India and the Nizam's
envoys, Laik Ali and Sir Walter Monckton, guided by Lord Mountbatten.
• December 1947: India accused Hyderabad of repeatedly violating the Standstill Agreement.
• June 1948: Lord Mountbatten proposed the 'Heads of Agreement' deal; offered Hyderabad the status of an
autonomous dominion within India; outlined restrictions on Hyderabadi armed forces and the disbanding of
voluntary forces; signed by the India; but was rejected by the Nizam.
• A communist-led uprising in Telangana, stemming from a peasant revolt in 1946 against feudal elements,
escalated in 1948.
• The Razakars (a militia), supported the Muslim ruling class and carried out acts of intimidation against Hindu
communities.
• The state police and Razakar militia suppressed communist and peasant revolts, involving atrocities against the
Hindu population.
OPERATION POLO
• Indian Army was deployed to Hyderabad in response to the deteriorating law and order situation.
• Operation was referred to as a "Police Action" because it was viewed as an internal matter within India.
• Resulted into the annexation of Hyderabad, known as "Operation Polo" or sometimes referred to as "Operation
Caterpillar."
• After the annexation, the Nizam retained his position as the head of state, in line with other princely rulers who
had acceded to India.

4
ART & CULTURE OF
Chapter INDIA
 RELIGION AND RELIGIOUS PLACES; TEMPLES IN NEWS;
ARCHITECTURE
1. SRI RANGANATHASWAMY TEMPLE

• A 22-day Vaikunda Ekadasi festival commenced at the Sri Ranganathaswamy Temple and it is also known as
Thiruvaranga Tirupati.
• Vaishnav temple, dedicated to Ranganatha.
• Location: On the island of Srirangam (Tamil Nadu); bounded by the two rivers of Cauvery and Kollidam (a
tributary of Cauvery).
• Evidence proves the origin of the temple in 1st century CE during the Sangam period (3rd Century BCE – 45th
Century CE).
• Dynasties such as Chola, Pandya, Hoysalas and Vijayanagar patronised and contributed to its architecture.
UNIQUE FEATURES
• Temple Complex has 21 very colourful sculpted gopurams (consecrated gateways with towers), 50 sub shrines,
9 sacred pools, and gilded Vimana (dome) over the sanctum sanctorum.
• Mandapa (granite) was constructed during the Vijayanagar Period.
• The temple houses various granaries such as Kottarams to ensure the food security of the region.
• Rajagopuram (lead gopuram) is the second tallest (after Murudeshwara temple of Karnataka ) Temple tower in
the world rising to a height of 72 mts.
• Over 500 inscriptions have been found at the temple belonging to the Chola Dynasty.
• UNESCO: Site has been part of the tentative list of UNESCO's World Heritage Sites since April 2014.
2. BADRINATH DHAM
• One of the 108 Divya Desams dedicated to Vishnu, holy shrines for Vaishnavas.
• One of the four sites in India's Char Dham pilgrimage and is also part of India's Chota Char Dham pilgrimage
circuit.
• Other three Dhams in Uttarakhand at Kedarnath, Yamunotri and Gangotri.
• Re-established as a major pilgrimage site by Adi Shankara in the 8th century.
• Location: On the bank of Alaknanda River (Garhwal Himalayas)
3. PRASHAD SCHEME
Various projects under the PRASDHAD scheme have been announced by the President of India. These include –
Development of Pilgrimage Facilities at Bhadrachalam Group of Temples, Development of Pilgrimage and
Heritage Infrastructure of UNESCO World Heritage Site at Ramappa Temple in Telangana and in the pilgrim town
of Srisailam of Andhra Pradesh.
BHADRACHALAM GROUP OF TEMPLES

• Temple at Bhadrachalam (at banks of river Godavari), Sri Seetha Ramchandra Swamyvari Devasthanam, is more
than 350 years old.

ART & CULTURE OF INDIA
• It is revered as Dakshina Ayodhya. The temple is linked to the epic Ramayana.

• The Temple was constructed in the 17th Century by the local Tahsildar, Kancharla Gopanna, popularly known
as Bhakta Ramadas.
• Gopana was the revenue officer of Bhadrachalam under the reign of the last Sultan of Golconda, Abul Hasan
Qutb Shah.
• Associated Festivals- Vaikuntha Ekadashi, Vasantho tsavam, Dhamakka Seva Yatra
• Architecture:
o Built in the Dravidian style with Vijayanagar and Chola features.
o Kalyana Mandapam in the outer ambulatory passage of the temple. It is used for conducting marriage ritual
worship of Lord Rama and his wife Lord Sita.
RUDRESHWAR/RAMAPPA TEMPLE
• The Ramappa temple of Lord Shiva, was built in 1213 AD by the Kakatiya rulers and has been inscribed on
UNESCO's World Heritage list.
• The temple was built by Recharla Rudra, a general of Kakatiya king Ganapati Deva.
• Also known as the Ramappa temple, after the sculptor.
• Architecture:
o Stands on a 6-feet raised star-shaped platform using sandbox technology
o Sandbox technology: involves filling the pit -dug up for laying a foundation with a mixture of sand lime,
jaggery, and karakkaya (a black myrobalan fruit) that can absorb the waves of an earthquake.
o Temple comprises of shikhara, garbhagriha, an antarala, a maha mandapam and pradakshina path.
o The temple's vimana is constructed with lightweight porous bricks so as not to burden the temple roof
structures.
o Variety of materials has been used- While granite for the floors, the pillars have been basalt for the pillars
and red sandstone for the lower part of the temple.
o It is also interesting to note that the pillars and stones of the walls are said to emit musical sounds on being
struck.
o One of the carvings at the entrance depicts a flute which when hit makes the sound of musical notes sa-ri-
ga-ma.
SRISAILAM PILGRIMAGE TOWN

• Srisailam or Mallikarjuna, is situated on the flat top of Nallamala hill by the Patal Ganga (Krishna River) in the
state of Andhra Pradesh.
• Goddess Parvati is depicted as Brahmaramba and Lord Shiva is worshipped as Mallikarjuna.
• It is significant to the Hindu sects of Shaivism and Shaktism.
• The temple is one of the twelve Jyotirlingas and one of the Shakti Peethas in India.
• Architecture of the temple:
o The temple is built in the Dravidian style with lofty towers and is one of the finest specimens of Vijayanagar
architecture.
o It houses four gateway towers- knowns as gopurams.
o It consists of many halls, the most notable one is the Mukha Mandapa, built during Vijaynagar period.
4. ANGKOR WAT TEMPLE

• Angkor Wat in Siem Reap, Cambodia is the largest religious monument in the world.
• Dedicated to Lord Vishnu (protector in Cambodia). However, previous kings of the Khmer dynasty were Shaivite.
• Patron of Angkor Wat was King Suryavarman II (Khmer empire), whose name translates as the “protector of the
sun.

• Duration: 1116-1150 C.E.

• Material used: grey sandstone.
• Since the fifteenth century, Buddhists have used the temple.
5. THIRUNELLI TEMPLE IN KERALA

• Thirunelly was an important town and pilgrim centre in South India during the reign of Chera monarch Bhaskara
Ravi Varma I (962-1019 CE).
• Architecture:
o 3000-year-old temple is a fine example of Kerala temple architecture.
o An open courtyard surrounds the Sanctorum, which is encircled by a tile-roofed building.
o The holy temple pond is called Panchatheertham.
o The temple lacks a temple well.
o The main deity idol of the temple is in the form of Chathurbhuja.
• Religious Significance:
o Temple is the only temple in the world where worshippers can complete all of life's rituals, from birth to
death and life after death.
o The ceremonies are carried out on the banks of the Papanasini stream, which flows down from Mount
Brahmagiri.
o Lord Brahma is said to have performed Lord Vishnu's prathishta here.
o The cave temple Gunnika, dedicated to Lord Shiva, is located on the temple's western side.
o As a result, Thirunelli is blessed by the presence of all three parts of the trinity.It is also known as ''Sahyamala
Kshetram'' and ''Southern Kashi''.
DISTINCTIVE KERALA STYLE OF TEMPLE ARCHITECTURE

• Provincial variety of Dravidian style; Dravidian style took a positive shape and became strengthened during the
Pallavas of Kanchipuram.
• Kerala, on the west coast of South India, has a provincial variation of this style.
• Basic temple construction and Brahmanical religion developed in Kerala in tandem and steadily under the
Kulasekharas of Mahodayapuram.
• Largely dictated by the geography of the region: abounds in forests blessed with the bounties of the
monsoons.
• Flagstaff or Dwaja Stambham is located outside of the Dwajastambham.
• Outer prakaram or courtyard houses other subshrines, and optionally a temple tank.
• Kuttambalam or the theatre hall of the Keralite temple is located either as a part of the inner prakara or as a
separate hall outside the innermost prakaram.
• Kuttambalam has a stage, raised from the rest of the floor, and a backstage area. This is the site of the
performance of Kathakali or Chakkiyar koothu recitals.
6. PANDHARPUR TEMPLES
• Pandharpur, a prominent pilgrimage town is situated on the banks of the Chandrabhaga River in Maharashtra,
India.
• The yatra, attracts millions of Hindu devotees to pay homage to the Vithoba temple.
• The historical roots of Pandharpur date back to 516 CE, with its first mention in a Rashtrakuta-era copper plate
inscription.
• In the 11th and 12th centuries, the Yadava Kings made substantial donations to the temple, as evidenced by
inscriptions.

• During Afzal Khan reign (Adilshahi era), temple suffered significant destruction.
• In the 18th century, during Maratha rule, the temple underwent reconstruction, due to the efforts of the
Peshwas of Pune, Scindia of Gwalior, and Holkar of Indore.
VITHOBA TEMPLE AND OTHER RELIGIOUS SITES

• King Vishnuvardhana of the Hoysala Empire, between 1108 and 1152 CE, constructed this iconic temple.
• Hoysala King Vira Someshwara granted a village for the temple's maintenance.
• Vithoba temple serves as the primary centre of worship for Vithoba, a manifestation of Lord Vishnu or Krishna,
and his consort Rakhumai.
• A smaller temple dedicated to Sri Vitthala-Rukmini is situated also situated in Pandharpur, known as Wakhari
Va Korti Devalayas.
• Bhakti Saint Chaitanya Mahaprabhu meditated at the Vithoba Temple.
ABOUT THE PANDHARPUR WARI TRADITION

• A pilgrimage practice in Maharashtra that has endured for over 800 years.
• Embraced by devoted followers known as Warkaris, revolves around a sacred journey to the Vithoba temple in
Pandharpur.
• Wari takes place in four different months: Chaitra, Ashadh, Kartik, and Magh.
• Among these, the Ashadhi Ekadashi Wari is most widely celebrated procession.
ABOUT WARKARI COMMUNITY

• Distinct sect hailing from the state of Maharashtra, deeply rooted in the bhakti spiritual tradition of Hinduism,
with a history tracing back to the 13th century CE.
• Prominent saints include Dnyaneshwar, Namdev, Chokhamela, Eknath, and Tukaram.
• Central focus is around Bhagwan Vitthal or Vithoba, perceived as a manifestation of Lord Vishnu.
• Members are recognised through Tulsi-mala, a rosary made of sacred Tulsi beads.
• Organized in groups called Dindis, they engage in a multitude of celebrations, including the lively fugadi dance,
collective singing, dancing, and chanting.
• During Palkhi festival, participants carry Tulsi saplings and the paduka (sandalwood slippers) associated with
saints Tukaram and Dnyaneshwar from their places of Samadhi (spiritual enlightenment or "spiritual birth") to
Pandharpur.
7. JEHOVAH’S WITNESSES
• The origins of the Jehovah's Witnesses can be traced back to a Bible Student movement that began in the 1870s,
which challenged various traditional Christian doctrines, including beliefs about soul immortality and the Trinity.
• Jehovah's Witnesses, a Christian denomination, hold distinctive theological beliefs that set them apart from
mainstream Christianity.
• They do not adhere to Holy Trinity doctrine, which teaches that God exists as three equal persons— Father, Son
(Jesus Christ), and Holy Spirit
• Their doctrinal foundation is solely based on Bible, which they regard as literal word of God.
• Jehovah's Witnesses abstain from celebrating Christmas and Easter.
• Jehovah's Witnesses have had a presence in India since 1905.
• They secured legal registration in 1978.
CHRISTIANITY IN INDIA
• St. Thomas arrived at the capital of Parthian King Gondophares (c. 19 – c. 46), who governed the regions of
Afghanistan and Punjab, with Takshasila as capital.
• Accompanying him was the trader Abbanes.

• Saint Thomas is believed to have arrived on the shores of Kerala around 52 A.D, where he established seven
churches in the region.
• Unfortunately, he was killed while fulfilling his mission at Mylapore near Madras.
• The widespread expansion of Christianity across India took place with the arrival of European missionaries in
the early 16th century.
8. MANY, NOT ONE RAMAYANA

Multiple versions of the Indian Hindu epic poem, the Ramayana, are known to exist:
• The oldest among them is widely acknowledged to be the Sanskrit version known as the Mula Ramayana,
attributed to the sage Narada.
• Narada passed down this knowledge to Valmiki, who then authored the Valmiki Ramayana, which is currently
considered the oldest available version of the epic.
• The core themes of the original Ramayana transcend linguistic boundaries, finding expression in diverse
regional cultures and artistic forms.
• Influences:
o Ramanattam and Kathakali of Kerala.
o Mappila Songs of the Muslims in Kerala and Lakshadweep.
o Indian dance tradition of Yakshagana, Karnataka.
DIVERSE ADAPTATIONS OF THE RAMAYANA

1. Andhra Pradesh: Sri Ranganatha Ramayanam by Gona Budda Reddy (1300-1310 CE); Srimadramayana
Kalpavrikshamu by Sri Viswanadha Satyanarayana, awarded the first Jnanpith award in Telugu.
2. Assam: Assamese Saptakanda Ramayana by Madhava Kandali (14th century).
3. Bengal: Krittivasi Ramayan by Krittibas Ojha (15th century); Ramananda Ghosh's 18th-century translation
depicted Rama as an avatar of Buddha
4. Odisha: The 15th-century Odia Dandi Ramayana.
5. Bihar: Mithila Bhasha Ramayana by Chanda Jha; Rameshwar Charit Mithila by Lal Das.
6. Gujarat: Tulsi-Krta Ramayana, a Gujarati adaptation by Premanand Swami (17th century).
7. Karnataka: Kumudendu Ramayana (Jain version); Ramachandra Charita Purana by Nagachandra (12th
century).
8. Kerala: Ramacharitam, based on Yuddha Kanda, by Cheeraman (12th century); Mappila Ramayanam among
the Muslims.
9. Maharashtra: Bhavartha Ramayana by Sant Eknath (16th century).
10. Uttar Pradesh (Awadh): Ramcharitmanas by Goswami Tulsidas (16th century).
11. Tamil Nadu: Kambaramayanam by poet Kamban (12th century), a popular Tamil version; 7th-century Tamil
songs of Alwar poet-saints portray Ram playfully trying to straighten Manthara's humped back as a child.
12. Persian: A Persian version commissioned by Mughal emperor Akbar in 1558–1590, known as the Ramayana
of Akbar.
13. Urdu: An Urdu version called the Pothi Ramayana was written in 1776.
VERSIONS IN OTHER INDIAN RELIGIONS

Jainism:
• Paumachariyam, a Jain version, asserts that all characters in the Ramayana were mere mortals.
• Characters depicted as Jains; Rama, Sita, and Lakshmana visit Jain pilgrimage sites. o Ravana is not killed by
Rama in the Jain version.
Buddhist Version of Ramayana:
• Dasharatha was king of Benares, not Ayodhya.

• This version does not feature Sita's kidnapping or the Ram-Ravan war.
• Dasarata Jataka, notable for regarding Rama as a bodhisattva.
Sikh Version:
• Mention of two sorts of Ramayana in the highest Sikh text.
• Spiritual Ramayana in Guru Granth Sahib, where Ravana represents ego, Sita represents intellect, Rama
represents the inner Self, and Laxman represents attention.
• Guru Granth Sahib acknowledges Dashavatara as monarchs who restored order to the earth.
• King Rama (Ramchandra) is mentioned, but no Guru authored a full Ramayana.
9. NAGARA STYLE OF TEMPLE ARCHITECTURE, IN WHICH

RAM TEMPLE IS BEING BUILT
Context: The Ram temple to be inaugurated on 22nd January, has been designed in Nagara style of temple architecture.
• The original design was given by the Sompura family of Ahmedabad in 1988.
• In 2022, a new design was prepared by the Sompuras, as per the Hindu texts, the Vastu Shastra and the Shilpa
Shastra.
• The Ram mandir will be 250 feet wide, 380 feet long and 161 feet high.
• Predominantly designed in the Gurjara-Chaulukya (Maru-Gurjara) style of Nagara style of architecture.
• The temple will have five mandapas in the middle of the garbhagriha (sanctum sanctorum) and on the entrance
passage.
• Sandstone from Baansi in Rajasthan will be used.
• Iron will not be used in the construction of the temple and the fusion of stone blocks with copper plates will be
done.
• Thailand is also symbolically contributing to the inauguration of the temple, by sending soil to the Ram
Janmabhoomi.
HISTORICITY OF AYODHYA TEMPLE:

Babri mosque was built in 1528 AD on the instructions of Mughal Emperor Babur by Mir Baqi, who was the
commander of Babur’s forces. However, a section of historians also say that the Babri Mosque was
constructed by Aurangzeb.
Historical Sources quoted by Judgement
1. Janma Sakhies of Sikhism: Various Janma Sakhies have recorded the description of visit of Guru Nanak Devji
to Ayodhya, where he had darshan of birthplace of Lord Ram. The accounts presented in the Janmasakhis
depicts that pilgrim visited Ayodhya even before 1528 AD (when Babur is claimed to constructed the Babri
Mosque).
• Janma Sakhies are legendary biographies of Guru Nanak (1469-1539), founder of Sikhism. These are
hagiographical accounts of the life of Guru Nanak written after the death of Guru Nanak, particularly noting
the miracles and travels known as Udasis pursued by Guru Nanak.
• Largest of the JanmaSakhis was known as Guru Nanak Prakash, written by Kavi Santokh Singh.
2. Ain-i-Akbari by Abul Fazl: Ain-i-Akbari has section on Ramavatara or Ram-incarnation and Ayodhya. Ayodhya
is noted as one of the largest cities of India and as one of the holiest cities. Around the city, earth was filtered
for gold.
3. Account of William Finch: William Finch arrived in India in August 1608 at Surat with Captain Hawkins. He
was an English Merchant in the service of East India Company. He travelled along with Captain Hawkins during
the reign of Mughal emperor Akbar and Jehangir. He explored various Indian cities like Delhi, Ambala, Sultanpur,
Ayodhya and Lahore. His account is preserved in a book edited by William Foster called ‘Early Travels in India

(1583-1619)’ which has accounts by Ralph Fitch, John Mildenhall, William Hawkins, William Finch,
Nicholas Withington, Thomas Coriyat and Edward Terry.
• William Finch arrived in India in 1608 at Surat with Captain Hawkins.
• He visited Ayodhya between 1608-11. He did not find any building of Islamic origin in Ayodhya.
• He noted the mount known as Ramkot or fort of Lord Rama.
4. Account of Niccolao Manucci: Manucci was Italian traveller who visited India during the reign of Shah Jahan
and Aurangzeb. Manucci is famous for his account of his travels in Mughal India which is known as ‘Storia do
Mogor’. Storia do Mogor presents a first-hand account of Shah Jahan, Aurangzeb, Shivaji, Dara Shikoh, Shah
Alam I and Jai Singh I. He also provides a detailed account of folk beliefs and customs of the period. Manucci
has listed the chief temples destroyed by Aurangzeb. Some of them are:
(a) Maisa (Mayapur)
(b) Matura (Mathura)
(c) Caxis (Kashi)
(d) Hajudia (Ajudhya)
5. Account of Joseph Tieffenthaler: Tieffenthaler was a Jesuit Missionary who visited India in 1740 (three
decades after the death of Aurangzeb). His travel account is known as ‘Description Historiqueet Geographique
Del’inde’ written in Latin. Tieffenthaler was reportedly proficient in Arabic, Persian and Sanskrit.
Tieffenthaler visited Ayodhya which is described in the text. He gives the following account:
• Refers to Ayodhya as Adjudea.
• Contains a reference to the belief of Hindus that Lord Rama is the human incarnation of Lord Vishnu
(Described as Beschan in the account). Lord Rama was born at the site, the symbol it being the ‘Bedi’ or
‘cradle’.
• Presence of Sita Rasoi which is a table like place worshipped as the kitchen of Sita.
• Emperor Aurangzeb demolished the fortress called Ramcot and got a Muslim Mosque with triple domes,
constructed at the same place.
• Contains a reference to the use of fourteen black stone pillars which had existed at the site of erstwhile
fortress.
• His noted that despite the demolition by Aurangzeb there still existed a cult that continues to worship at the
site and of large gatherings to mark and celebrate the birthday of Lord Rama.
6. Account of Robert Montgomery Martin: Montgomery Martin was an Anglo-Irish author and civil servant.
He authored his account of 10 years of stay in medical practice in Shillong and working as a journalist in Calcutta
where he established the ‘Bengal Herald’ newspaper. He wrote the ‘History, Antiquities, Topography and
Statistics of Eastern India’ in three volumes based on his stay in India during the 1840s. He was one of the
founding members of East India Association which was a London based organisation (1866) for raising matters
concerning India with membership from Indians and retired British officials. (Note: Dadabhai Naoroji was the
founder of East India Association).
• He infers that the mosque was built by Mughal Emperor Babur and was the most modern in architecture.
• However, Martin notes the destruction of Hindu places of worship by Aurangzeb.
• He also noted the presence of pillars in the Mosque made of black stones.
7. Edward Thornton’s Gazetteer: Edward Thornton authored ‘Gazetteer of territories under the Government
of East India Company and the Native States on the Continent of India’.
ABOUT NAGARA STYLE OF TEMPLE ARCHITECTURE

• Emerged sometime in the 5th century CE, during the late Gupta period, in Northern India.
• Seen in juxtaposition with the Dravida style of southern India, which too emerged in the same period.

FEATURES
• Panchayatana style of temple making: Consisting of subsidiary shrines laid out in a crucified ground plan
with respect to the principal shrine.
• Garbha griha (sanctum sanctorum): Idol of the deity is placed and is most sacred part of the temple. Images
of the river goddesses, Ganga and Yamuna, are placed outside the garbhagriha. • Assembly halls or mandaps,
in front of the principal shrine.
• Unlike Dravida temples, water tanks or reservoirs are not present in the temple premises. • Built on upraised
platforms.
• Shikharas: These are human-made representations of the natural and cosmological order, as imagined in
Hindu tradition.
• Depending on the period and geography, there is a large variation in what a shikhara looks like, or how it is
used in a temple’s design.
• Amalaka (horizontal fluted disc): At the vertical end of the shikhara.
• Kalash: In spherical shape on top.
• Vertical planes:
o Triratha temples.
o Later, pancharatha, saptaratha and even navaratha

temples came into existence.
o Used as different panels to make narrative sculptures.
o Covered Ambulatory passageway (pradakshina path):

Around the sanctum sanctorum.
• Temple premises did not have elaborate boundary walls or gateways.
MARU-GURJARA ARCHITECTURE OR SOLANKI STYLE

• The style originated from that of the dynasties preceding the Solanki dynasty, mainly the Gurjara Pratihara
dynasty.
• Reached zenith from the 11th to 13th centuries, under the Chaulukya dynasty of Gujarat (Solanki dynasty).
• Although originated as a regional style in Hindu temple architecture, became popular in Jain temples.
• Features:
o Curvilinear Shikhara
o Free standing Kirti Torana
o Kunda or a temple tank
o Heavy carvings on ceilings of Mandapa
o High plinths
o Balconies looking out on multiple side
 GEOGRAPHICAL INDICATION TAGS
10. GEOGRAPHICAL INDICATION (GI)

• Geographical Indications of Goods (Registration and Protection) Act, 1999 intends to make provisions for the
registration and improved protection of geographical indications relating to goods in India.
• WTO Agreement on Trade Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights (TRIPS) governs related aspects of
Intellectual Property Rights governs and directs it.
• The protection of industrial property and geographic indications was determined and is also indicated in Articles
1(2) and 10 of the Paris Convention as components of intellectual property.

• It is primarily a manufactured, natural, or agricultural product (handicrafts and industrial goods).

• This tag is valid for ten years, after which it may be renewed.
• However, a protected geographical indication does not enable the holder to prevent someone from making a
product using the same techniques as those set out in the standards for that indication.
• Darjeeling Tea from West Bengal received the first GI Tag in India.
• Department of Industry Promotion and Internal Trade, Ministry of Commerce and Industry, is responsible for
issuing these tags.
• After a product receives this designation, no one or business may sell a similar product under that name.
• A product's GI registration gives it legal protection and safeguards against unauthorized use by others.
• The GI tag aids in marketing the product's exports and gives customers confidence in the product's legitimacy.
GEOGRAPHICAL INDICATION TAGS

1. Jalesar Dhatu Shilp (metal craft), Uttar Pradesh
2. Udaipur Koftgari metal craft, Rajasthan.
3. Bikaner Kashidakari craft, Rajasthan.
4. Jodhpur Bandhej craft, Rajasthan.
5. Bikaner Usta Kala craft, Rajasthan.
6. Rupa Tarakasi (Silver Filigree), Cuttack, Odisha.
7. Banglar Muslin, Bengal.
8. Narsapur Crochet Lac, Andhra Pradesh
9. Kutch Rogan Craft and Ambaji White Marble, Gujarat.
10. Riyawan Lahsun (Garlic), Ratlam, Madhya Pradesh.
11. Risa Textiles, Tripura.
12. Lac Bangles, Hyderabad, Telangana.
13. Majuli Mask and Majuli Manuscript Painting, Assam.
14. Majuli Mask and Majuli Manuscript Paintings, Assam.
 DANCE FORMS IN INDIA IN NEWS
11. MOHINIYATTAM
• Classical dance form of Kerala; origin and popularity is closely associated to the dance master Vadivelu
• Mohiniyattam is a solo recital by women.
• Elements of other performing art forms of Kerala: Koothu and Kutiyattam.
• Came under the influence of other two south Indian classical dance forms: Bharatanatyam (Tamil Nadu)
and Kathakali (Kerala).
• Patronised by King Swathi Thirunal of the erstwhile Travancore kingdom.
• Dance form has love and devotion to God as its major themes, with usually Lord Vishnu or his incarnation Lord
Krishna as the lead character.
• Comprises: 40 different basic movements called Adavukal.
• Follows the sign language (mudra) as described in the ancient treatise on Hastha Lakshanadeepika to convey
the story.
• Instruments: Chollu.
• Lyrics are in Manipravalam (mixture of Sanskrit and Malayalam).
• Attire: white sari, bordered with broad golden brocade (called kasavu in Malayalam).

12. TIBETAN BUDDHIST LAMA DANCE

• Lahaul region of Himachal Pradesh.
• Cham Lama dance event is held by Tibetan monasteries during special Buddhist festivals.
• Monks in colourful costumes wear masks and they dance to the music played from traditional instruments
(such as the ritual drum), also performed by monks.
• Cham was introduced in the eight Century by Padmasambhava (who introduced Tantric Buddhism to Tibet).
13. THEYYAM
• Also referred to as Kaliyattom, is a traditional folk-dance ritual; practiced in northern Kerala and certain parts
of Karnataka.
• Similar practice known as Bhuta Kola is followed in the Tulunadu region of neighbouring Karnataka.
• Villages were obligated to organize Theyyam as an act of appeasement towards gods, goddesses, and the spirits
of departed heroes. As a result, it was also known as Thirayattom (dance of the village).
• Significant number of Theyyam deities originated from individuals belonging to the lower castes of Kerala's
caste system.
• Communities: from castes and tribes such as Pulayar, Vannan, Malayan, Velan, and Kalanaadi.
• Approximately 456 documented types of Theyyams; primarily a male performance tradition, except for the
Devakkoothu Theyyam, which is the only Theyyam ritual performed by women.
• Use of musical instruments like Chenda, Elathalam, Kurumkuzal, and Veekkuchenda.
14. KOLKALI ART

• Folk art performed in North Malabar region of Kerala.
• Influence: Kalaripayattu, a martial art tradition prevalent in both Kerala and Tamil Nadu.
• Typically, a group of 12 to 24 dancers move rhythmically in a circle around a ceremonial lamp named
‘Nilavilakkua,’.
• Dance unfolds on a specially constructed wooden stage; thus it is also called, ‘Thattinmelkalia.’
• Musical instruments: Chenda, Elathalam, Mathalam, and Chengala.
• Influence of Kolkali extends beyond Kerala's borders, influencing folk dance forms in Bengal, Gujarat, Punjab,
and Maharashtra.
• Tamil Nadu: it is recognized as Kolattam.
• Andhra Pradesh, it goes by the name Kolamu.
15. GARBA MAKES IT TO UNESCO INTANGIBLE CULTURAL

HERITAGE LIST
18th session held in Kasane, Botswana, in 2023: Intergovernmental Committee for the Safeguarding of
Intangible Cultural Heritage added the 'Garba of Gujarat' to the Representative List of the Intangible Cultural
Heritage of Humanity.
• Garba, originating from the state of Gujarat, derives its name from the Sanskrit term "Garbha."
• Performed around a centrally lit lamp or an image of the Hindu goddess Shakti/Durga.
• Associated with the nine-day Hindu festival Navratri.
• Often accompanied by the rhythmic clashing of wooden dandiya sticks.
• Musical Instruments: Dhol (double-headed drum) and its smaller counterpart, the dholak, as well as hand
clapping and various metallic idiophones such as cymbals; shehnai, a double-reed instrument, played a guiding
role for the singers.

16. CHHAU DANCE

• It is a semi-classical Indian dance form that intricately weaves together martial and folk traditions.
• Chhau encompasses elements from martial arts, folk themes and religious motifs inspired by Shaivism,
Shaktism, and Vaishnavism.
• In 2010, UNESCO inscribed Chhau in the Representative List of Intangible Cultural Heritage of Humanity.
• Traditionally performed by all-male troupes, Chhau holds regional significance, in the East Indian region and is
believed to have its origins traced to various linguistic roots.
o Some propose a connection to the Sanskrit term Chaya, signifying shadow, image, or mask, while others
associate it with the Sanskrit root Chadma, implying disguise.
o Alternative research, adds that it is derived from the Odia language, pointing to the term Chhauni,
encompassing meanings related to military camp, armour, and stealth.
• The featuring instruments are: reed pipes mohuri, shehnai, variety of drums such as cylindrical dhol, the large
kettle drum dhumsa, and the kharkai or chad-chadi.
• The roots of Chhau dance, particularly in the Purulia style, can be traced back not only to Paika and Natua but
also to the significant influence of Nachni dance.
• Three Varieties of Chhau:
o Saraikella Chhau in Jharkhand;
o Mayurbhanj Chhau in Odisha;
o Purulia Chhau in West Bengal;
• Mayurbhanj Chhau artists don’t wear masks.

Seraikela Chhau:
• Evolved in the region of Seraikela, during the era of Kalinga's Gajapati rule (1434 to 1541 CE), in Jharkhand.
• In the contemporary era, individuals from diverse backgrounds engage in the performance of Seraikella Chhau.
• This style employs symbolic masks, with the acting itself establishing the role played by each performer.
Mayurbhanj Chhau:
• Odisha’s Mayurbhanj district, bordering Bengal and Jharkhand and known for the Similipal biosphere, was ruled
by the Bhanja dynasty from 7th century AD.
• Chhau, which is believed to have derived its name from the chhauni or military camp, evolved from the mock
fights and drills.
• Mayurbhanj Chhau opts for a mask-free approach.
• Mayurbhanj Chhau is the most vigorous of the three styles of Chhau.
• The technique and choreography are directly drawn from war practices of Odia soldiers, who were popularly
known as paikas.
Purulia Chhau:
• Inspiration from martial arts and combative training.
• Indigenous drums like dhol, dhumsa and kharkai are used along with the melody of mohuri and shehnai.
• It is believed that the Raja (king) of Baghmundi in Purulia was the main patron of these dances.
• The Chhau mask from Purulia has been officially recognized under Geographical Indications, emphasizing its
unique and traditional nature
• The masks for Purulia Chhau are crafted by artists from the Sutradhar community.

 CRAFTS AND TEXTILES OF INDIA
17. DOKRA ART

• Regions: East and South Indian states especially Chhattisgarh and Odisha.
• Artist: Mostly tribal communities
• Metal used: Copper and Brass
• Technique: Metal casting by Lost Wax technique
• Specialization: Human figures, Animal and Birds
• History: 5000 yr. old technique
• Adilabad Dokra has GI Tag.
18. SARI FESTIVAL- VIRASAT

• “VIRAASAT” - Celebrating 75 handwoven Saris of India was held in New Delhi by Ministry of Textiles.
STATES PROMINENT SARI VARIETIES
Uppada and Venkatagiri Jamdani Cotton Sari. Kuppadam Sari, Chirala Silk Sari,
Andhra Pradesh
Madhavaram Sari and Polavaram Sari
Kerala Balaramapuram Sari and Kasavu Sari
Telengana Pochampally Sari, Siddipet Gollabamma Sari and Narayanpet Sari

Arni Silk Saris, Thirubuvanam Silk Sari, Vilandai Cotton Sari, Paramakudi Sari,
Tamilnadu
Aruppukottai Sari, Salem Silk Sari and Kovai Kora Cotton Saris
Maharashtra Paithani Sari, Karvath Kathi Sari
Chhattisgarh Tussar Silk Sari of Champa
Madhya Pardesh Maheshwari Sari and Chanderi Sari
Gujarat Patola Sari. Tangaliya Sari, Ashawali sari and Kuchchi Sari/ Bhujodi sari
Rajasthan Kota Doria Sari
Uttar Pradesh Lalitpuri Sari, Banaras Brocade, Jangla, Tanchoi, Cutwork, and jamdani
Jammu & Kashmir Pashmina Sari
Bihar Bhagalpuri Silk Sari and Bawan Buti Sari
Odisha Kotpad Sari and Gopalpur Tassar Sari
West Bengal Jamdani, Santipuri and Tangail
Jharkhand Tussar and Gichha Silk Sar
Karnataka llkal Sari
Assam Muga Silk Sari, Mekhla Chadar (Sari)
Punjab Phulkari sari
19. ETIKOPPAKA TOY CRAFT

• Etikoppaka: village on the banks of Varaha River in Anakapalli district of Andhra Pradesh.
• Etikoppaka is famous for its 400-year-old tradition of wooden carvings and artefacts, particularly toys.
• Made of wood from trees locally known as ‘ankudu’ (Wrightia Tinctoria); a much softer wood.
• The process is known as turned wood lacquer craft.
• Toys have no sharp edges and are rounded on all sides.
• Awarded the GI tag in the category of Handicrafts in the year 2017.
20. LAMBANI ART ITEMS

• Distinctive form of textile decoration in Karnataka, that finds its roots among the Lambani or Banjara
community.
• This art form stands out due to its vibrant threads, the inclusion of mirror work, beads, ghungroos and a diverse
assortment of stitching patterns on loosely woven fabric.
• Sustainable practice founded on the principles of recycling and reusing materials.
• A specific variant of Lambani art known as Sandur Lambani embroidery, originating from the Sandur region of
Karnataka, garnered a Geographical Indication designation in 2010
LAMBANI COMMUNITY
• These people are also called as Banjara and Sukali.
• In Bihar, Orissa, West Bengal, Andhra Pradesh and Gujarat, they considered as a scheduled tribe.
• In Delhi, Himachal Pradesh, Rajasthan, Karnataka and Kerala they have been considered under the category of
de-notified tribes; in other states as Other Backward Classes.

21. JAMDANI SARI

• Cotton fabric historically known as muslin, originates from weaving centres of Bengal region, particularly Dhaka,
which was initially referred to as Dhakai or Daccai.
• Combining ancient cloth-making techniques of Bengal, dating back possibly 2,000 years, with muslins produced
by Bengali Muslims since 14th century, Jamdani represents a fusion of rich traditions.
• It is traditionally created on the loom using brocade technique and is abundant in motifs.
• It has earned status of a UNESCO Intangible Cultural Heritage of Humanity in 2013.
• It is widely believed that during the Mughal period, particularly under the reign of either emperor Akbar (1556–
1605) or emperor Jahangir (1605–1627), the figured or flowered muslin came to be recognized as Jamdani.
• Also flourished in regions like Andhra Pradesh, Maharashtra, Rajasthan, and Uttar Pradesh.
22. NAMDA ART OF JAMMU AND KASHMIR

ABOUT NAMDA PROJECT
• Namda Project, an industry-based training program, was introduced in 2021.
• It is being successfully revived under a Skill India’s Pilot Project as part of the Pradhan Mantri Kaushal Vikas
Yojana (PMKVY), with nearly 2,200 candidates from across six districts of the state, receiving training in the dying
art form.
ABOUT NAMDA CRAFT

• Traditional craftsmanship of Kashmir, focusing on the creation of rugs primarily crafted from pure sheep wool.
• Diverging from conventional rug-making methods, this craft employs the felting technique instead of the typical
weaving process, eliminating any involvement of traditional weaving.
• The term ‘Namda’ refers to an additional layer crafted above a standard rug, utilizing old blankets in its
construction. This versatile craft is designed to suit various climates.
• This artistic tradition is thought to have originated in the 11th century, attributed to the inventive Nomadic
tribes of the Central Asian steppes.
• The art form gained popularity India during the reign of the Mughal emperor Akbar.
o As per the historical records Akbar’s exchequer named Nubi personally crafted a felt for Akbar’s horse and
adorned it beautiful designs through embroidery.
o This exquisite creation earned the name Namda in honour of its skilled manufacturer, Nubi.
• Artisans specializing in Namda can be found across India, particularly in regions like Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh,
and Rajasthan.
o The craft is predominantly practiced by the Pinjara and Mansuri communities, who are Sama Muslims native
to Kutch.
23. HISTORY AND SYMBOLISM OF SHIVA’S NATARAJA FORM

The Nataraja sculpture on display at Bharat Mandapam, where the G20 Leaders' Summit took place, depicts Lord
Shiva in a manner that originated in the fifth century AD.
• World's tallest statue of Lord Shiva in his dancing form.
• Use of ashtadhatu, an eight-metal alloy.
• Srikanda Sthapathy collaborated with his brothers to create this masterpiece.
• Inspiration from: Thillai Nataraja Temple in Chidambaram; Uma Maheswarar Temple in Konerirajapuram;
Brihadeeswara Temple, an UNESCO World Heritage Site, located in Thanjavur.
CHOLAS (9TH -11TH CENTURIES) AND THE NATARAJA SCULPTURE

• Cholas were the devout followers of Shaivism; depiction Shiva as Nataraja dates back to the fifth century AD,
but it was under the Cholas that this form achieved its present iconic status.

NATRAJA SCULPTURE (LORD OF DANCE)

• Shiva is encircled by a flaming aureole or halo, symbolizing the circle of the world that he both encompasses
and transcends.
• Dreadlocks flow outward, animated by the energy of his dance.
• Upper right hand holds a damru (a hand drum), the sound of which draws all beings into his rhythmic motion.
• Upper left arm holds agni (fire), which brings about the destruction of the universe.
• Beneath one of Nataraja's feet, a dwarf-like figure lies crushed, symbolizing illusion, which misleads humanity.
• Shiva is also depicted as the Protector.
• With his front right hand, he makes the 'abhayamudra' (a gesture that allays fear), and with his raised feet, he
points to his feet, urging his devotees to seek refuge there.
LOST WAX METHOD (CIRE-PERDUE)

• The ancient technique began 6,000 years ago.
Example: Copper amulet from a neolithic site in Mehrgarh, Balochistan (present-day Pakistan), (circa 4,000 BC.);
Dancing Girl of Mohenjo Daro.
• A molten metal is poured into a Mold that has been created by means of a wax model.
• The wax model is melted and drained away.
• A hollow core is effected by the introduction of a heat-proof core that prevents the molten metal from totally
filling the mold.
BRONZE SCULPTURES DURING THE CHOLA PERIOD

• Thanjavur (Tanjore) in Tamil Nadu played a pivotal role.
• Kalyanasundara murti: Shiva, extending his right hand, symbolically accepts Parvati's right hand in this
representation.
• Chola period: crafted using the artistic technique known as Cire Perdue or Madhu Uchchishtta Vidhana.
 MUSIC
24. CLASSICAL MUSIC IN INDIA

• Two systems of Indian Classical music: Hindustani and Carnatic.
• Carnatic music is popular in Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu and Kerela.
• Classical music of the rest of the country goes under the name, Hindustani Classical music.
HINDUSTANI CLASSICAL MUSIC

• Influence: Rigveda, Yajurvedic chants and Natya Shastra (gives information on scales, melodic forms, tala and
musical instruments).
• Matanga’s Brihaddesi (8th-9th century AD): includes Sangeeta Ratankara (13th century) written by
Sarangadeva.
• Tala: is the cyclic arrangement of time units.
• Forms: divided into two broad categories-anibadhha and nibaddha sangeeta.
o Anibaddha sangeeta is not restricted by meaningful words and tala; finest form is the alap.
o Prabhandha is used as a generic term to indicate nibaddha songs among which Jayadeva’s (12th century)
compositions are best known.
o Jayadeva’s significant work was Gita Govinda, and his songs are called Ashtapadis.
o Another formal aspect in Nibaddha Sangeet is met within the Dhrupad.

o Man Singh Tomar, the Maharaja of Gwalior was responsible for the popularity of Dhrupad; Bean and Pakhwaj
were associated with Dhrupad.
• Pride in classical Hindustani music is occupied by the Khyal; given impetus in 13th century by Amir Khusrau;
attained its maturity at the hands of Niyamat Khan Sadarang and Adarang of the 18th century.
• Amir Khusrau invented the sitar and the table and introduced new ragas.
• Most Hindustani musicians trace their descent to Tansen.
• Gharanas in Khyal are schools of singing founded or developed by various individuals or patrons such as king
or nobility.
• Important gharanas: Gwalior gharana (oldest), Agra gharana (founded by Khuda Baksh) and Jaipur gharana
(directly took off from Dhrupad), Rampur Saheswan gharana (Uttar Pradesh).
• Thumri and Tappa are popular types of music heard in concerts.
o Thumri is a love song.
o Tappa consists of the song uttered in a fast note pattern.
CARNATIC MUSIC
• Silappadhikaram (2nd century AD) contains vivid descriptions of music of this period.
• Tolkapiyyam and Kalladam are other sources of musical history.
• Came into vogue after the advent of Muslims, particularly during the reign of the Mughal Emperors of Delhi.
• It developed along its own original lines.
• Annamacharya: 15th-century Hindu saint; earliest known Indian musician to compose songs called sankirtanas
in praise of the god Venkateshwara, a form of Vishnu; also first known composer in Carnatic music.
• Purandaradasa (1484) came after him; keertana songs that he composed, have strongly influenced the structure
of Carnatic music compositions; also known as ‘Carnatic Sangeeta Pitamaha’, introduced the Malavagowla scale
as the basic scale for music instruction.
• Venkatamahi introduced 72 Melakartas; which were used by Tyagaraja to invent many ragas.
• Musical trinity-Tyagaraja, Muthuswami Dikshitar and Syama Sastri at Tiruvarur (1750 to 1850).
• Musical forms: Gitam, Varnam, Jatiswaram, Kirtanam, Pada, Tillana, Pallavi and Tanam.
DIFFERENCE BETWEEN HINDUSTANI & CARNATIC MUSIC

Area of
Hindustani Music Carnatic Music
Differentiation
Origin North India South India
Style of Singing Gharana Style Vocal Style
Word usage in Words are significant; They express their

Formal Depiction
Singing emotions
Restricted to a specific format; Some

Improvisation Fewer restrictions
degree of improvisation.
Ragas 6 ragas and 10 modes 7 notes with semi-tones
Slow tempo with long notes; these Fast tempo; the tempo remains constant
Tempo
notes increase with increasing intensity with short notes
Jalatarangam; Veena; Mandolin;

Instruments Table; Santoor; Sitar; Sarangi; Clarinet
Mridangam
Saw a blending with Persian musical

Influence Mostly indigenous
influence

Oscillation exists between the notes. This

No ornamentation is used for
Ornamentation creates intellectual and more spiritual
enhancing the emotions
performances.
 INDIAN PAINTINGS IN NEWS
25. IN CITY, AN EXHIBITION CELEBRATING INDIA’S

MONUMENTS IN THANJAVUR STYLE
THANJAVUR/TANJORE PAINTINGS
• Traditional South Indian painting style that originated in the Tamil Nadu town of Thanjavur.
• Nayakas of Thanjavur, who were under the control of the Vijayanagara Rayas, encouraged art.
• Art form draws its immediate resources and inspiration from 1600 AD.
• However, Thanjavur art as we know it today originated in the Thanjavur Maratha court (1676–1855).
• Famous art patron Sarfoji II Maharaj; Saraswathi Mahal Library in Tanjore, which was established by Sarfoji II.
• Tanjore paintings were created by Moochys or Painters of India.
• Nayudu community of Madurai and the Raju group of Thanjavur and Tiruchi, also known as Jinigara or
Chitragara communities produced the paintings in the Thanjavur style.
• Government of India recognised it as a Geographic Indication in 2007–2008.
• During Sarfoji-II reign, Thanjavur glass paintings that used Chinese reverse glass painting techniques became
popular.
• Dark brown or red was typically utilised for outlining.
INFLUENCES
• Paintings from Thanjavur exhibit influences from Deccani, Vijayanagara, Maratha, and possibly European or
Company styles.
• Paintings from Tirupati and Kalamkari may have had the most influence.
• During the Anglo-Mysore Wars of 1767–1799, the direct European influence on Tanjore paintings began.
• Depict Hindu gods, goddesses, and saints, essentially acting as devotional icons.
• Jain, Sikh, Muslim, and other religious as well as secular subjects have also appeared in Tanjore paintings.
ABOUT MINIATURE PAINTINGS

• Bright, individually created, small works of art.
• Colours: a variety of organic materials, including fruits, indigo, precious stones, gold, and silver.
HISTORY OF MINIATURE PAINTINGS

• When the Palas ruled over India’s eastern region around 750 A.D., miniature paintings first appeared there.
• Religious teachings of the Buddha, which included his images, were inscribed on palm leaves, which is how
these paintings came to be well-known.
• Similar paintings were imported to western India by the Chalukya Dynasty kings around 960 A.D.
• The popularity of miniature paintings began to soar with the expansion of the Mughal Empire.
• Indian miniature paintings merged elements of the Persian style of painting during Akbar reign.
• With the influence of European paintings at the Mughal court, these miniature paintings underwent further
development.
• The Rajput kings of Rajasthan continued to support miniature paintings, after the Mughal Empire had collapsed.

• Miniature paintings of Rajasthan portrayed the royal lifestyle and mythological tales of Lord Krishna and Radha,
despite being influenced by the Mughal style of painting.
SCHOOLS OF MINIATURE PAINTINGS

• Pala school (8th century A.D.): inspiration from Buddhist tantric rituals.
• Jain school (11th century A.D.): Portrayed religious texts like 'Kalpa Sutra' and 'Kalkacharya Katha' through
miniature paintings. Originating on palm leaves and transitioning to paper in 12th century, witnessed a decline
in late 16th century.
• Orissa school (17th century A.D.): used palm leaves despite widespread paper usage; depicted the love stories
of Radha and Krishna, Krishna Leela, and Gita Govinda.
• Mughal school (16th-18th centuries): Fusion of Indian and Persian styles, flourished under Akbar's reign;
Scenes from royal court, hunting expeditions, and battles graced these paintings; declined during Aurangzeb's
reign.
• Rajasthani school: Kishangarh, Bundi, Jaipur, Mewar, and Marwar sub schools; retained traces of Mughal
influence; delved into the royal lifestyle, narrating tales of bravery.
• Pahari school (17th-19th centuries A.D): regions like Himachal Pradesh, Jammu, Tehri Garhwal.
• Deccan school (16th-19th centuries A.D.): emerged after dissolution of Bahmani Sultanate in 1520; initially
developed independently of Mughal influences; Thrived in Ahmednagar, Golconda, Tanjore, Hyderabad, and
Bijapur; showcased intense colours, sensuous female figures, geometrically accurate buildings.
26. FAMOUS BASOHLI PAINTING FROM JAMMU AND

KASHMIR'S KATHUA GETS GI TAGGING
Basohli painting from the Kathua district of Jammu and Kashmir has received the Geographical Indication (GI)
Tag.
ABOUT BASOHLI PAINTING

• Originated in Basohli, a small town in Jammu region.
• Distinctive genre of miniature paintings where mythology and conventional folk art were combined.
• Reached height during the reigns of Sangram Pal (1635–1673) and later Kirpal Pal (1678 1693).
• Ramayana, Gita Govinda and Rasamanjari illustrations by Bhanudatta were ordered by Raja Kirpal Singh.
• Well-known painter of this school was Devi Das, who is most known for his paintings of Radha Krishna.
• Prominent nose and lotus-shaped eyes were two distinctive characteristics of the face.
• Men and women, dressed in a style like that found in Rajput or Mughal courts.
• Vibrant contrast of colours that characterises this school is inspired by the Malwa paintings.
PAHARI PAINTING
• Miniature painting and book illustration evolved in the autonomous Indian republics at the foothills of the
Himalayas.
• The Pahari paintings can be divided into two series- Northern Series from the Jammu or Dogra School, and the
Southern Series from the Basholi and Kangra Schools.
• Themes: covered everything from mythology to literature; both religious and secular themes.
• Nainsukh and Manaku were two of this school's best artists.
• Schools: Guler, Basohli, Garhwal, Chamba, and Kangra thrived.
• Influenced by both Mughal and Rajasthani styles.

27. FUSION OF ROCK ART

Rudragiri hillock located in the Guntur district of Andhra Pradesh. This site unveils a fascinating combination of
prehistoric rock paintings from the Mesolithic period and exquisite artwork from the Kakatiya dynasty.
• At the foothills of Rudragiri, five naturally formed rock shelters have been uncovered.
• Shelters served as dwellings for people during the Mesolithic age approximately around 5000 B.C.
• Contain rock paintings.
• Two of these natural caves display murals dating back to the renowned Kakatiya dynasty; in the first cave, there
is a narrative mural portraying the battle between the Vanara brothers - Vali and Sugriva;
• Third cave houses prehistoric rock paintings dating back to the Mesolithic era.
EARLY ROCK PAINTINGS IN INDIA

• India boasts some of the earliest rock paintings dating back to the Upper Palaeolithic times.
• First discovery of rock paintings in India was made by archaeologist Archibold Carlleyle.
• Remnants of these ancient paintings: several districts of Madhya Pradesh, Uttar Pradesh, Andhra Pradesh,
Karnataka, Bihar, and even the Kumaon hills in Uttarakhand, particularly at Lakhudiyar.
• At Lakhudiyar, rock shelters along the River Suyal preserve prehistoric artworks.
ROCK SHELTERS OF BHIMBETKA

• Located in the Vindhya hills of Madhya Pradesh.
• Discovered by archaeologist V.S. Wakankar.
• Diverse range of themes, including daily life events, sacred and royal images, hunting scenes, dancing, music,
horse and elephant riders, animal fights, honey collection, body decoration, and household scenes.
28. WARLI ART

• Warli painting tradition, named after the Warli people, dates back to 2500-3000 BC.
• Traditionally, practiced by Suvasinis, women of the Warli tribe, who adorned the wedding square or lagn chowk
with depictions related to marriages.
• Have similarities with Bhimbetka's mural paintings in Madhya Pradesh.
• Warli paintings revolve around a central motif known as ‘chauk’ or ‘chaukat,’ featuring scenes of fishing, hunting,
farming, dances, animals, trees, and festivals.
• Palaghata, the goddess of fertility, holds a prominent place.
• Using a mixture of mud, branches, and cow dung, the base acquires a distinctive red ochre colour.
• White pigment, made from a blend of gum and rice powder, is employed for painting.
ABOUT WARLI/VARLI TRIBE

• Classified as Adivasi indigenous people; inhabit the regions of Gujarat and Maharashtra.
• Language: Varli or Warli, an Indo-Aryan language; often categorized as Marathi; also known as Konkani or Bhil.
• Bohada festival, stands out as a prominent celebration among the Warli Tribes.
• Tarpa Dance, accompanied by Tarpa music instruments, is a captivating part of their cultural festivities.
 INDIAN FESTIVALS IN NEWS
29. MAKAR SANKRANTI

• Falls in the New Year; it is a harvest festival.
• Punjab: known as Magahi.

• Tamil Nadu: Thai Pongal, a four-day festival is celebrated.

• Himachal Pradesh: known as Magha Saraji.
• Uttar Pradesh and western Bihar: Makar Sakraat or Khichdi Parv.
• West Bengal: Pouch Sankranti/ Pouch Parbon.
• Karnataka: Sugg
30. MAKARAVILAKKU FESTIVAL

• 21-day annual festival in Kerala; held on Makar Sankranti at the shrine of Sabarimala.
• Includes the Thiruvabharanam (sacred ornaments of Ayyappan) procession and a congregation at the hill shrine
of Sabarimala.
• Historically was performed by the tribes in the forest of Ponnambalamedu; Aarathi performed by the tribes is
referred to as Makaravilakku.
31. DHANU YATRA

Dhanu Yatra was held at Bargarh, Odisha.
• World's largest open air-theatre; has been mentioned in the Guinness Book of World records.
• Revolves around the episode of Krishna and Balaram's visit to Mathura to witness the Dhanu ceremony
organized by their (maternal) Uncle Kansa.
• It starts from ‘Pousasukla’ and ends on ‘Pousapurnima’.
• Department of Culture of the Government of India has accorded National Festival status to Dhanu Yatra in 2014.
• Came to be related to the independence of India with the death of Kansa symbolising the end of colonial rule
over the nation.
32. LOSAR FESTIVAL

• Ladakh; marks the beginning of a new year.
• Ladakhi Buddhists (Lamas) make religious offerings before their deities.
• Begin with a Metho ceremony with a procession of people chanting prayers.
• Also celebrated in Tawang, Arunachal Pradesh by the Monpa tribe.
33. PARSHURAM KUND FESTIVAL

• Annual religious fair, referred to as the Kumbh of the Northeast.
• Parshuram Kund: Kamlang Reserve Forest area in Lohit District of Arunachal Pradesh
o Carries a strong mythological link with the Kalika Purana.
• Legend: sage Parsurama washed away his sin of matricide in the waters of the Lohit River at Bramhakund.
• Tribes in Lohit District: Mishmi, Khamti, Digaru and Miju.
34. ONAM FESTIVAL

• Harvest festival; carries significance in the state of Kerala where it holds a status as the state festival.
• Revolves around the celebration of the rice harvest.
• The festival also commemorates the righteous rule of King Mahabali, a legendary monarch in Kerala.
• Earliest documented mention of Onam as a festivity can be traced back to the 3rd century CE in a Tamil poem
from the Sangam era known as Maturaikkanci.
• 12th-century inscription: in Tiruvalla Temple, one of Kerala's largest Hindu temples devoted to Vishnu,
mentions Onam.

• Pookkalam (Flower Rangoli): Onam is characterized by the age-old tradition of crafting floral Rangolis, known
as Pookkalam.
• Music and Dance:
o Kathakali, a classical dance form, is frequently presented during Onam.
o Pulikali/ Kaduvakali, stands as a prominent feature of the Onam season; performers dance to the beats of
instruments like Chenda and Thakil.
• Vallamkali (Boat Race):
o Snake boats race in the Pampa River holding.
o Competition of the majestic Chundan Vallam/snake boat.
o Nehru Trophy Boat Race is a Vallam Kali event, unfolds in the Punnamada Lake.
o Origins: to a conflict in the early 13th century between the feudal kingdoms of Kayamkulam and
Chembakassery in Kerala.
o King Devanarayana of Chembakassery commissioned the construction of a war boat known as Chundan
Vallam
35. LEGEND OF SAMMAKKA SARAKKA

SAMMAKKA-SARAKKA JATHARA/MEDARAM
• Sammakka was married to a feudal chief of the Kakatiyas dynasty (ruled over the Warangal region).
Sarakka/Saralamma was the daughter of Sammakka.
• Kakatiya dynasty ruler, Prataprudra imposed taxes on the Koya tribe and later declared battle on the tribe when
the chief was not able to pay the taxes.
• The Jathara, a biennial festival commemorates this battle of the 13th-century, in which the mother daughter
duo participated against the local rulers.
• Sammakka and Sarakka are worshipped as the protector of Koya tribe.
• Shows no Vedic or Brahmanic influence
• Ritual includes taking holy dip in Jampanna Vagu (a stream), a tributary of River Godavari.
• Medaram is situated in the Eturnagaram Wildlife Sanctuary, a part of Dandakaranya forest, Telangana (state
festival).
• Tribal and non-tribal communities participate from Andhra Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh, Chattishgarh, Odisha,
Maharashtra, Karnataka and Jharkhand.
• Second largest fair of India; referred to as the Kumbh Mela of the tribals.
36. KAMBALA
• An annual buffalo race; celebrated tradition in the Karnataka.
• Financially supported by local Tuluva landlords in Dakshina Kannada and Udupi in Karnataka, and Kasaragod
in Kerala, collectively known as Tulu Nadu.
• Origins can be traced back to the influence of Natha pantha.
• The festivities starts with a traditional dance performed by members of Koraga communities.
• Koragas engage in a ceremony called panikkuluni, involving sitting under the dew.
37. BHOGALI BIHU

As part of Bhogali Bihu, a community fishing event was organised in the Bamuni Lake in Guwahati, Assam.
• Magh Bihu/Bhogali Bihu/Maghar Domahi: harvest festival celebrated in the north-eastern region of India,
particularly in Assam.
• Young individuals build makeshift huts known as Meji and Bhelaghar, from bamboo, leaves, and thatch.

• Assamese games: tekeli bhonga (pot-breaking).

• ‘Uruka’, involves people gathering around bonfires, preparing meals.
• Related celebrations such as Sangken can be observed in Assam and Arunachal.
• Kacharis: indigenous Assamese community, partake in similar customs.
• Khamti people of North East: observe the tradition related to Buddha.
ABOUT BAMUNI HILLS

• Location: Right bank of the Brahmaputra River.
• Archaeological Survey of India has fixed the date of these ruins at 10th to 12th century A.D.
• Generally believed that it was built during the rule of early Pala rulers; temple was a north
Indian Nagara style.
• Remains of the subsidiary shrines at the four corners of the main central make it a
Panchayatana temple complex.
38. KERALA CAPITAL SEES MASSIVE TURNOUT OF

DEVOTEES FOR ATTUKAL PONGALA
• Attukal Bhagavathy temple, in Kerala, is also known as ‘Women’s Sabarimala’ (women form the major portion
of the Devi’s devotees).
• ‘Attukal Pongala’: lighting of the ‘Pandara Aduppu’, the main hearth of the temple.
• Attukal Bhagavathy, is the divine incarnation of Kannaki, the protagonist of the Tamil epic, Silappadhikaram.
• Legend: After destroying Madurai to avenge the injustice done to her husband Kovalan, Kannaki reached
Kerala, and took rest at Attukal.
o Silappadhikaram is the earliest Tamil epic.
o It is a poem of 5,730 lines describing the tragic love story of an ordinary Kannaki and her husband Kovalan.
o The epic is set in a flourishing seaport city of the early Chola kingdom.
o Author: It is attributed to a prince-turned-Jain monk Illango Adigal (brother of Chera king, Senguttuvan) and
was probably composed in the 5th or 6th century CE.
• Festival has figured in the Guinness Book of World Records for being the single largest gathering of women for
a religious activity.
 AWARDS IN NEWS
39. SAHITYA AKADEMI AWARDS

• Sahitya Akademi, India's National Academy of Letters, is the central institution for literary dialogue, publication
and promotion in the country.
• The Government of India established by its resolution in 1952 and formally inaugurated in 1954.
• Only institution that undertakes literary activities in 24 Indian languages, including English.
• Though set up by the Government, the Akademi functions as an autonomous organisation.
• It was registered as a society in 1956, under the Societies Registration Act, 1860.
• Languages: Besides the 22 languages enumerated in the Constitution of India, the Sahitya Akademi has
recognised English and Rajasthani as languages in which its programme may be implemented.
HISTORY OF SAHITYA AKADEMI

• 1944: Government of India accepted in principle a proposal of Royal Asiatic Society of Bengal that a National
Cultural Trust should be set up.

• Trust was to consist of three Academies, including the Academy of letters, visual arts and performing arts.
• A consensus emerged in favour of establishing three National Academies one of letters, another of visual arts
and the third of dance, drama and music.
• On the advice of Abul Kalam Azad, the union minister of education, institutions were to perform their function
as an autonomous institution.
ELIGIBILITY CRITERIA FOR SAHITYA AKADEMI AWARD
• The author should be an Indian national.
• A book or work must make a substantial contribution to the language and literature of its genre.
• In instances where two or more works exhibit comparable merit, the decision on the award recipient will take
into account factors such as the overall literary contribution/
AWARDS GIVEN BY SAHITYA AKADEMI
• ANNUAL SAHITYA AKADEMI AWARD: An award given to the most outstanding original book by an Indian
author published in India in any of the languages recognised by Sahitya Akademi during 5 years prior to the
year, preceding the year of the Award; Translations are not eligible for this award).
• Bhasha Samman: The Sahitya Akademi also presents the 'Bhasha Samman' annually; granted to writers who
have made significant contributions to Indian languages beyond the 24 major languages covered by the Sahitya
Akademi award; as well as contributions to classical and medieval literature.
• Jnanpith award: established in 1961; oldest and highest literary honour in India; Instituted by the Bhartiya
Jnanpith, conferred upon Indian citizens who compose literature in one of the 22 languages listed in Schedule
VIII of the Indian Constitution, as
well as in English; is not awarded
posthumously
Note:
• Sangeet Natak Akademi: Apex
body in the field of performing
arts
• Lalit Kala Akademi: Apex body in
the field of visual arts
Currently, there is a demand to give
the language recognition as one of the recognized official languages of India as per the 8th schedule of the
Constitution:
40. NOBEL PRIZE IN LITERATURE

• Jon Fosse from Norway, won the Nobel Prize in Literature; works are written in Norwegian Nynorsk language.
• Debut as an author in 1983 with the novel, ‘Red, Black’ (Raudt, Svart); novel was emotionally raw; theme of
suicide.
• Work: Boathouse and Melancholy I and II; Someone is Going to come; And We’ll Never be Parted; Septology, is
a semiautobiographical work and its third volume was shortlisted for the 2022 International Booker Prize.
• 2022: French Feminist Icon Annie Ernaux was awarded the Nobel Prize in Literature.
ABOUT NOBEL PRIZE IN LITERATURE

• Swedish Academy, Stockholm, Sweden awards the Prize.
• One the Five Nobel Prizes established by the will of Alfred Nobel in 1895.
• Awarded annually, since 1901, to an author from any country in the field of literature, producing the most
outstanding work in an idealistic direction.
Note: Rabindranath Tagore was the first Indian, receiving the nation’s first Nobel Prize (in Literature) in 1913
for his collection ‘Gitanjali’ published in London in 1912. He was also the first non-westerner, to receive this
prize.

41. KUVEMPU AWARD

• An annual national honour; dedicated to the memory of the esteemed poet laureate Kuvempu.
• Awarded to a writer each year who has made significant contributions in any of the languages acknowledged
by the Indian Constitution.
ABOUT KUPPALI VENKATAPPA PUTTAPPA

• Hailed as the preeminent Kannada poet of the 20th century.
• He considered Ramakrishna Paramahamsa his spiritual guide.
• Visited Belur Math in Kolkata and wrote poems in praise of Ramakrishna Paramahamsa; wrote about
Vivekananda as well.
• Author of the Karnataka State Anthem, ‘Jaya Bharata Jananiya Tanujate,’ Kuvempu
• 1967: became the first Kannada writer to be honoured with the Jnanpith Award; for his rendition of the
Ramayana titled 'Sri Ramayana Darshanam.'
42. BHARAT RATNA AWARD

Karpoori Thakur, former Chief Minister of Bihar, was posthumously awarded the Bharat Ratna, India's highest
civilian award. He played a pioneering role in implementing the recommendations of the Mungeri Lal
Commission, ensuring reservation benefits for the Other Backward Classes (OBCs).
AWARDS GIVEN BY GOVERNMENT OF INDIA
ABOUT BHARAT RATNA

• Highest civilian honour presented by the Republic of India.
• Established in 1954.
• Originally focused on recognizing achievements in art, science, literature, and public service, the criteria was
expanded in 2011 to encompass excellence in 'any field of human endeavour.'
• Selection process:
o Recommendations can only be made by the Prime Minister to the President, with a maximum of three
nominees honoured annually.
o 1999: four individuals were honoured.
• No monetary reward; Recipients receive a medal and a certificate known as a ‘Sanad.’

• Bharat Ratna recipients hold the seventh rank in the hierarchy of the Indian Order of Precedence,
• The usage of the title 'Bharat Ratna' as a prefix or suffix is exempt from Article 18(1) of the Constitution (Balaji
Raghavan/S.P. Anand v. Union of India in 1995).
• January 1955: amendments permitted posthumous awards.
• Typically conferred upon India-born citizens; exceptions include Mother Teresa, a naturalized citizen, and non-
Indians such as Abdul Ghaffar Khan and Nelson Mandela, a citizen of South Africa.
• Suspended during: 1977 to 1980; 1992 to 1995
• There was no Bharat Ratna Award winners list for 2020 and 2021.
43. ABOUT PADMA AWARDS

• Established in 1954.
• Announced annually on Republic Day.
• Suspended: in 1977, 1980; between 1993 and 1997.
• Rule: a waiting period of five or more years for recipients to be eligible for a higher degree of award after their
last conferment.
• Posthumous awards are rare but can be considered.

• Categorized into three levels by the Government of India:

• PADMA VIBHUSHAN:
o Second-highest civilian award in India; recognises exceptional and distinguished service.
• PADMA BHUSHAN:
o Third-highest civilian award; given to individuals who have contributed significantly to India's reputation on
the global stage.
• PADMA SHRI: Fourth-highest civilian award, presented individuals who have made distinguished contributions
in various fields.
Note: It is noteworthy that government servants, except doctors and scientists, working in public sector
undertakings (PSUs), are not eligible for these awards.
 MARTIAL ART AND ITS FORMS IN INDIA
44. INDIAN MARTIAL ARTS

Martial Art
S.NO. Information
form
• Short sword with a distinct recurve in its blade; originated in Indian subcontinent.
• National weapon of Nepal;
1. Khukri
• Serving the role of a basic utility knife for the Nepali-speaking Gurkhas; Symbol
of Gurkha soldier in Indian Army.
• One of the oldest martial arts in India; also widely practiced by women.
• Practiced: most parts of southern India.
• Originated in the state of Kerala in the 4th century A. D.
• Legends: sage Parasurama started Kalarippayattu.
• Kalari: type of school/gymnasium/training hall
2. Kalarippayattu
• Includes mock duels (armed and unarmed combat) and physical exercises.
• Not accompanied by any drumming or song.
• Important aspects: style of fighting (Footwork); fighting with Otta (an ‘S’ shaped
stick), Puliyankam or sword fight, Verumkai or bare-handed fight, AngaThari or
use of metal weapons.
• Pandya, Chola and Chera kingdoms promoted it during their reign.

3. Silambam • Reference: found in a Tamil literature known as Silappadikaram, (2nd century
A.D.)
• Created by the Meitei people of Manipur.

• Thang-ta: armed martial art and one of the most lethal combat forms.
Thang-ta and • Sarit Sarak: an unarmed art form that uses hand-to-hand combat.
4.
Sarit Sarak • 17th century: used successfully by the Manipuri kings to fight the British.
• Thang refers to a ‘sword’, while Ta refers to a ‘spear’.
• Thang-ta and Sarit sarak are together called Huyen Langlon.
• One of the most ancient martial arts of Manipur.

5. Cheibi Gad-ga
• Involves fighting using a sword and a shield.
6. Thoda • State of Himachal Pradesh; mixture of martial arts, sport and culture.

• During Baisakhi (13th and 14th April) every year.

• Skill of archery; equipment required are wooden bows and arrows.
• Two groups of roughly 500 people each. Most of these are not archers but
dancers.
• Two teams are called Pashis and Saathis; believed to be the descendants of
Pandavas and Kauravas of Mahabharata.
• Weapon based martial art form, performed by the Sikhs of Punjab.

7. Gatka
• Skilful use of weapons: stick, Kirpan, Talwar and Kataar.
• Traditional Maharashtrian armed martial art; practiced widely in the district of

Kolhapur.
8. Mardani Khel • Focuses primarily on skills of weaponry, especially swords, swift movements and
use of low stances that is suited to the hill ranges.
• It is known for the use of the unique Indian Pata (sword) and Vita (corded lance).
• Genesis in 1750 A.D.

• Strict rules that prohibit stepping out of the circle, kicking and knee bending; way
Inbuan
9. to win this is by lifting the opponent off their feet.
Wrestling
• Regarded as a sport only after the people of Mizoram migrated from Burma to
Lushai hills.
• First mentioned in Sangam literature; mainly practiced in Tamil Nadu.

• ‘Empty hand combat’; considered as an unarmed component of Silambam.
10. Kuttu Varisai
• Involved starching, yoga, gymnastics.
• Uses animal-based sets including snake, eagle, tiger, elephant and monkey.
• Originated in Varanasi, Uttar Pradesh; unarmed martial art form resembling

boxing.
11. Musti Yuddha • Development of all three aspects, physical, mental and spiritual.
• Fights divided into four categories; named according to the Hindu Gods:
Jambuvanti; Hanumanti; Bhimaseni; Jarasandhi.
• Paika akhada is an Odia term, means ‘warrior gymnasium’.

• Community: Khandayat caste (peasant-militias) and Gopal caste in Odisha.
12. Paika
• Earlier they served as the Paikas (foot Soldiers) under the kings.
• Use of the khanda (straight sword), patta (guantlet-sword), sticks.
• South Asian martial art from Kashmir; involves fighting with a sword and shield.
13. Sqay • 2023: Indian Army's Chinar Corps organized a Sqay session for girls in Kashmir.
• One of 43 sports, included in the 2023 National Games of India.
• Ancient martial arts of Andhra Pradesh; practiced by the royal armies.

• Various kinds of swords used.
• Place where is performed: 'Garidi.'
14. Kathi Samu
• Stick fight: 'Vairi', important role in Kathi Samu.
• In 'Gareja', a participant holds four swords, two in each hand.
• 'Dal Farri Khadga', is an important aspect of the sword skills.
• Empty-handed combat technique; ancient martial art.

15. Bandesh
• Conqueror is the one who takes the weapon from the other.

• Six different stages: Pavithra (footwork), Rokh (blocking), Lapet (Twisting), Fekan
(Throw), Cheen (Snatching) and Bandesh (Lock hold).
• Also practiced with weapons, maintaining the same principle of not wounding the
enemy fatally.
• Originating from the Indian subcontinent

• Group of gymnasts perform aerial yoga and gymnastic postures.
16. Mallakhamba • Pole is usually made from sheesham (Indian rosewood); polished with castor oil.
• Popular versions of mallakhamba are practiced using a cane or a rope.
• In 2013, Madhya Pradesh declared mallakhamba the state sport.
• Insuknawr or Rod Pushing Sport: indigenous game of Mizoram.

Insu Knawr
17. • Kirip Saldu: indigenous form of wrestling quite popular with the Nicobarese
and Kirip Saldu
tribe.
• Practised in old Travancore including Kanyakumari district of Tamil Nadu.

Varma • Southern style of Kalarippayattu.
18.
Ati/Marma ati • ‘Neuro Martial Art’: practised by the Royal Thiruppad Nadans to defeat the
enemy without any external injuries.
• Created by Rajputs; form of martial art from Bihar.

19. Pari-khanda • Fighting using sword (Khanda) and shield (Pari).
• Steps and techniques are widely used in Mayurbhanj Chhau dance.
 INDIAN THEATRE FORMS
45. MUDIYETTU
• Roots can be traced back to the 9th or 10th century AD.
• Traditional ritual theatre and folk-dance drama originating from Kerala.
• Narrative of the fierce battle between the goddess Kali and the demon Darika.
• Got recognition under UNESCO's Representative List of the Intangible Cultural Heritage of Humanity in 2010;
second art form from Kerala to receive such recognition, following Koodiyattam.
• Associated Communities: Marar and Kuruppu
• Entire community participates in an annual event, celebrated in 'Bhagavati Kavus,' the temples dedicated to the
goddess, along the Chalakkudy Puzha, Periyar, and Moovattupuzha rivers.
• Kalamezhuthu marks the initiation of the Mudiyettu ritual.
• Instruments: Uruttuchenda (cylindrical percussion), Veekkuchenda (drums), Ilathalam (cymbals), and Shankkh
(conch).
• Literary composition: blend of Malayalam, Sanskrit, and Tamil languages.
• Songs: typical Sopana style of Kerala.
THEATRES OF SOUTH INDIA

Distinctive feature of theatrical traditions in the southern regions is emphasis on dance, in contrast to the
musical focus in Northern India.
S.NO Theatre form Information
1. Yakshagana • Oldest theatre tradition; from Andhra Pradesh and Karnataka;

• Originated in the courts of the Vijayanagar empire.

• Variants: Lalita in Maharashtra, Bhavai in Gujarat, and Gandharva Gana in Nepal.
• A popular dance-drama tradition in Andhra Pradesh.

2. Burra Katha
• Gets its name from the percussion instrument ‘Burra’.
Pagati • From: Telangana and Andhra Pradesh

3.
Veshaalu • A folk tradition focused on role-playing.
• Open-air theatre tradition in Karnataka.

4. Bayalata • Performed during local deity worship.
• Included five types: Dasarat, Sannata, Doddata, Parijata, and Yakshagana.
• Considered a predecessor of Yakshagana.

5. Tal-Maddale
• Involves the use of cymbals (Tal) and drums (Maddale).
• Performed in Kerala.
6. Theyyam • An open theatre practice like Karnataka's Bhuta Kola.
• Honor ancestors and gods.
Krishna • Originated in the mid-17th century

7.
Attam • A colourful dance-drama tradition in Kerala.
• Originated about 300 years ago.

8. Kuruvanji • Theme: revolves around a love-struck heroine.
• Performed in a dance ballet form.
 MISCELLANEOUS
46. 73RD REPUBLIC DAY

• January 26, 1950: Indian Constitution came into force; India turned into a sovereign and a Republic state.
• Constitution Day: November 26, as on this day in 1949, Constituent Assembly adopted the Constitution of
India.
The best marching contingents and tableaux of Republic Day Parade 2023:
• Andhra Pradesh:
o Prabhala Theertham: celebrated during Makar Sankranti is a 450-year-old tradition; followed by residents
of all villages in the Konaseema district of Andhra Pradesh; "Gopuram" shaped bamboo structures (prabhalu)
of various sizes are decorated with flowers and colour papers on bullock carts.
• Uttarakhand:
o “Manaskhand” or Kumaon is one of the sub-divisions in the Indian state of Uttarakhand; Government is
planning to initiate “Manaskhand Mandir Mala Mission” to undertake infrastructural development of ancient
temples in Kumaon on the lines of the Char Dham Project in Garhwal.
o Char Dham Yatra: pilgrimage is a tour of four holy sites - Yamunotri, Gangotri, Kedarnath and Badrinath.
• Jharkhand:
o Baba Baidyanath Temple: Jyotirlinga and a Shaktipeeth; mention of the temple can be found from 8th
century AD, during the rule of the last king of the Gupta dynasty, Adityasena Gupta.
o Mughal period: Raja Man Singh, the ruler of Amber built a pond here, known as Mansarovar.
o An eight-petaled lotus called Chandrakanta Mani.

• West Bengal:
o Ten-day celebration; Durga Puja represents the collective worship of the Hindu Goddess Durga; inscribed on
the Representative List of the Intangible Cultural Heritage of Humanity.
• Maharashtra:
o Sade TIN Shaktipeeth: different parts of Goddess Shakti have fallen when Lord Vishnu's Chakra, Sudarshana
Chakra, cut through the corpse of Sati; 51 such locations are in India; 18 of these are accepted as Shaki
Peethas, collectively known as Maha Shakti Peethas.
o 4 of the Shakti Peetha temples are in Maharashtra; a) Tuljapur Bhavani of Tuljapur near Solapur; b) Ambabai
from Kolhapur; c) Renukamata of Mahurgad near Nanded; d) Saptashrungi from Saptashrungagarh near
Nashik .
• Uttar Pradesh:
o Ayodhya Deepotsava: held at the ghats of Saryu River, Ayodhya.
o Buddhist Text “Angutara Nikaya” cites: 16 Mahajanapadas or the great kingdom (namely Anga, Assaka,
Avanti, Cheti, Gandhara, Kamboja, Kasi, Kosala, Kuru, Magadha, Malla, Matsya, Panchala, Shurasena, Vajji)
and the “Kosala” is one of them.
o Prominent ruler of the Kosala kingdom: Prasenajeet; Ayodhya was the early capital of the kingdom of
Kosala; Buddhist times (6th–5th century BCE) Shravasti became the kingdom’s chief city.
o Ayodhya is identical with the town of Saketa, where the Buddha is said to have resided for a time.
o Chinese Buddhist monk Faxian (5th century CE), mentioned there were 100 monasteries.
o A stupa was founded by the Mauryan emperor Ashoka (3rd century BCE).
o Kanauj kingdom arose in Ayodhya; called Oudh, during the 11th and 12th centuries CE.
o Later included in the Delhi sultanate, the Jaunpur kingdom; in 16th century in the Mughal Empire; became
subordinate to the British East India Company in 1764.
o 1856: annexed by the British (Lord Dalhousie); subsequent loss of rights by the hereditary land lords provided
one of the causes of the Indian Mutiny in 1857.
47. SHILABHATTARIKA
Research identified her as the daughter of the renowned Chalukyan Emperor Pulakeshin II of Badami (in modern
Karnataka)
• Shilabhattarika was a Chalukyan princess (Pulakeshin II's daughter).
• Pulakeshin II (ruled from 610 to 642 CE); known for defeating Harshavardhan of Kannauj in a battle near the
Narmada River in 618 CE.
• Copper-plate charter with five copper plates from the era of Vijayaditya, the Badami Chalukyan king (696-733
CE) has been deciphered; copper ring with a Varaha (boar) seal serves as the binding element; Varaha seal
served as the royal seal of Badami Chalukyas.
• Vijayaditya gave the village of Sikkatteru (daughter of Satyashraya), to the Vedic scholar Vishnusharma in the
Shaka year 638; Mahendravarma, son of Shilabhattarika, asked Vijayaditya to make the grant.
• Pulakeshin II was the only Badami Chalukyan ruler who was solely known by the title "Satyashraya," (patron of
truth).
• Evidence points to Shilabhattarika's marriage to Dadiga, a prince from Talakkad's Ganga lineage.
SHILA-BHATTARIKA
• A Sanskrit poetess.
• Shilabhattarika has been lauded for her compositions by the Sanskrit poet-critic Rajashekhara, court poet of
the Gurjara-Pratiharas (9th–10th century CE); he claims that the Panchali style (one of the four primary literary
styles, the other three are Vaidharbhi, Gaudi, and Lati) can be seen in the writings of Shilabhattarika.

• Sharngadhara-paddhati, a 14th-century anthology: she and three other female poets are lauded
(Shilabhattarika, Vijja, Marula, and Morika).
• Subjects in her poetry: wrote at least 46 poems; dealing in "love, morality, politics, nature, beauty, the seasons,
insects, anger, indignation, codes of conduct, and the characteristic features of various kinds of heroines."
• Durvinita: ruler of the Western Gangas, was Shilabhattarika's grandfather-in law; He was an accomplished
composer; and patronised Bharavi (who authored classical epic Kiratarjuniya).
48. KUKI & MEITEI TRIBE OF MANIPUR

KUKI
• known by different names to different communities; Lushai, Darlongs, Rokhums and among the Burma border
they are known as Chins; also called as Hare-ems
• Language is closely related to the Kuki-Chin linguistic family of Sino Tibetan race.
• LAL is a term to denote village chief.
MEITEI
• Majority tribal group of Manipur (53% of the population).
• Meitei language (Manipuri language) is a Tibeto-Burman language; official language of Manipur (written in
Bengali language).
• Settled in the Imphal Valley region (of Manipur), Assam, Tripura, Nagaland, Meghalaya, and Mizoram.
• Majority: Hinduism; more than 8% are Muslims.
• Martial art Thang-ta.
• Dance Festival: Lai Haraoba
49. TRIPURA BOARD ALLOWS KOKBOROK IN ROMAN SCRIPT

IN EXAMINATIONS
• Kokborok is a Tibeto-Burman language of the Bodo-Garo branch, spoken in Indian state of Tripura and
neighbouring areas of Bangladesh.
• Associated with the Bodo and Dimasa languages of Assam and the Garo language of Meghalaya.
• Formerly known as Tripuri and Tipra Kok; names refer to the inhabitants of the former Twipra Kingdom and the
ethnicity of its speakers.
• In 1979, the language was declared as an official language of the state of Tripura.
• Tribes: associated with the language: Jamatia, Noatia, Kalai, Reang, Debbarma, Kalai, Rupini, Murasing, Uchoi.
• Rajratnakar (chronicle of the Tripuri kings) was originally written in Kokborok using the Koloma script by
Durlobendra Chontai; book was translated in Sanskrit and then in Bengali (in the 19th century) by Sukreshwar
and Vaneswar.
• Koloma script fell out of use after the 14th century and eventually was lost.
• Kingdom of Twipra, from the 19th century began using the Bengali script to write in Kokborok; after
independence and Tripura’s merger with Indian Union, Roman script of the language gained promotions.
• Merger of Tripura:
o Last ruler of the princely state of Tripura was Kirit Bikram Kishore Manikya Bahadur Debbarma (1947 to
1949).
o After his death, the kingdom was merged with India on 9 September 1949; administration was taken over in
October 1949.
o Tripura became a Union Territory on 1 July 1963; attained the status of a full-fledged state on 21 January
1972.

50. INTERNATIONAL MOTHER LANGUAGE DAY (2024)

Theme: "Multilingual education is a pillar of intergenerational learning".
• Globally recognized on 21 February.
• Aim: Foster awareness of linguistic and cultural diversity while promoting multilingualism; preserving and
protecting linguistic heritage; Achievement of Sustainable Development Goal 4 which calls for inclusive, quality
education and lifelong learning for all as.
• Introduced by UNESCO on 17 November 1999.
• Formal acknowledgment by the United Nations General Assembly in 2002.
History:
• 21 February 1952:Bengalis in the then-Pakistani province of East Bengal (now Bangladesh) advocated for the
recognition of their mother tongue, Bengali; demanded Bangla to be at least one of the national languages, in
addition to Urdu.
• The demand was raised first by Dhirendranath Datta from East Pakistan on 23 February 1948, in the constituent
Assembly of Pakistan.
51. MADHIKA LANGUAGE IN KERALA

IS ON THE BRINK OF EXTINCTION
• Has no script of its own.
• Latst two speakers belong to the Chakaliya community.
• Influences: Blend of Telugu, Tulu, Kannada, and Malayalam. The language shows greater influence of Havyaka
Kannada (an old form of Kannada).
• Pushed into neglect by Malayalam (dominating language).
• Social stigma associated with the Chakaliya community led to the neglect; Chakaliya community in northern
Malabar region, migrated from the hilly regions of Karnataka; initially recognised as a Scheduled Tribe, but was
later included in the Scheduled caste category in Kerala.
52. DEMAND TO OFFICIALLY LIST BENGALI AS A ‘CLASSICAL

LANGUAGE’
• The Chief Minister have highlighted the historical roots of Bengali, citing scientific research conducted by the
state team, which traces the language's origins back 2,500 years.
BENGALI LANGUAGE AND ITS EVOLUTION

• An Indo-Aryan language indigenous to the Bengal region in South Asia.
• Second most spoken language in India, holds the seventh position globally in terms of speakers.
• Ancient times: Magadhi Prakrit evolved into Ardha Magadhi and eventually into Apabhraṃsa, leading to the
distinct evolution of the Bengali language.
• Medieval period: Islamic influence in Bengal; Bengal gained prominence over Persian in the court of the
Sultans of Bengal; Bengali adopted many Arabic and Persian words; court support diminished with the
Mughal Empire's conquest of Bengal in the late 16th century.
• Modern period: literary form of Bengali took shape; vocabulary of modern Bengali is influenced by Magadhi
Prakrit, Pali, Sanskrit, and borrowings from Persian, Arabic, Austroasiatic languages.
• Christian missionaries played a role in the development of Bengali literature.
• First Bengali book to be printed: ‘Dom Antonio's Brahmin-Roman-Catholic-Sambad,’ (late 17th century).
• Bankim Chandra Chatterjee: reminder of the Sannyasi Rebellion (1770-77) in novels Anandamath (1882)
and Devi Chaudhurani (1884); wrote the first romantic Bengali novel, 'Durgeshnandini,' in 1865; composed

'Vande Mataram’. Notable literary figures like Girishchandra Ghosh, Devendranath Tagore, Ishwarchandra
Vidyasagar refined Bengali literature through their works.
• Rabindranath Tagore: wrote India's national anthem, 'Jana Gana Mana,' and Bangladesh's 'Amar Shonar
Bangla,’.
CLASSICAL LANGUAGE STATUS

• The Republic of India officially designated six languages as Classical languages.
• Government established criteria for conferring the status of a ‘Classical Language,’ a decision implemented by
the Ministry of Culture in collaboration with the Linguistic Experts' Committee.
• Linguistic Experts' Committee evaluates requests for classifying languages as Classical Languages.
• All the Classical Languages are listed in the Eighth Schedule of the Constitution.
CRITERIA
• High antiquity of its early texts or a recorded history spanning 1500–2000 years.
• A body of ancient literature or texts considered valuable heritage by successive generations of speakers.
• Originality of the literary tradition, not borrowed from another speech community.
• Distinctiveness between the classical language and literature from its modern counterparts, potentially
involving a discontinuity.
LANGUAGES GRANTED CLASSICAL LANGUAGE STATUS

• 2004: Tamil recognized as a classical language
• 2005: Sanskrit was officially recognized.
• 2008: Telugu achieved official recognition.
• 2008: Kannada gained the status.
• 2013: Malayalam was recognized.
• 2014: Odia was accorded the status.
 PROTECTING HERITAGE AND CULTURE OF INDIA
53. UNITED NATIONS EDUCATIONAL, SCIENTIFIC AND

CULTURAL ORGANIZATION
A) THREE NEW SITES HAVE BEEN ADDED TO TENTATIVE LIST OF UNESCO: VADNAGAR,
UNAKOTI AND MODHERA SUN TEMPLE.
ABOUT VADNAGAR
• Ancient town of Vadnagar with Sharmishtha Lake located in Gujarat.
• Multi-layered and multi-cultural mercantile settlement with its history stretching back to nearly 8th Century BCE.
• Last ruling dynasty of this place was the Gaekwad.
• Architectural:
o Single storey stone structural gateways (arch form).
o Most of these gateways belong to the 11-12th century.
o Pattern of land use is urban.
o Oldest temple of the city is Amba ji Mata temple belonging to 11th century.
o Hatkeshwar Temple: 17th century temple of Lord Shiva (shows Solankis ornate style)
o Sharmishtha Lake: it has water from the Kapila river.

ABOUT UNAKOTI
• Location: Tripura
• Famous for its colossal rock cut panels depicting Hindu deities.
• Evidence of ancient Saiva worship in Tripura from 8th-9th centuries CE.
• Bas-relief sculptures at Unakoti are on stylistic grounds ascribed to 8th to 9thcentury CE, to period of Pre-
Manikya rule.
• Features:
o Three new sites have been added to tentative list of UNESCO.
o There are three kundas (religious ponds); sacred to religious practices under Brahmanical Hinduism; are part
of the annual Ashokashtomi Mela (fair) held at Unakoti.
o Colossal rock-cut image of Shiva is about 30 feet in height, portrayed with third eye vertically on forehead
and the other two eyes indicated with double incised lines without any pupils.
ABOUT MODHERA SUN TEMPLE
• Location: Backdrop of River Pushpavati (Gujarat).
• Built: during the reign of Bhima I of the Chaulukya dynasty or Solanki Dynasty (in 1026-27 CE)
• Unique features:
o Built in the Maru-Gurjara style.
o Guḍhamanḍapa, complex has the three shrine hall; Sabhamanḍapa, the assembly hall and Kunḍa, the
reservoir.
o Magnificent kund known as the Ramakund, built in rectangular shape containing 108 shrines.
o It has a ‘Sabha Mandap’ or the assembly hall.
o Twelve Sun representations carved on the pillars represent the sun according to the twelve months.
B) TENTATIVE LIST OF WORLD HERITAGE SITES, UNESCO

• States Parties are encouraged to submit their Tentative Lists, properties which they consider to be cultural
and/or natural heritage of outstanding universal value and therefore suitable for inscription on the World
Heritage List.
• States Parties should submit Tentative Lists, which should not be considered exhaustive, to World Heritage
Centre, at least one year before the submission of any nomination.
• States Parties are encouraged to re-examine and re-submit their Tentative List at least every ten years.
• Nominations to World Heritage List will not be considered unless the nominated property has already been
included on the State Party's Tentative List.
• World Heritage Convention, 1972, guides the work of World Heritage Committee. This committee is responsible
for the selection and recommendation of World Heritage sites.
• The convention defines which sites which can be considered for inscription on World Heritage List, sets out
duties of each country's governments to identify potential sites and to protect and preserve them.
• The convention also sets out how World Heritage Fund is to be used and managed.
• DIFFERENCE BETWEEN A WORLD HERITAGE SITE & TENTATIVE LIST
o A World Heritage Site is a place that is listed by UNESCO for its special cultural or physical significance.
o The list of World Heritage Sites is maintained by the international ‘World Heritage Programme’, administered
by the UNESCO World Heritage Committee.
o To get its heritage site considered for inscription on the World Heritage List, the country makes an inventory
of important natural and cultural heritage sites located within its boundaries.
o This ‘inventory’ is known as the Tentative List.
o Making it to the tentative list thus is the first step for any site which seeks final nomination for becoming a
World Heritage site.

C) ABOUT UNESCO INTANGIBLE CULTURAL HERITAGE LIST

• UNESCO initiated the compilation of its Intangible Cultural Heritage lists with the objective of enhancing the
protection of significant intangible cultural heritages globally.
• In 2003, the Convention for Safeguarding of the Intangible Cultural Heritage took places and the list was
established in 2008.
• The Intergovernmental Committee for the Safeguarding of Intangible Cultural Heritage, publishes this list.
• Intangible Cultural Heritage refers to the practices, representations, expressions, knowledge, skills, as well as
the tools, objects, and artifacts associated with them, recognized by communities, groups, and, in some
instances, individuals as integral components of their cultural heritage.
• INTANGIBLE CULTURAL HERITAGE – or ‘living heritage’:
o Inherited from our ancestors and passed on to our descendants.
o Includes oral traditions, performing arts, social practices, rituals and festive events, knowledge and practices
concerning nature and the universe, and the knowledge and skills related to craftsmanship.
o t is continuously recreated as it is transmitted from generation to generation, and evolves in response to our
environment.
• Three lists:
o List of Intangible Cultural Heritage of Humanity
o List of Intangible Cultural Heritage in Need of Urgent Safeguarding
o The third list is the Register of Good Safeguarding Practices.
LIST OF CULTURAL ITEMS FROM INDIA ON UNESCO’S REPRESENTATIVE LIST OF THE INTANGIBLE CULTURAL
HERITAGE OF HUMANITY:
• Koodiyattam (Sanskrit theatre), included in 2008- Kerala
• Ramlila, included in 2008- Uttar Pradesh
• The Tradition in Vedic chanting, included in 2008
• Ramman, included in 2009, Uttarakhand
• Mudiyettu, included in 2010, Kerala
• Kalbelia, included in 2010, Rajasthan
• Chhau, included in 2010, Odisha, Jharkhand and West Bengal
• Buddhist Chanting of Ladakh, included in 2012
• Sankirtana, included in 2013, Manipur
• Traditional Brass and Copper craft of Utensil making among the Thatheras of Jandiala Guru in Punjab, included
in 2014
• Yoga, included in 2016
• Navroz included in 2016
• Kumbh Mela added in 2017
• Durga Puja, added in Kolkata, 2021
• Garba, included in 2023, Gujarat.
D)UNESCO CREATIVE CITIES NETWORK

Gwalior in Madhya Pradesh and Kozhikode in Kerala have recently been added in the list of UNESCO’s Creative
Cities Network in the ‘City of Music’ and ‘City of Literature’ categories, respectively.
• Bringing the total count to seven cities listed on UNESCO Creative Cities Network (UCCN) in India.
• Existing Indian cities on the UCCN roster comprise Srinagar, recognized for Crafts and Folk Arts in 2021, Mumbai
for Film in 2019, Hyderabad for Gastronomy in 2019, Chennai for Music in 2017, Jaipur for Crafts and Folk Arts
in 2015, and Varanasi for Music in 2015.

ABOUT UNESCO CREATIVE CITIES NETWORK

• Creative Cities Network (UCCN), established in 2004, serves as a collaborative platform for cities that recognize
creativity as a pivotal element in achieving sustainable urban development.
• Cities within this network unite with shared goal of placing creativity and cultural industries at the forefront of
their local development plans.
• It is aligned with Sustainable Development Goal 11, which targets Sustainable Cities and Communities.
• HOW CITIES ARE SELECTED?
o UNESCO Creative Cities Network (UCCN) invites cities from UNESCO's member states and associate members
to participate in the designation process.
o Efforts are made to encourage applications from under-represented regions, with a particular focus on Africa
and Arab States.
o This initiative aims to enhance the geographical diversity of the Network.
o Cities that have submitted applications in two consecutive calls without receiving designation are required
to observe a moratorium of four years before presenting a new application.
o This ensures a fair and dynamic selection process.
SEVEN CREATIVE FIELDS ARE

1. Acknowledging traditional craftsmanship and preserving indigenous artistic heritage.
2. Advocating for design innovation, planning, development. and fostering sustainable
3. Commemorating cinematic excellence, embracing cultural diversity, and storytelling through the medium of
film.
4. Showcasing culinary traditions, emphasizing food heritage, and promoting sustainable gastronomic practices.
5. Cultivating literary exchange, encouraging a reading culture, and nurturing linguistic diversity.
6. Embracing digital creativity, fostering multimedia innovation, and advancing technological aspects in the arts.
7. Celebrating musical diversity, preserving cultural heritage, and advocating for music education and
performance.
(a)Evolution of Gwalior, as a ‘City of Music’:
• Gwalior Gharana is distinguished by its simplicity, favouring well-known ragas and emphasizing ‘sapaat taans’.
• During the 15th century, under Raja Man Singh Tomar's patronage, the Gwalior gharana, flourished.
• Man Singh, inheriting his great grandfather Dungarendra Singh Tomar's musical legacy, not only revived Indian
classical music but also popularised Dhrupad style of singing.
• He authored a book named as Mankautuhal. This was translated into Persian in 1673 by Faquirullah by the
name, ‘Raga Darpan’. Man Singh replaced Sanskrit songs with those in simple Hindi, fostering a broader
understanding of high art.
• Khayal singing, a prominent feature today, evolved from dhrupad under the Gwalior gharana, blending
elements of qawwali.
• ABOUT TANSEN
o Became the court poet of Raja Man Singh of Gwalior. Raja Man Singh renamed Ramtanu as Tansen.
o Trained under Swami Haridas and later became a court musician for King Ram Chandra Singh of Rewa.
o Akbar conferred the title of ‘Mian’ to Tansen; Tansen was one of the nine Navratnas of court of Akbar.
o Tansen is remembered for his mastery in Dhrupad style of musical composition and creating several new
ragas.
o Books authored by Tansen: Sri Ganesh Stotra and Sangita Sara.
(b)Kozhikode as the ‘City of Literature’:

• Kozhikode became India's first City of Literature.

• Kozhikode holds the distinction of being the birthplace of the first Malayalam novel, Kundalatha, penned by
Appu Nedungadi in 1887.
• Cities like Thiruvananthapuram, Thrissur, and Kottayam, the first 100% literate town in India, also celebrate
literary tradition.
54. ENCROACHMENTS AROUND CENTRALLY PROTECTED

MONUMENT
India has a total of 3,695 Centrally Protected Monuments or Sites in the country, under the protection of the
Archaeological Survey of India (ASI).
PROCESS OF IDENTIFICATION OF AN ENCROACHED SITE

• When an encroachment is noticed by field office of Archaeological Survey of India, FIR is lodged with the local
police followed by Show Cause Notice by Archaeological Survey of India to the offender.
• Action is initiated under Public Premises (Eviction of Unauthorised occupants) Act, 1971, wherever applicable.
NATIONAL MONUMENTS AUTHORITY

• A statutory body under Ministry of Culture, Government of India.
• Set up as per provisions of Ancient Monuments and Archaeological Sites and Remains or AMASR Act, 1958
(amended in 2010).
• Categorize all protected monuments and protected areas declared as of National importance as per AMASR act
1958.
• Make recommendations to Central Government for grading and classifying protected monuments and
protected areas.
55. GATEWAY OF INDIA AND CENTRALLY PROTECTED

MONUMENTS
• Gateway of India is located in Mumbai’s southern coast and does not fall under the purview of the
Archaeological Survey of India.
• It is a Triumphal Arch structure that showcases the Indo-Islamic architecture of Gujarat and Indo Saracenic style.
• Its architect is George Wittet.
• It was erected to commemorate the landing of King Emperor George V, the first British monarch to visit India,
in December 1911 at Strand Road near Wellington Fountain.
• The Gateway is also the monument from where the last British troops left India in 1948.
• It is not a centrally protected monument.
WHAT IS A CENTRALLY PROTECTED MONUMENT?

• Sites which have been declared so under the provisions of the Ancient Monuments and Archaeological Sites
and Remains Act, 1958 (AMASR Act).
• Sites and remains declared by the Ancient and Historical Monuments and Archaeological Sites and Remains
(Declaration of National Importance) Act, 1951, or by section 126 of the States Reorganization Act, 1956 to be
of national importance shall also be deemed to be protected areas for the purposes of this Act.
• AHMAR act is different from the Ancient Monuments and Archaeological Sites and Remains Act, 1958 as the
latter one provides preservation while the previous one recognises a site.
• All functions related centrally protected areas come under the Archaeological Survey of India.
• Any construction activity around such monuments is regulated by the National Monument Authority.

ARCHAEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF INDIA

• First systematic research into the subcontinent’s history was conducted by the Asiatic Society, which was
founded by the British Indologist William Jones in January 1784.
• Most important achievement: decipherment of the Brahmi script by James Prinsep in 1837.
• Archaeological Survey of India was eventually formed in 1861 by a statute passed into law by Lord Canning with
Alexander Cunningham as the first Archaeological Surveyor.
• Present Status:
o The Archaeological Survey of India is an attached office of the Ministry of Culture.
o Under the provisions of the AMASR Act of 1958, the ASI administers ancient monuments, archaeological sites
and remains of national importance.
• The ASI is headed by a Director General who is assisted by an Additional Director General, two Joint Directors
General, and 17 Directors.
56. ABOUT INTACH

• Indian National Trust for Art and Cultural Heritage (INTACH) is organisation a non-profit charitable registered
under the Societies Registration Act, 1860.
• ‘It achieved Special Consultative status with the United Nations Economic and Social Council was awarded in
2007.
• INTACH was established in 1984 in New Delhi with the goal of establishing a membership organisation to
promote and lead heritage awareness and conservation in India.
• INTACH has been a leader in the conservation and safeguarding of India's natural and cultural heritage since
1984.
• Developed Raghurajpur, Odisha, India, as a heritage village known for its master 'Pattachitra' artists and
'Gotipua' dance troupes.
57. DHORDO IS RECOGNISED AS A BEST TOURISM VILLAGE

United Nations World Tourism Organisation has included Dhordo village in the list of ‘Best Tourism Village’.
ABOUT DHORDO
• Located in the Banni region within the Rann of Kutch, Gujarat.
• Known for round housed ‘bhungas’.
• Renowned for hosting the three-month long Rann Utsav, a cultural celebration that highlights the traditional
art, music, and crafts of the region.
ABOUT BEST TOURISM VILLAGES INITIATIVE

• Introduced in 2021, the UNWTO's Best Tourism Villages initiative is an integral component of the UNWTO
Tourism for Rural Development Programme.
• This program is dedicated to fostering development and inclusivity in rural regions, countering depopulation,
promoting innovation, enhancing value chain integration through tourism, and advocating sustainable
practices.
• Villages are assessed across nine essential areas:
o Cultural and Natural Resources
o Promotion and Preservation of Cultural Resources
o Economic Viability
o Social Viability
o Environmental Sustainability
o Tourism Advancement and Integration of Value Chains

o Governance and Prioritization of Tourism o Infrastructure and Connectivity
o Health, Safety, and Security
ABOUT UNWTO
• United Nations World Tourism Organization (UNWTO) is a specialized agency of the United Nations dedicated
to promoting responsible, sustainable, and universally accessible tourism.
• Headquarters: Madrid, Spain.
• It takes the lead in shaping tourism policies and offers support while serving as a global platform for tourism
policy discussions and a valuable source of tourism research and knowledge
58. BIHAR TO DEVELOP SITA’S BIRTHPLACE

The Bihar Government has unveiled a new initiative to enhance the development of Punaura Dham in Sitamarhi,
the revered birthplace of Goddess Sita.
ABOUT RAMAYANA CIRCUIT

• The Ministry of Tourism's Swadesh Darshan scheme aims to develop fifteen thematic circuits, with the
Ramayana Circuit being one of them.
• This particular circuit focuses on enhancing tourism in key destinations associated with the Ramayana epic.
• The fifteen identified destinations for development within the Ramayana Circuit theme include:
o Ayodhya, Nandigram, Shringverpur, and Chitrakoot in Uttar Pradesh
o Sitamarhi, Buxar, and Darbhanga in Bihar
o Chitrakoot in Madhya Pradesh
o Mahendragiri in Odisha
o Jagdalpur in Chattisgarh
o Nashik and Nagpur in Maharashtra
o Bhadrachalam in Telangana
o Hampi in Karnataka
o Rameshwaram in Tamil Nadu

IAS Compass - Current Affairs Compilation For Prelims 2024 - History Culture

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CONTENTS

ANCIENT HISTORY OF INDIA 5

MEDIEVAL HISTORY OF INDIA 27

MODERN HISTORY & POST INDEPENDENCE 59

ART & CULTURE OF INDIA 81

SIGNIFICANCE OF RATNAGIRI’S PREHISTORIC ROCK ART

OTHER PETROGLYPHS SITES IN INDIA

2. BHIMBETKA PRE-HISTORIC CAVES

RAU’S IAS PRELIMS COMPASS 2024 | HISTORY & CULTURE 5

3. PALAEOLITHIC TOOL DISCOVERY ADDS TO

GEOGRAPHICAL SETTINGS IN INDIAN SUBCONTINENT

PALAEOLITHIC PHASE IN INDIA

LOWER PALAEOLITHIC PHASE: Soanian tradition and Acheulian Cultural tradition.

KEY LOWER PALAEOLITHIC SITES:

RAU’S IAS PRELIMS COMPASS 2024 | HISTORY & CULTURE 6

• Attirampakkam in Tamil Nadu, an in-situ Acheulian site

MIDDLE PALAEOLITHIC PHASE

UPPER PALAEOLITHIC PHASE

EARLY NEOLITHIC CULTURES & BEGINNING OF AGRICULTURE

POTTERY OF THE NEOLITHIC PERIOD

RAU’S IAS PRELIMS COMPASS 2024 | HISTORY & CULTURE 7

• Painted ornamentation observed mostly in the Middle Neolithic period.

5. NEW IVC CEMETERY DISCOVERED AT KUTCH REGION OF

ABOUT KHATIYA CEMETERY

EARLY HARAPPAN PHASE

RAU’S IAS PRELIMS COMPASS 2024 | HISTORY & CULTURE 8

6. MEGALITHIC CULTURE IN INDIA

WHAT ARE MEGALITHS?

MEGALITHIC CULTURE OF INDIA

BURIAL RITUALS AND SOCIAL ORGANISATION

ERECTION OF MEGALITHS BY SOME INDIAN TRIBES

7. KEELADI ARCHAEOLOGICAL SITE

LINKED TO SANGAM AGE

LINKS TO INDUS VALLEY

RAU’S IAS PRELIMS COMPASS 2024 | HISTORY & CULTURE 9

8. PM RECALLS THE NOBLE TEACHINGS OF BHAGWAN

CAUSES OF INTELLECTUAL AWAKENING

JAINISM (Vardhamana Mahavira’s sect)

RAU’S IAS PRELIMS COMPASS 2024 | HISTORY & CULTURE 10

o Rejects the authority of the Jain Agama compiled by Sthulabhadra.

Headed by Resulted into final

THREE GEMS: Three principles called Triratnas

RAU’S IAS PRELIMS COMPASS 2024 | HISTORY & CULTURE 11

FIVE TYPES OF KNOWLEDGE

SYADVADA/ANEKANTAVADA THEORY IN JAINISM

JAIN COMMUNITY HAS SURVIVED TEST OF THE TIME

9. 11TH CENTURY JAIN SCULPTURES DISCOVERED IN

RAU’S IAS PRELIMS COMPASS 2024 | HISTORY & CULTURE 12

JAIN ART AND ARCHITECTURE

10. INDIA TO HOST MAIDEN GLOBAL BUDDHIST SUMMIT

BASIC DETAILS OF BUDDHA

PLACES VISITED BY BUDDHA

RAU’S IAS PRELIMS COMPASS 2024 | HISTORY & CULTURE 13

• Uruvela: attained enlightenment; event is known as Sambodhi.

RAU’S IAS PRELIMS COMPASS 2024 | HISTORY & CULTURE 14

• Mahasanghik’ s main centre was in Magadha.

PROMINENT SECTS OF BUDDHISM

RAU’S IAS PRELIMS COMPASS 2024 | HISTORY & CULTURE 15

• Patronised by Emperor Kanishka of Kushana dynasty in 1st century AD.

BODDHISATVAS IN MAHAYANA BUDDHISM

RAU’S IAS PRELIMS COMPASS 2024 | HISTORY & CULTURE 16

BUDDHISM AND WOMEN

REASONS FOR DECLINE OF BUDDHISM