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Failure analysis of localized corrosion in sour environments in discharge lines of

hydrocarbon wells

Article in NACE - International Corrosion Conference Series · January 2015

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 Failure analysis of localized corrosion in sour environments in discharge lines of hydrocarbon
wells

Irene Carrillo Salgado Jorge Cantó Ibáñez

Corrosión y Protección Corrosión y Protección
Rio Nazas 6 Vista Hermosa Río Nazas 6 Vista Hermosa
Cuernavaca, Morelos, 62290 Cuernavaca, Morelos, 62290
México México

Paul Gomez Font Carlos Alberto Reyes

Pemex, Activo de Producción Veracruz Pemex, Activo de Producción Veracruz
Av. Urano 420, Módulo “H”, Col. Ylang Ylang, Av. Urano 420, Módulo “H”, Col. Ylang Ylang,
Boca del Río, Veracruz, 94298 Boca del Río, Veracruz, 94298
México México

ABSTRACT

The production and transport of sour oil and gas always imply a risk of material damage and shutdown
due to CO 2 /H 2 S corrosion, especially localized co
rrosion attack. In sour systems, the localized corrosion of carbon steel has become a progressively
greater concern to the oil and gas industry as a result of production from increasingly H 2 S
environments. The increased knowledge of localized corrosion mechanisms is necessary to develop
efficient methods for prediction and mitigation. This paper describes a case history of a pipeline failure
that resulted in a leak in a discharge line from a hydrocarbon well in an oilfield in southern Mexico. The
physicochemical composition of the fluid was characterized “on site” by colorimetric techniques. The
sample fluid was taken directly from an access nipple on the well. The corroded metal was placed in an
inert medium and taken immediately to the laboratory. Characterization analyses of the corrosion
products and layer on the metal’s surface were carried out by scanning electronic microscopy coupled
to X-ray dispersive energy and X-ray diffractive systems. The microstructure of the base metal was
then analyzed. The morphology of the attack and the layers of corrosion products formed around the
area of failure were analyzed. A mechanism was proposed involving the effect of H 2 S correlated with
the water cut, salt content, and operative conditions of the discharge line. The material analysis of the
microstructure indicated that the material complied with the requirements for sour media services. The
final results showed that the pipeline suffered localized corrosion at six-o’clock position due to deposit-
accelerated corrosion.

Key words: H 2 S, sour media, hydrocarbon, localized corrosion

 INTRODUCTION

Oil wells, which produce liquid hydrocarbon and water, normally also present dissolved corrosive
gases, especially carbon dioxide (CO 2 ) and hydrogen sulfide (H 2 S). The internal corrosion of mild steel
in the presence of H 2 S represents a significant problem for the oil and gas industry.1-3 Sour corrosion,
as it is known, involves the deterioration of metal due to contact with H 2 S and moisture, which forms
corrosion products containing iron sulfide. Deterioration in the presence of H 2 S can also be related to
cracking susceptibility. Although H 2 S is not by itself corrosive, it becomes a severely corrosive agent in
the presence of water,4-6 leading to pitting corrosion that can propitiate pipeline embrittlement.7-8 In sour
systems, the localized corrosion of carbon steel has progressively become a greater concern to the oil
and gas industry as a result of increased production from H 2 S environments.

The corrosion rate of a well producing water, CO 2 , and H 2 S depends on many factors, including the
concentration of CO 2 /H 2 S, the pressure and temperature of the system, the presence of solids, the
properties of the flake corrosion product, the phase behavior and the flow rate, the pH of the medium,
the characteristics of the material, and the concentrations of various inorganic ions in the water in the
formation. The severity of corrosion in wells and its economic impact on the production of oil and gas
have motivated extensive theoretical and experimental research worldwide as well as field observations
focused on CO 2 and H 2 S corrosion.

In February 2014, a leak emerged on a discharge line in a well on the south coast of México with sour
liquid hydrocarbon, water, and a low rate of gas transport. The location of the leak was found about 10
meters before the hydrocarbon collection head, in a land platform, before the pig launcher of the
transport pipeline. The pipeline was constructed in 2011. The infrastructure of the land platform was
tested with a hydrostatic pressure test at 500 psi (35.15 Kgf/cm2), and the operating pressure of the
discharge line was 130 psi (9.13 Kgf/cm2), with a temperature of 30 ̊C, a production of 390 bpd, and
30% of connate water. The pipeline was made of UNS G10180 alloy and, the historical data indicate, it
had undergone heat treatment so that it could be used in sour media. The diameter was 4 inches
(0.1016 m), and the pipeline was 65 meters in length from the wellhead to the collection head. The leak
was located at six-o’clock position in a straight pipeline section, 10 meters before the pipeline arrived at
the bayonet head collection. This means the leak occurred at a place that had constant contact with the
accumulated water phase. The specimen and the fluid were characterized.

EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE

Sample liquid and solids were collected during the containment of the leak and after the damaged
section was changed. The waste fluid was analyzed in situ by colorimetric techniques9-12 to determine
the physicochemical characterization (pH; concentration of soluble gases H 2 S, CO 2 , and O 2 ; presence
of Fe, Mn, Cl, and SO 4 ; conductivity; and microbiological activity including sulfate-reducing bacteria,
(RB), and acid-producing bacteria, (APB) of the aqueous phase of the well fluid. These colorimetric
techniques were developed in situ by calibrated reactive kits, a field photometer, a field conductimeter,
and a pH meter. Microbiological activity was measured according to NACE TM0194-200413 using
decimal dilution inoculation. The qualitative presence of sulfur and carbonates in the collected solids
was also tested in situ by the hydrochloric acid and lead acetate method.12

The damaged section was cut and analyzed to determine the root cause of failure. The specimen was
carefully carried to the laboratory in inert media. The failure’s dimensions, location, relationship with the
flow profile, and attack morphology were analyzed by scanning electron microscopy (SEM). The alloy
steel of the pipeline was UNS G. The microstructure was studied by the metallographic method, 14.
Corrosion products characterization around the pitting and defects was performed by using a scanning
electron microscope coupled to energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy. Corrosion products under
deposition were characterized by X-ray diffraction (XRD).
 RESULTS

Figure 1 shows the location of the leak on the cut section of the pipeline. The hole is located at the
six-o’clock position, the lowest point of the pipe, where the media normally is in the aqueous phase.
The pore was 1.4 inches (355.6 mm) long. The coating presented low mechanical strength and multiple
defects.

Flow direction

Leak

Leak

Figure 1: Leak located at six-o’clock in the discharge line.

Figure 2 shows the piece after the oil adhered to the walls was removed. Multiple defects in a variety of
sizes were revealed throughout the metal.

Flow direction

Figure 2: Internal view of the pipeline after cleaning.

Evidence of localized corrosion was found on the area surrounding the perforation. The revealed pits
presented deposits of corrosion products covering most defects. The attack morphology was deduced
from observation of the geometric pattern of the pitting, with long, elliptical and parabolic pits in the flow
direction.

Physicochemical characterization of the transported fluid

The results of the physicochemical characterization of the liquid sample and the presence of sulfur and
carbonates in the solids are described in Table 1. The high H 2 S content comes from the reservoir,
since it is well-known as a sour hydrocarbon well. Nevertheless, sulfides are also formed by the activity
of sulphate-reducing bacteria (SRB) from the injected water. The sulfate content promotes SRB
microbiological activity.15-17 The microbiological activity of SRB and acid-producing bacteria (APB) are
described in Figure 3.
 Table 1: Results of the aqueous fluid characterization in situ.
pH H2S CO 2 O2 Fe Mn Cl SO 4 Alkalinity Conductivity Sulfur Carbonates
ppm ppm pbm ppm ppm ppm ppm ppm µS/cm
7* 12.5 100 <1 24.85 5.65 15000 245 700 4150 positive positive
* pH was re-calculated from the physicochemical conditions with internal corrosion software, Predict v. 6.0

The high concentrations of H 2 S, CO 2 , and chlorides, as well as the high conductivity of the aqueous
phase, promote internal corrosion in pipelines. It was observed and previously reported18 that, in pure
H 2 S corrosion of mild steel, dissolved Fe2+ concentration had no significant effect on either the
corrosion rate or the iron-sulfide scale retention rate. However, in the presence of chlorides and in
CO 2 /H 2 S systems, the corrosion rate increases significantly.18,20 Alkalinity was recorded at 700 ppm.
With this value and under the operating conditions (pH 7 and 30̊C), carbonate scales can be
promoted.21 Carbonate scales often include calcium and magnesium along with iron carbonate
corrosion products. This process consumes CO 3 2-, which alters the pH as the corrosion reaction
progresses; as HCO 3 - is produced, the pH is shifted to alkaline.22 It was previously reported that, in
H 2 S-CO 2 -H 2 O systems, this pH shift could result in a change in the controlling corrosion reaction, from
ionic Fe2 corrosion products to deposited FeS.22,23 The precipitation of carbonates and the film of
corrosion products can promote corrosion under the film, which also could favor microbiologically
induced corrosion.24
Ucf /ml

Figure 3: APB and SRB microbiological activity.

The microbiological measurements indicated high SRB activity. Measured concentrations above 1000
ucf/ml are considered severe.13 Contamination with sulfate-reducing bacteria in media with high
concentrations of H 2 S promotes rapid growth of bacterial colonies. According to BJ Little,24 there may
be a synergy between sulfate-reducing bacteria, the production of acid, and the contribution of chloride
ions. These conditions favor microbiological growth.

Analysis by scanning electron microscope with energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy

The well discharge line produces 390 bpd of oil, with 30% connate water and 0.03 mmpcd gas. The
connate water percentage represents significant water content in contact with the metal walls of the
pipeline. This condition can trigger multiple corrosive processes in the presence of the chemical
species mentioned. As shown in Table 1, the water source is rich in a wide variety of dissolved gases,
salts, and microbiological activity. Sour corrosion has been reported from 4 ppm of soluble H 2 S, 25 and
H 2 S pressure partials greater than 0.05 psi (0.0035 Kgf/cm2), ate the possibility of embrittlement.26

The set of defects found in the metallic sample suggest a pattern in morphology and location. Most of
the damage was located on a horizontal line along the six-o’clock position, with elliptical, parabolic
pitting. This pattern results from the tendency of the water phase to be in the bottom of the pipeline,
according with its higher density compared to the oil and gas phase. To perform a microstructural
analysis, the area where the failure occurred was sectioned. The direction of the flow was from M1 to
M2. Metallographic cross sectioning was used to determine if the microstructure of the base metal
could have contributed to the failure.
Figure 4: Photograph of the failed section showing cross-section for metallographic analyses.

Figure 5 shows the M1 morphology analysis: a micrograph in the area of the failure revealing a hole of
2.84 mm width and 3.25 mm length. Elemental chemical characterization was carried out by EDS in
areas with scale and sediment.

Figure 5: Micrography of M1 at 37X.

The boundaries of the perforated area were viewed at high magnification. This observation revealed the
presence of small areas where corrosion mechanisms were initiated. The cavities shown on Figure 6
suggested the influence of a combination of factors: high content of salts, H 2 S, and corrosion induced
by microorganisms. The morphology of the attacks under these conditions was described in the work of
BJ Little related to microbiological damage of pipelines.24

Figure 5: Damage morphology seen with SEM. Micrograph at 100X (left) and 250X (right).
Sediments and corrosion products in the M1 zone were analyzed by EDS (Figure 6).

Figure 6: Sediments and scale area, micrograph at 24X.

Figures 7 and 8 show the deposits and the results of EDS. Characterization analysis indicated mainly
the presence of oxygen, carbon, iron, sulfur, and chlorides.

Wt. %
O: 38.45
C: 32.65
Fe: 21.04
S: 2.36
Cl: 1.48

Figure 7: Micrograph showing a region with deposits at 100x (left) and 250X (right).

Figure 8: EDS spectrum of the Figure 7 zone.

According to the EDS spectrum of M1 (Figure 8), the identified high content of iron, carbon, and oxygen
involve corrosion products. Substantial soluble H 2 S was detected in the aqueous phase when the well
product was sampled. H 2 S dissociation in the aqueous phase depends on pH and on minor gradations
in temperature. It has been reported that the HS- anion is the predominant specie from 6.5 to 8.8 pH.22
When HS- anions become sufficiently concentrated, they can manifest themselves in the cathodic and
anodic processes.27 When dissolved in water, hydrogen sulfide is a weak acid; it is therefore a source of
hydrogen ions and is corrosive. The resulting corrosion products are iron sulfides (Fe y S x ) and
hydrogen. The evolved hydrogen can interact with internal surfaces, such as grain boundaries and
voids, to embrittle the metal,28 causing various modes of degradation to the material properties. For this
reason, in sour media, the metal is usually treated to relieve residual stresses and control the hardness
below the acceptable level for sour service, in accordance with NACE MR-0175/ISO-15156.26

Iron sulfide forms a scale that, at low temperatures, can act as a barrier to slow corrosion.21,27
Nevertheless, at the temperature of this system, iron sulfide and iron carbonate are non-protective
films. At high temperature and in chloride media, iron sulfide and iron carbonate layers are unstable;
corrosion rates increase with temperature.29 Within the same area (Figure 7), chlorine and sodium
were identified (alluding to the chlorides’ presence). The high concentration of chlorides promote
localized corrosion, mainly pitting-type corrosion on the metal surface,19,30 while the presence of sulfur
indicates the formation of iron sulfides.

Figure 9: M2 sample. Cavity interface and the flat area. Micrograph at 13X (left) and 100X (right).

Figure 9 shows the leak hole at six-o´clock. The cavity is a smooth surface, while the outer area shows
more marked damage and roughness. The interface between the cavity and the outside is shown in
Figure 10. As can clearly be seen, in the M1 and M2 zones, the same mechanisms formed micro-pits
and micro-cavities.

The cavities were observed at 500X (Figure 10). The combinations of deposits, salts, carbonate
precipitations, and high H 2 S and SO 4 2- content24 promotes a favorable environment for the proliferation
of bacteria, noting that H 2 S is also a byproduct of SRB metabolic activity. Sulfates and iron are part of
the SRB diet.15 Under deposits, the bacteria are likely to find good shelter, mainly in the zones of
accumulated water at six-o´clock in the pipeline.
.

Figure 10: M2 sample. Interface cavity micrograph at 500X.

The measured failure of M2 is 5.53 mm wide and 3.165 mm long (Figure 11). The entire leak hole has a
width of 5.53 mm and a length of 6.41 mm. The zone around the pit initiation shows a similar attack
morphology to that inside of the pits. This is typical of a microorganism corrosion attack.24,31,32 Even
though it was highly localized damage, the corrosion mechanisms were active in the same way in both
the M1 and M2 zones.
 Figure 11: M2 sample. Limits of the pit initiation, micrographs at 24X, 100 X, and 500X,
respectively.

Metallography

According to NRF-001-PEMEX†-201333 (which also makes reference to NACE-0775/ISO-15156)

regulations, pipeline materials must meet the materials specifications for sour-service pipelines. In
order to verify these specifications in this instance, the material microstructure of different zones was
analyzed by the metallographic method.

a) b)

Figure 12: a) Typical microstructure of UNS G10180 steel. b) Metallography of the cross-section
of metal away from the failure (75µm).

The Figure 12 shows a comparison between the typical microstructure of (a) UNS G10180 steel14 and
(b) the steel of the discharge line involved here. Micrograph (a) shows a ferritic-pearlitic microstructure.
The ferrite grains are clearly delimited by the pearlite phase. Micrograph (b) shows different phase
geometry, where the pearlitic phase is decreased while the ferrite phase has a homogenate structural
arrangement. These features are visible when the material has been subjected to annealing and
treated to make the material thermally stress-relieved. The metal grains seek a new arrangement,
trying always to remain thermodynamically stable.

Figure 12: Metallography on the pit zone (75 µm).

†
Trade name
Figure 12 shows the microstructure of the material on the pit zone. Very slightly elongated perlite grains
were detected. This morphology of the perlite phase is consistent with some reported literature
regarding sulfide media, close to pitting in the corrosion zone;34,35 nevertheless, no significant changes
were observed in the grain boundaries. In accordance with NACE-0775/ISO-15156, carbon steel shall
be thermally stress-relieved for sour service; any cold deforming shall be followed by rolling, cold
forging, or another manufacturing process. The material hardness was at 17 HRC. These results
indicate a metallurgic microstructure in compliance with the specifications for sour service.

Corrosion products characterized by EDS and XRD

Figure 13 shows the corrosion products found in the damaged zone. Different areas were identified by
their color and appearance. These two images show red corrosion products (left) and black corrosion
products (right). Each zone received an EDS sweep, and the generated results are shown in Figure 14.
The black zone was also analyzed by XRD; these results are described in Figure 15.

Red corrosion products Black corrosion products

Figure 13: Micrograph of corrosion products area at 100X.

The observed products in the reddish and black zones—iron, oxygen, carbon, sulfur, calcium, and
chlorine—were the main constituents of the solid analysis performed by EDS (Figure 14). These
elements are indicative of iron oxides (red zone) and iron sulfides (black zone), according to
percentage weight. The sulfur and chlorine peaks indicate the reaction of sulfides and chlorides with
metal cations, promoting localized corrosion. The black corrosion products were part of the inner layer
of corrosion products; this means the presence of sulfides promoted accelerated corrosion under
deposits. The high calcium content is related to the carbonate scales. Carbonate and sulfide scales
promote corrosion under deposits and create a more suitable place for bacterial growth;24 thus, the
corrosion process grew exponentially with pit depth.

Figure 14: Comparative content of corrosion products.

Several prediction models for corrosion have been developed for CO2 and H 2 S systems in oil and gas
36-38
pipelines. There is inevitably a high degree of uncertainty in these predictions, and no model should
be expected to be accurate for every range of conditions; however, mackinawite and iron carbonate are
corrosion products of CO 2 and H 2 S dissolved gases. Corrosion products of mackinawite and iron
carbonate were recorded in the RDX results described in Figure 15. Low iron oxide content
corresponds to the black phase of the corrosion products, related to corrosion under the deposition
mechanism.

[Oct14-13.raw] Oct14-13

d=2.7963
46-1045>Quartz,syn- SiO2
19-0629>Magnetite,syn - FeFe2O4
33-0664>Hematite,syn - Fe2O3
29-0696>Siderite - FeCO3
15-0037>Mackinawite - FeS

750 Compounds Formula %

Mackinawite FeS 31.51
Quartz SiO 2 17.62
Intensity(Counts)

d=3.6013

500 Siderite FeCO 3 45.40

d=3.3409

d=1.7342
d=2.1377 Hematite Fe 2 O 3 2.56
Magnetite Fe 3 O 4 2.91
d=2.3505

d=1.9689
d=5.0346

d=2.9685
d=4.2587

d=1.7998
250

d=1.5105
d=2.5307

100.00
d=2.4546

d=1.4289

d=1.3568
d=2.3075
d=2.2806
d=2.6962

d=2.2068

0
10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Two-Theta (deg)

Figure 15: RDX analysis of corrosion products.

CONCLUSIONS

A failure of a well discharge line of sour hydrocarbons was analyzed. The microstructure of the metal
was found to comply with the material specifications for sour service. A combination of water, chlorides,
H 2 S, CO 2 , carbonate precipitation, and microbiological activity promoted localized corrosion.

The zone around the pit initiation showed attack morphology similar to that inside of the pits. At the
interface between the cavity and the outside, the same mechanisms of micro-pit and micro-cavity
formation were observed. The mechanism was the same on both sides along the elongated bite in the
inner area of the duct, although particular zones showed more extensive damage. The morphology of
the attack was related to microbiological corrosion. Corrosion products under these conditions were
mainly carbonates and sulfide formations, which propitiated zones that induced microbiological
corrosion. Thus, there was accelerated corrosion under deposited layers.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The authors would like to acknowledge the Production Active Veracruz of PEMEX for supporting the
filed research under the project, Internal and External Control Corrosion and Assessment in the
Production Active Veracruz.
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