Study of Concrete Soldier Pile Failure As A Supporting System in Basement Excavation Using Finite

STUDY OF CONCRETE SOLDIER PILE FAILURE AS A SUPPORTING
SYSTEM IN BASEMENT EXCAVATION
STUDY OF CONCRETE SOLDIER PILE FAILURE AS A

SUPPORTING SYSTEM IN BASEMENT EXCAVATION USING
FINITE ELEMENT METHOD: THE CASE STUDY OF 23 –
STORY BUILDING AT MEXICO SITE, ADDIS ABABA.
A MASTER’S THESIS
BY
DEMELASH WONDIMAGEGN
COLLAGE OF ARCHITECTURE AND CIVIL ENGINEERING
ADDIS ABABA SCINCE AND TECHNOLOGY UNIVERSITY
JUNE 2020
STUDY OF CONCRETE SOLDIER PILE FAILURE AS A

SUPPORTING SYSTEM IN BASEMENT EXCAVATION USING
FINITE ELEMENT METHOD: THE CASE STUDY OF 23 –
STORY BUILDING AT MEXICO SITE, ADDIS ABABA.
BY
DEMELASH WONDIMAGEGN
A thesis submitted as a partial fulfilment of the requirement for the Degree in

Master of Science in Civil Engineering (Geotechnical Engineering)
to
COLLAGE OF ARCHITECTURE AND CIVIL ENGINEERING
ADDIS ABABA SCINCE AND TECHNOLOGY UNIVERSITY
JUNE 2020
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
Firstly, I would like to give my special gratitude to my LORD, GOD, who presents in every
fraction of seconds of my life and give me patience to pass many challenges through my life.
Secondly, I would like to express my deepest gratitude to my advisor Dr. Yosef Birru who have
helped me to resolve this study so that it can run smoothly and for his guidance, advice, criticism
and encouragement throughout the research.
I would like extend my sincere thanks to Eng. Tsedeke Yihune the owner of Flintstone homes for
his transparency and allowing me to work on this case study. In the same way, I am really thankful
for the support and help of Eng. Temesgen the project manager of the project site in the Flintstone
homes.
I would also like to thank to Dr. Brook Abate, for his strong decision-making ability and helping
me by answering any challenges during he was the Dean, collage of Architecture and civil
engineering. I am also thankful for Dr. Melaku Sisay, ERA PG program coordinator for his support
and recommendations.
I would like extend my sincere thanks to the members of the examining committee for their
suggestions and comments.
I would also like to thank to my friends for the help and support they provided to me. Especially;
Mr. Tesfaye, Ermias and Lamesgen.
Last but not least, I would like to express my deepest gratitude, respect and love to my sister Mss.
Naomi Feleke, who cheered me up and cared about everything in my life.
i
ABSTRACT
Lack of inadequate space at urban centers goes for deep vertical excavations which require
supports that are designed for minimum construction cost. Among such structures is soldier piles
excavation support system, which is considered in details for this case study. To study the causes
of temporary support failure, a commercial finite element analysis software plaxis 3D foundation
has been used. Considering, four cases, the extreme total displacement, the effective stresses, the
incremental total displacement, the active pore pressure, the extreme volumetric strain increment,
and factor of safety have been analyzed with respect to the embedment depth. In order to find the
main causes for the failure of concrete soldier piles, input parameters from geotechnical
investigation have been used. In addition to this, site reconnaissance study has been made with
eyewitnesses of different construction workers as they were present before, during and after the
failure occurs. Accordingly, the study revealed that two main causes for failure of the concrete
soldier piles. These are: - the seepage of water and the soil cohesion. Seepage of water was
demonstrated by conducting interview as well as from seepage analysis. Moreover, the results
from sensitive analysis showed that the soil cohesion is more sensitive for failure of the concrete
soldier pile. As a result, the soil cohesion is found to be one of the causes for failure of the concrete
soldier pile. Also, it is found that, while conducting stability analysis the maximum total
displacement observed at the top of the concrete soldier pile and becomes one of the causes for
failure of the concrete soldier pile. The failure mode also identified through stability analysis and
found to be overturning which is determined from the output of factor of safety, the total
incremental displacement and the extreme lateral displacement towards to the x and z – direction.
Lastly, the possible solutions for the Mexico site and the future constructed temporary support
structure are: providing good drainage so that seepage of water can easily be avoided, having
accurate laboratory calibration result.
Keywords: Inadequate, Deep excavation, Excavation supporting system, Concrete soldier

pile, Finite element method, Plaxis 3D foundation, Causes, Modes of failure, Drainage,
Possible solution, soil cohesion, Laboratory Calibration, Factor of safety.
ii
TABLE OF CONTENTS
ACKNOWLEDGMENT------------------------------------------------------------------- I
ABSTRACT ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------II
LIST OF FIGURES ------------------------------------------------------------------- VIII
LIST OF ANNEXES ---------------------------------------------------------------------XI
LIST OF SYMBOLS AND ABRIVATIONS -------------------------------------- XII
CHAPTER 1 -------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 1
INTRODUCTION ------------------------------------------------------------------------- 1
1.1 General ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 1
1.1.1 Excavation supports ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ 1
1.2 Background ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ 6
1.3 Statement of the problem -------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 7
1.4 Scope of the study ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 7
1.5 Objective --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 8
1.5.1 General objective --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 8
1.5.2 Specific objective --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 8
1.6 Significance of the study--------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 8
1.7 Application of this study --------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 8
1.8 Organization of the thesis-------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 9
CHAPTER 2 ------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 10
LITERATURE REVIEW --------------------------------------------------------------- 10
2.1 General ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 10
2.2 FEM modeling ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 10
2.2.1 General modeling aspects ---------------------------------------------------------------------------- 10
2.2.2 Mohr – Coulomb model ------------------------------------------------------------------------------ 12
iii
2.2.3 Formulation of Mohr – Coulomb model ----------------------------------------------------------- 13

2.3 Material parameters ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 14
2.3 Causes for failure of excavation support system ---------------------------------------------------- 20
2.4 Cantilever wall design----------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 23
2.5 Anchored excavation method -------------------------------------------------------------------------- 23
2.6 Failure analysis method --------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 24
2.6.1 Numerical analysis of concrete soldier pile -------------------------------------------------------- 24
2.7 Modes of failure for excavation support systems --------------------------------------------------- 27
2.7.1 Overturning failure ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ 28
2.7.3 Sliding failure ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ 29
2.7.4 Deep seated failure ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ 30
2.7.5 Basal heave failure ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ 30
2.8 Vertical stress distribution on a vertical plane ------------------------------------------------------- 31
2.8.1 Boussinesq’s coefficient table ----------------------------------------------------------------------- 32
2.9.1 Modelling of soldier pile wall ----------------------------------------------------------------------- 33
2.9 Lateral earth pressure------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ 34
CHAPTER 3 ------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 37
MATERIALS AND METHODS ------------------------------------------------------- 37
3.1 Description of the study area --------------------------------------------------------------------------- 37
3.2 Methodology --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 38
3.2.1 Work flow chart --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 39
CHAPTER 4 ------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 40
SITE OBSERVATION & GEOTECHNICAL PARAMETERS OF MEXICO
SITE---------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 40
4.1 General ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 40
4.3 Geotechnical parameters for modeling of the Mexico site----------------------------------------- 42
iv
4.3.1 Input parameters of soil for Mexico project site -------------------------------------------------- 49

4.4 Stress effect of existing structure (masonry wall) --------------------------------------------------- 49
4.5 Material properties of concrete soldier pile (plate) ------------------------------------------------- 50
4.6 Geotechnical and material parameters for input ----------------------------------------------------- 51
CHAPTER 5 ------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 52
ANALYSIS, RESULTS AND DISCUSSION---------------------------------------- 52
5.1 General ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 52
5.2 General overview of the causes of failure from laboratory data, design and interviewing---- 52
5.2.1 Laboratory data ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 52
5.2.2 Checking shoring design ----------------------------------------------------------------------------- 52
5.3 Study of the causes for failure of concrete soldier pile using plaxis 3D foundation ----------- 58
5.3.1 Case study one: Deformation analysis-------------------------------------------------------------- 61
5.3.2 Case study two: Stability analysis------------------------------------------------------------------- 65
5.3.3 Case study three: Seepage analysis ----------------------------------------------------------------- 67
5.3.4 Case study four: Sensitive analysis ----------------------------------------------------------------- 71
5.4 Modes of failure of concrete soldier pile ------------------------------------------------------------- 79
5.5 Possible solutions proposed for similar types of failure that would happen in Ethiopia ------ 82
CHAPTER 6 ------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 83
CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION ------------------------------------- 83
6.1 General ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 83
6.2 Conclusion ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ 83
6.3 Recommendation ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 85
REFERENCES ---------------------------------------------------------------------------- 86
ANNEX ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 88
v
LIST OF TABLES
Table 1. 1 Comparison of types of excavation support (Cassandra Rutherford, Giovenna
Biscontin, and Jean-louis Briand, 2005) ............................................................................. 2
Table 1. 2 Safe height limit for different soil type excavation (Nemati, 2007). ............................. 5
Table 2. 1 Basic parameters of the Mohr-Coulomb model. .......................................................... 14
Table 2. 2 Ranges of SPT N Value with cohesion for cohesive soil (Kumar, 2016). .................. 15
Table 2. 3 Empirical values for consistency of cohesive soil (Joseph E. Bowles, 1997). ............ 15
Table 2. 4 Unit weight of reinforced and unreinforced concrete (Arora, 2004). .......................... 16
Table 2. 5 Soil engineering property correlation from in-situ testing (Gilbert Gedeon, 1994). ... 16
Table 2. 6 Saturated and dry unit weight determination (Gilbert Gedeon, 1994). ....................... 17
Table 2. 7 Poisson's ratio determination (Joseph E. Bowles, 1997). ............................................ 18
Table 2. 8 Equations for stress-strain modulus Es from SPT value (Joseph E. Bowles, 1997).... 18
Table 2. 9 Young's moduli (Cassandra Rutherford, Giovenna Biscontin, and Jean-louis Briand,
2005). ................................................................................................................................ 19
Table 2. 10 Input physical and mechanical properties of soil (El-Naiem, 2016). ........................ 25
Table 2. 11 Material properties of pile (circular vertical beam) (El-Naiem, 2016). ..................... 26
Table 2. 12 Values of Boussinesq’s coefficient for calculation of stress from existing structure
(Arora, 2004)..................................................................................................................... 32
Table 4. 1 Co-ordinates, depth and elevations of bore holes adopted from geotechnical report
data. ................................................................................................................................... 40
Table 4. 2 Description of soil layer and Atterberg limit obtained from soil investigation report
done by Radice Engineering P.L.C. .................................................................................. 42
Table 4. 3 Initial stress coefficient Ko of soil in the study area.................................................... 44
Table 4. 4 Shear strength parameters adopted from geotechnical report. ..................................... 44
Table 4. 5 Poisson's ratio for Mexico project site. ........................................................................ 45
Table 4. 6 SPT N55 values for Mexico project site. ..................................................................... 46
Table 4. 7 Stress - strain modulus Es for Mexico project site. ..................................................... 46
vi
Table 4. 8 Calculation of shear modulus and oedometer modulus. .............................................. 47

Table 4. 9 Stress-strain modulus of concrete soldier pile (ESP) with respect to depth using
Equation. 2.9, and Figure. 2.4. .......................................................................................... 48
Table 4. 10 Summary of soil parameters for the study area adopted from the geotechnical report.
........................................................................................................................................... 49
Table 4. 11 Property of concrete soldier pile. ............................................................................... 50
Table 4. 12 Input parameters of soil and structure adopted from geotechnical report. ................ 51
Table 5. 1 Variation of active earth pressure from design report data. ......................................... 53
Table 5. 2 Variation of passive earth pressure from design report data. ...................................... 53
Table 5. 3 Calculation of vertical stress at r = 0.3m from existing structure. ............................... 56
vii
LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 1. 1 Excavation support (Midroc, Foundation Specialist). .................................................. 3

Figure 1. 2 Soldier piles and shoring (Midroc, Foundation Specialist). ......................................... 3
Figure 1. 3 Soil nailing (Nemati, 2007). ......................................................................................... 4
Figure 1. 4 Shoring (Mexico site). .................................................................................................. 6
Figure 2. 1 Node and stress points (Plaxis 3D Foundation). ........................................................ 11
Figure 2. 2 Mohr-Coulomb failure criteria (Papadopoulos, 2014). .............................................. 12
Figure 2. 3 The Mohr-Coulomb yield surface in principal stress space (c = 0) (Papadopoulos,
2014). ................................................................................................................................ 13
Figure 2. 4 Compressive strength(left) and static Young's modulus(right) versus depth for four
different studies (data after Arup 2010; Kiefer and Baker 1994; Chernauskas 2013; Harris
et al 2011). ........................................................................................................................ 20
Figure 2. 5 Slope failure in North Jakarta (Gouw Tjie-Liong,Ir.,M.Eng.ChFC, 2012). ............... 21
Figure 2. 6 Collapse of the 13-story structure (Gouw Tjie-Liong,Ir.,M.Eng.ChFC, 2012).......... 22
Figure 2. 7 Photo of anchored method (Midroc, Foundation Specialist)...................................... 24
Figure 2. 8 Variation of lateral displacement and bending moment along the concrete soldier pile.
........................................................................................................................................... 27
Figure 2. 9 Overturning failure (Arora, 2004). ............................................................................. 28
Figure 2. 10 Pile structural failure (Gilbert Gedeon, 1994). ......................................................... 29
Figure 2. 11 Sliding failure (Gilbert Gedeon, 1994). .................................................................... 29
Figure 2. 12 Deep-seated failure (Gilbert Gedeon, 1994). ........................................................... 30
Figure 2. 13 Stress on a vertical plane (Arora, 2004). .................................................................. 31
Figure 2. 14 Plate element (Papadopoulos, 2014). ....................................................................... 33
Figure 2. 15 State of plastic equilibrium (Sabatini, Pass, Bachus, 1999). .................................... 35
Figure 2. 16 Active and passive Rankine state (Sabatini, Pass, Bachus, 1999)............................ 36
viii
Figure 3. 1 Location of the building site on satellite image.......................................................... 37

Figure 3. 2 Shows flow chart. ....................................................................................................... 39
Figure 4. 1 Geological map of the area and the project site. ........................................................ 41
Figure 5. 1 Placement of re-bar on concrete soldier pile from design report data. ....................... 57
Figure 5. 2 Geometry model of the concrete soldier pile. ............................................................ 58
Figure 5. 3 2D Finite element mesh of the concrete soldier pile. ................................................. 59
Figure 5. 4 3D Finite element mesh .............................................................................................. 60
Figure 5. 5 Initial stress ................................................................................................................. 60
Figure 5. 6 Preview of the installation of concrete soldier pile .................................................... 61
Figure 5. 7 Stage construction preview for the excavation ........................................................... 61
Figure 5. 8 Extreme total displacement ........................................................................................ 62
Figure 5. 9 Horizontal displacement (Ux) .................................................................................... 63
Figure 5. 10 Horizontal displacement (Uz)................................................................................... 64
Figure 5. 11 Extreme total displacement. ..................................................................................... 65
Figure 5. 12 Effective stresses. ..................................................................................................... 66
Figure 5. 13 Failure of concrete soldier pile due to the seepage of water in to the soil. .............. 67
Figure 5. 14 Active pore pressure in terms of total displacement. ............................................... 68
Figure 5. 15 Horizontal displacement (Ux) .................................................................................. 69
Figure 5. 16 Horizontal displacement (Uz)................................................................................... 70
Figure 5. 17 Total displacements. ................................................................................................. 71
Figure 5. 18 Extreme volumetric strain increment. ...................................................................... 72
Figure 5. 20 Total displacements. ................................................................................................. 74
Figure 5. 23 Total displacement.................................................................................................... 77
ix

Figure 5. 25 Total displacement.................................................................................................... 79
Figure 5. 26 Presents the failure mechanisms in plaxis 3D foundation in terms of the total
incremental displacement.................................................................................................. 80
Figure 5. 27 Sum-Msf (safety factor) as a function of the total displacement.............................. 81
x
LIST OF ANNEXES
Appendix A - Cross-section between boreholes -------------------------------------------------------- 89

Appendix B - Borehole logs ------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 90
Appendix C - In-situ and Laboratory Test Results ----------------------------------------------------- 92
Appendix D - Stage construction preview --------------------------------------------------------------- 96
xi
LIST OF SYMBOLS AND ABRIVATIONS
BH = Borehole
C = Cohesion
d = Diameter
D = Embedment depth
D.O.F = Degree of Freedom
d =h = Element thickness
Ψ = Dilatancy angle
EA = Normal stiffness
EI = Flexural rigidity
Es = Young’s modulus
Fb = Allowable bending stress
FEM = Finite Element Method
FS = Factor of safety
H = Excavation depth
Ip = Plasticity Index
Ko = Coefficient of earth pressure at-rest
LL = Liquid limit
PL = Plastic limit
w = Plate weights
xii
Ø = Angle of internal friction
S = Section modulus
s = Spacing of pile
γt = Unit weigh
γd = Dry unit weight
γsat = Saturated unit weight
SPT = Standard Penetration Test
ν = Poison’s ratio
xiii
CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
1.1 General
To construct a structure either above or below the ground, soil excavation is inevitable. The
excavation may be shallow or deep based on proposed foundation depth from the original ground
level. But when deep cuts are made in soil, the soil from the sides of excavated area may collapse
due to low stability. To prevent this slope failure and to make the cut vertical we need some
temporary earth retaining structures called excavation supports.
1.1.1 Excavation supports
Excavation support systems are temporary earth retaining structures that allow the sides of
excavation to be cut vertical or near vertical. They are used to minimize the excavation area, to
keep the sides of deep excavations stable, and to ensure that movements will not cause damage to
neighboring structures or to utilities in the surrounding ground (Nemati, 2007).
Excavations result in ground movements and the purpose of a deep excavation support system is
to provide lateral support for the soil around an excavation and to limit movement of the
surrounding soil system (Muthomi).
Types of excavation support system
A variety of excavation support methods are currently used in practice. The prevalence of one
shoring system over the others in a certain region depends on several factors including: local
experience, site conditions, availability and cost of materials and the amount of shoring required
for the project. The advantages and limitations of common types of excavation support were
compiled based on general knowledge and consultant input Table 1.1 (Cassandra Rutherford,
Giovenna Biscontin, and Jean-louis Briand, 2005).
1
Table 1. 1 Comparison of types of excavation support (Cassandra Rutherford, Giovenna

Biscontin, and Jean-louis Briand, 2005)
Excavation
Support Advantages Limitations
system
Structural Constructed before excavation Large volume of spoils generated and

Diaphragm and below ground water, good disposal of slurry required. Costly
water seal, can be used for compared to other methods. Must be
(Slurry) Wall
permanent wall and can be used used with caution or special
in most soils. Relatively high techniques must be used when
stiffness. Can become part of the adjacent to shallow spread footing.
permanent wall.
Sheet pile Wall Constructed before excavation Cannot be driven through complex
and below ground water. Can be fills, boulders or other obstructions.
used only in soft to medium stiff Vibration and noise with installation.
soils. Quickly constructed and possible problems with joints. Limited
easily removed. Low initial cost. depth and stiffness. Can undergo
relatively large lateral movements
Soldier Pile and Low initial cost. Easy to handle Lagging cannot be practically installed
Lagging Wall and construct. below groundwater. Cannot be used in
soils that do not have arching or that
exhibit base instability. Lagging only
to bottom of
excavation and pervious.
Secant Constructed before excavation Equipment cannot penetrate boulders,
Wall/Tangent and below ground water. Low requires pre–drilling. Continuity can
Pile Wall vibration and noise. Can use wide be a problem if piles drilled one at a
flange beams for reinforcement. time.
(similar to DM
walls)
Micro–pile Wall Constructed before excavation Large number required.

and below ground water. Useful Continuity a problem,
when limited right of way. low bending resistance.
2
Figure 1. 1 Excavation support (Midroc, Foundation Specialist).

Soldier pile and lagging wall
Soldier pile and timber lagging walls have been used extensively as excavation support
systems, Soil loads are transferred to soldier piles partly by the lagging and partly by arching of
soil. When the soil between soldier piles is able to self-retain, the soil loads will transfer to the
adjacent soldier piles, and no lagging will be needed. This soil load transfer is caused by soil
arching (El-Naiem, 2016).
Figure 1. 2 Soldier piles and shoring (Midroc, Foundation Specialist).
3
Soil Nailing Method of Excavation Support
Soil Nailing is an in situ reinforcing of the soil while it is excavated from the top down. An
array of soil nails which are passive inclusions are installed in a grid that functions to create a
stable mass of soil. This mass of reinforced soil functions to retain the less stable material
behind it. In the right soil conditions, soil nailing is a rapid and economical means of constructing
excavation support systems and retaining walls. In many applications soil-nailing can be the
least disruptive way to construct a retaining wall. Soil nailing requires an unusual amount of
hand work, craftsmanship and geotechnical knowledge to construct.
The typical construction sequence begins with the excavation of a shallow cut. Then shotcrete is
applied to the face of the cut and soil nails are drilled and grouted. This sequence is then repeated
until subgrade is reached (Nemati, 2007).
Figure 1. 3 Soil nailing (Nemati, 2007).

Soil nailing is mostly used for rail or road embankments, tunnel excavations, retaining structures
for high rise buildings etc. Soil nailing structures provides good resistance against seismic
activities and deflections are also within the tolerable limits. Sometimes this excavation bracings
or rankers may disturb the field operations. To overcome this, tie back system is developed. In this
case, tie back bars or anchor bars are installed in the soil cut that is behind the excavation support.
So, these tie backs hold the excavation supports and they are grouted to the rock below the ground.
From this lateral earth pressure also prevented and the load from the structure is carried to rocks
through this tie backs.
4
Tiebacks (or anchors) are structural system which acts in tension and receives its support in
earth or rock. The system consists of: the earth or rock, which provides the ultimate support
for the system, a tension member (or tendon) which transfers the load from the soil-retention
system to the earth or rock. A stressing unit which engages the tendon, permits the tendon to
be stressed, and allows the load to be maintained in the tendon. The failure of soil cut arises when
the limit of excavation exceeds its safe height limit and it depends upon unconfined compressive
strength of soil and cohesion.
Table 1.2 Shows the theoretically safe depths for vertical cuts in different soil consistencies,
which indicates that the slope failures are probable in shallow excavations only for very soft
to medium homogeneous clays. By flattening the slope angle from 90° to 45°, significant
improvement in the factor of safety for a slope of a given height can be achieved.
Table 1. 2 Safe height limit for different soil type excavation (Nemati, 2007).
Cohesion Safe height
Soil type Unconfined compressive strength (KPa)
(KPa) (m)
Very soft Less than 24 <12 <1.52
Soft 24-49 12-24 1.52-3.05
Medium 49-96 24-49 3.05-6.09
Stiff 96-192 49-96 6.09-12.19
Very stiff 192-383 96-192 12.19-24.38
Hard >383 >192 >24.38
5
1.2 Background
When deep excavation is carried out excavation support structures should be used for safety. They
are used to minimize the excavation area, to keep the sides of deep excavations stable, and to
ensure that ground movements will not cause damage to neighboring structures or to utilities in
the surrounding ground (Muthomi).
In Ethiopia, the causes of failure of support systems during and after excavation are not studied in
detail. This research paper, with the application of finite element models, identifies the causes of
failure of support structures which is constructed here in Addis Ababa around Mexico. And plaxis
3D foundation software was used for analysis.
Figure 1. 4 Shoring (Mexico site).
6
1.3 Statement of the problem
Nowadays, due to the construction of buildings that consist basement floors, deep excavation is
becoming very common in Ethiopia. In order to keep the safety of people, and property deep
excavations should be supported by different support structures depending on the type and depth
of the excavation. Those supporting systems should be designed to support the lateral earth
pressure of the soil as well as its self-weight. In Ethiopia, different types of failures of support
structures is observed in many places particularly in Addis Ababa. This research gave emphasis
on one of the failures occurred in Mexico around Federal Police commission Head Quarter. At this
site a concrete soldier pile was used. This is one type of excavation support system and the
materials are concrete grade of C-30, the steel grade is S-300, the diameter of the pile is 60cm and
the center to center spacing of the pile is 1m. The total depth of excavation was 11m out of which
2m was bulk excavation and the soldier piles were expected to support the remaining 9m depth of
excavation. The total length of the concrete soldier pile was 15m. Boreholes for the soldier piles
were drilled at -2m below natural ground level and continued up to -17m from normal ground
level. 9m deep excavation was carried out beyond the 2m bulk excavation. The embedment depth
for the cantilever concrete soldier piles was 6m with 9m of their total length exposed above bottom
of the proposed building foundation level. Shotcrete was applied in between the soldier piles every
3m of excavation. Failure of the excavation support structures at the rear side of the building
occurred after excavation. Thus, this paper addressed the main causes of failure and proposed a
solution for future planned excavation support structures.
1.4 Scope of the study
To achieve the research objectives, required data were collected from a 3B+G+M+23 building
project located in Addis Ababa, around Mexico. The data is collected from soil investigation of
Radice Engineering PLC at the project site which is the geotechnical report data and some data are
obtained using correlation techniques as well as literature. To simulate soil-pile interaction using
finite element model plaxis 3D foundation was used to identify the causes for failure of concrete
soldier pile. The output and finding of this study are applicable for particular studied area projects
and other similar failure types and soil conditions in the country.
7
1.5 Objective
1.5.1 General objective
The main objective of this research is to study the cause of concrete solider pile failure used for
basement excavation support structure at Mexico site.
1.5.2 Specific objective
To characterize the cause(s) of failure of concrete solider pile at the selected site.
To identify the failure mode of concrete solider pile at the study area.
To give possible solutions for basement excavation support structure.
1.6 Significance of the study
Excavation supporting systems like concrete soldier piles are predominantly used in different area
of the world (Nemati, 2007). Especially, in Ethiopia nowadays due to the land usage deep
excavation is needed and recommended to the lateral support structures basement excavation.
Poorly designed excavation support structures lead to lose of life and property. Even though this
research paper focuses on the causes of failure of soldier piles constructed at Mexico site, it can
also be referred to prevent similar failures across the country.
1.7 Application of this study
Since the use of excavation support structures is becoming common in Ethiopia, failures similar
to the one at Mexico site are widespread. Hence, this research paper can be applied to prevent
similar soldier pile failures.
8
1.8 Organization of the thesis
The thesis is composed of six chapters. Chapter one of the study includes general introduction,
background, objective and scope of the study. The general introduction tells about types and causes
for failure of excavation support structures. The background describes general ideas about the need
for this study and the use of FEM for the study of concrete soldier pile failure. The objective
describes the general goals of the study and what to expect at the end of the study. The scope and
limitation of the study describes the range of the study and applicability of the study.
The second chapter is focused on literature survey and findings by other authors on the relative
study areas. It addresses the general overview about the geotechnical engineering and its findings
on the lateral support system like concrete soldier pile. It also shows the finite element method is
a leading science that’s is used now a day to solve geotechnical problems by reducing time and
money.
Chapter three describes the materials and methods in a logical order including procedures shown
in a flow chart form.
The Site observation and geotechnical parameters of Mexico site are thoroughly discussed in
chapter four. It includes the numerical presentation on the soil parameters depending on the soil
investigation report. It also shows the correlation of parameters which are not found directly in the
report.
The fifth chapter deals with the analysis, results and discussions. The FEM analysis by plaxis 3D
foundation used to find the causes for failure of the concrete soldier pile and the results and
discussion discussed using graphical presentation.
Finally, conclusions and recommendations are made in the sixth chapter.
9
CHAPTER 2
LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1 General
Recently, with the rapid development of computational technology, numerical analysis involving
finite element method (FEM) is widely used to understand the behavior of pile soil interactions.
The advantage of numerical analysis methods lies in their ability to address complex soil
formations and the interaction between soil and structures (Erkihun, 2015).
Because of the complex behavior of soils under loading, the applicability range of a certain
parameter is restricted to a limited set of problems. To find a soil’s properties, nothing can beat
experimental results, either in situ or in the laboratory, as mentioned in (Craig, 2004).
Subsequently, in engineering practice the determination of soil parameters is of vital importance
for accurate soil modelling. Some geotechnical parameters to be used in this study are reviewed
below.
2.2 FEM modeling
2.2.1 General modeling aspects
For each new project to be analyzed it is important to create a cross-section model first. A geometry
model is a 2D representation of a real three-dimensional problem and consists of points, lines and
cluster. The geometry model includes a representative division of the subsoil into distinct soil
layers, structural objects, construction stages and loading. The model must be sufficiently large so
that the boundaries do not influence the results of the problem to be studied (Plaxis 3D
Foundation).
10
Types of element
During the generation of the mesh, slices are divided in to 15-node wedge elements. These
elements are composed of 6-node triangular faces in the z-planes, as generated by the 2D mesh
generation, and 8-node triangular faces in the z-direction. In addition to the volume elements,
which are generally used to model the soil, compatible 8-node plate elements and 16-node interface
elements may be generated to model structural behavior and soil-structure interaction respectively.
. In this study, for modelling soil-structure interaction and to have more accurate output a 15-node
element used.
Nodes
The wedge elements as used in the plaxis 3D foundation program consist of 15 nodes. The
distribution of nodes over the elements is shown I Figure 2.1. Adjacent elements are connected
through their common nodes. During a finite element calculation, displacement (ux, uy and uz) are
calculated at the nodes. Nodes may be pre-selected for the generation of load-displacement curves
(Plaxis 3D Foundation).
Stress points
In contrast to displacements, stresses and strains are calculated at individual Gaussian integration
points (or stress points) rather than at the nodes. A 15-node wedge element contains 6 stress points
as indicated in Figure 2.1.
Figure 2. 1 Node and stress points (Plaxis 3D Foundation).
11
2.2.2 Mohr – Coulomb model
The Mohr-Coulomb failure or strength criterion has been widely used for geotechnical
applications. Indeed, many of the routine design calculations in the geotechnical area are still
performed using the Mohr- Coulomb criterion. To evaluate if plasticity occurs in a calculation, a
yield function, f, is introduced as a function of stress and strain. Plastic yielding is related with the
condition f = 0. This condition can often be presented as a surface in principal stress space. A
perfectly plastic model is a constitutive model with a fixed yield surface, i.e. a yield surface that
is fully defined by model parameters and not affected by (plastic) straining. (Brinkgreve, R. and
Broere, W., 2006)
The Mohr-Coulomb criterion can be graphically presented as main stresses in the following figure
40.4 and it can be represented as:
τ = σ’ + tanφ’ + c’
where τ and σ are the shear and the normal stress respectively on the failure level.
Figure 2. 2 Mohr-Coulomb failure criteria (Papadopoulos, 2014).

The Mohr-Coulomb criterion represents a hexagonal cone on the space of the main stresses as it
is shown in the following picture. Points inside the cone behave perfectly elastic. At points on the
cone the plastic deformation prevails, while points outside the cone do not exist.
12
Figure 2. 3 The Mohr-Coulomb yield surface in principal stress space (c = 0) (Papadopoulos,

2014).
2.2.3 Formulation of Mohr – Coulomb model
The Mohr-Coulomb yield condition is an extension of Coulomb's friction law to general states of
stress. In fact, this condition ensures that Coulomb's friction law is obeyed in any plane within a
material element.
The full Mohr-Coulomb yield condition in plaxis 3D foundation consists of six yield functions
when formulated in terms of principal stresses. The plastic potential functions contain a third
plasticity parameter, the dilatancy angle. This parameter is required to model positive plastic
volumetric strain increments (dilatancy) as actually observed for dense soils. (Brinkgreve, R. and
Broere, W., 2006).
Basic parameters of the Mohr – Coulomb model
The Mohr-Coulomb model requires a total of five parameters, which are generally familiar to most
geotechnical engineers and which can be obtained from basic tests on soil samples or correlation
from the SPT. These parameters with their standard units are listed in Table 2.1.
13
Table 2. 1 Basic parameters of the Mohr-Coulomb model.
Name Symbol Unit
Young’s modulus E KN/m2
Poisson’s ratio υ -
Cohesion C KN/m2
Angle of internal friction Ø o
Dilatancy angle ψ o
2.3 Material parameters
Atterberg limit
The Swedish soil scientist A. Atterberg (1911) developed a method for describing quantitatively
the effect of varying water content on the consistency of fine-grained soils like clays and silts.
When a clayey soil is mixed with an excessive amount of water, it may flow like a semi liquid. If
the soil is gradually dried it will behave like a plastic, semisolid, or solid material, depending on
its moisture content, in percent at which the soil changes from a liquid limit to a plastic state is
defined as the liquid limit (LL). Similarly, the moisture content, in percent at which the soil
changes from a semisolid state to a solid state are defined as the plastic limit (PL) these limits are
referred to as Atterberg Limit (Braja, 2007).
𝐏𝐈 = 𝐋𝐋 − 𝐏𝐋 − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − −(𝟐. 𝟏)
14
Shear strength parameters (C and Ø)
The strength of a material is the greatest stress it can sustain; so, the safety of any geotechnical
structure is dependent on the strength of the soil. Understanding shear strength is the basis to
analyze soil stability problems like lateral pressure on earth, retaining structures, slope stability
and bearing capacity.
Table 2. 2 Ranges of SPT N Value with cohesion for cohesive soil (Kumar, 2016).
∅𝐨 = 𝟎. 𝟑𝟔𝐍𝟕𝟎 + 𝟐𝟕 (Joseph E. Bowles, 1997)− − − − − − − − − − − − − − (𝟐. 𝟐)
The shear strength of a soil is its resistance to shearing stresses. It is a measure of the soil resistance
to deformation by continuous displacement of its individual soil particles. Shear strength in soils
depends primarily on interactions between particles. This implies that the angle of internal friction
and soil cohesion plays important role (Erkihun, 2015).
Table 2. 3 Empirical values for consistency of cohesive soil (Joseph E. Bowles, 1997).
15
Unit weight (γt)
Bulk Unit weight of a soil mass is the ratio of the total weight of the soil to the total volume of the
soil. Unit weight, γt, is usually determined in the laboratory by measuring the weight and volume
of a relatively undisturbed soil sample obtained from the field. However, for this specific study
the unit weight was correlated from Lymon, William and Shin and shown in the following
empirical formula.
𝛄 = 𝐩𝐰 × 𝛄𝐰 𝐊𝐍/𝐦𝟑 − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − −(𝟐. 𝟑)
Table 2. 4 Unit weight of reinforced and unreinforced concrete (Arora, 2004).
Mass density Weight density
Material kg/m3 KN/m3
Concrete (reinforced) 2500 25
Concrete (unreinforced) 2300 23
Measuring unit weight of soil directly in the field might be done by sand cone test, rubber balloon
or Nuclear Gauge. And, the unit weight of the soil correlated below in Table 2.5.
Table 2. 5 Soil engineering property correlation from in-situ testing (Gilbert Gedeon, 1994).
16
Saturated and unsaturated weight (γunsat and γsat)
The saturated and the unsaturated weight refer to the total unit weight of the soil skeleton including
the fluid in the pores. The unsaturated weight applies to all material above the phreatic level and
the saturated weight applies to all material below the phreatic level. The unit weights are entered
as a force per unit volume. Note that soils in practical situations are never completely dry. Hence,
it is advisable not to enter the fully unit weight for γunsat. As Lymon, William and Shin stated for
correlation of the dry and saturated unit, empirical formulas were applied to obtain the saturated
and dry unit weight for this precise study. (Lymon C. Rease, William M. Isenhhower, Shin-Tower
Wang, 2006). Moreover, Table 2.6 shows different saturated and unsaturated weight for different
soil type.
Table 2. 6 Saturated and dry unit weight determination (Gilbert Gedeon, 1994).
Type of soil Saturated unit weight Dry unit weight

Gravel 20-22 15-17
Sand 18-20 13-16
Silt 18-20 14-18
Clay 16-22 14-21
Poisson’s ratio(ν)
Standard drained triaxial tests may yield a significant rate of volume decrease at the very beginning
of axial loading and, consequently, a low initial value of Poisson's ratio (ν). For some cases, such
as particular unloading problems, it may be realistic to use such a low initial value, but in general
when using the Mohr-Coulomb model the use of a higher value is recommended. Bowles (1996)
gives range of values of Poisson’s ratio between 0.2 to 0.4 for cohesionless medium dense to
medium loose soil types and 0.4 to 0.5 for most clay soil.
17
Table 2. 7 Poisson's ratio determination (Joseph E. Bowles, 1997).

Poisson’s ratio (ν) Soil type
0.4-0.50 Most clay soils
0.45-0.50 Saturated clay soils
0.3-0.4 Cohesionless-medium and dense
0.2-0.35 Cohesionless- loose to medium
Young’s modulus (Es)
Hooke's generalized stress-strain law is commonly used in solving geotechnical problems of stress
and settlement. The use of a practical and reasonable stiffness values representing the in-situ
conditions is of great importance in finite element analysis for better simulation of the actual
condition of the soil. Several methods are available for estimating the stiffness modulus of a soil
as described by (Bowles, 1997). Unconfined compression tests, tri-axial compression tests and in
situ tests are among the test methods. While unconfined compression tests tend to give
conservative values, tri-axial tests tend to produce more usable values of Es since any confining
stress “stiffens” the soil so that a larger initial tangent modulus is obtained.
Table 2. 8 Equations for stress-strain modulus Es from SPT value (Joseph E. Bowles, 1997).
ES = 500(N + 15)
1 Sand (normally consolidated) ES =7000 (2.4)
ES = 6000N
2 Sand (saturated) ES = 250(N + 15) (2.5)
3 ES = 1200(N + 6)
Gravely sand ES = 600(N +6) <= 15 (2.6)
ES = 600(N +6) + 200 > 15
4 Clayey sand ES = 320(N +15) (2.7)
5 Silt, sandy silty or clayey silt ES = 300(N+6) (2.8)
18
The modulus of a soil is a complex parameter which requires a precise definition when quoted.
The modulus depends on the stress level, the strain level, the rate of loading, the number of cycles
and other factors. The range of Young’s moduli in soils is approximately 5 to 1000 MPa. Table
2.9 presents the approximate ranges of various materials.
Table 2. 9 Young's moduli (Cassandra Rutherford, Giovenna Biscontin, and Jean-louis Briand,
2005).
Material Range of Moduli
Steel 200,000 MPa
Concrete 20,000 MPa
Wood, plastic 13,000MPa
Rock 200 to 30,000 MPa
Soil/Grout 100 to 1000 MPa
Soil 5 to 1000 MPa
Mayonnaise 0.5 MPa
Static modulus of elasticity of pile material (ESP)
The elasticity of pile material (ESP) is an important material parameter for interpretation of both
static and dynamic loading tests and analysis on piles. Concrete is the material most of the time
used for construction of piles and it’s not a linearly elastic material thus its young’s modulus
(stiffness) is not constant. Static modulus of concrete pile (ESP) is obtained from static loads on
cube or cylinder specimens. The values of (ESP) can be also inferred from the compressive
strength (fc) by using the following empirical relationship.
𝐄𝐬𝐩 = 𝟖. 𝟒𝟖(𝐟𝐜)𝟏/𝟑 − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − (𝟐. 𝟗)
Where ESP is given in GPA and fc is in MPA using Eqn.2.9, the fc data shown in Figure 2.4a have
been converted to the static modulus values and the results are shown in Figure 2.4b. It can be seen
19
the values of ESP at a depth 70m is about 20% higher than that close to the top (Joram M,A.,
Carlos, L. and Erez I, A., n.d.).
a) Compressive strength fc (MPa) b) Static Young’s modulus ESP (MPa)
Figure 2. 4 Compressive strength(left) and static Young's modulus(right) versus depth for four
different studies (data after Arup 2010; Kiefer and Baker 1994; Chernauskas 2013; Harris et al
2011).
2.3 Causes for failure of excavation support system
Deep excavations pose a challenge to engineers all over the world. Geotechnical failures of deep
excavations have occurred and it is from these failures that more can be learned once the back
analysis has been carried out. A failure is a good source of information for engineers to learn and
to get more insight on the geotechnical problems to enhance knowledge. The main causes of failure
of deep excavations support systems are:
20
Inadequate stability analysis
Inadequate stability analysis of an open cut excavation resulted in slope failure. The driven piles
that had been put in place were subjected to large lateral forces that resulted in the failure of the
excavation supports. This happened in North Jakarta, Indonesia.
Figure 2. 5 Slope failure in North Jakarta (Gouw Tjie-Liong,Ir.,M.Eng.ChFC, 2012).

Insufficient toe penetration
Insufficient toe penetration of steel sheet piles, would lead to excessive movement of the sheet
piles toe, which might lead to kick in failure. A kick in failure results in large and sudden sagging
of the ground behind the wall.
Water seepage
Seepage of ground water toward the excavated area is of great importance and is often overlooked.
The mode of seepage depends on whether water can pass through the retaining wall or not. For
open cut excavations and retaining walls systems where water can flow through the wall, the
stability of the excavation shall be seriously impaired if the ground water is allowed to flow
through the slopes or the walls. It is very important to prevent the ground water from flowing out
through the slope of the open cut excavation or through the retaining wall system. Dewatering
wells should therefore be installed at the perimeter of the excavation areas (Phienwej, 1967).
21
In China, failure to support a 4.6-meter excavation resulted in the collapse of a 13-story structure.
Seepage of water into the surrounding soil and the mobilization of pore water pressures resulted
in the tilting of the building and its eventual collapse.
Figure 2. 6 Collapse of the 13-story structure (Gouw Tjie-Liong,Ir.,M.Eng.ChFC, 2012).

Artesian water Pressure
Existence of artesian water pressure can greatly affect the stability of an excavation. The weight
of the soil from the excavation level to the top of the aquifer layer and the friction of the soil-wall
system should be able to withstand the artesian pressure, otherwise the base of the excavation shall
fail. This type of failure is known as bursting or boiling.
On the other hand, water problem affects the concrete piles at Khartoum, Sudan and the contractor
started to excavate for the basements. When the excavation reaches close to 6m depth, water started
to appear from all directions, filling the site and erode the sand layer at that level creating cavities
behind the piles and beneath the top dense soil. At the same time many piles appeared to be casted
more than their planned length. To collect the flowing water, the contractor decided to excavate
trenches in front of piles all around the perimeter and start dewatering (4 to 10m3/hr. – 20 hrs./day
pumps). Due to sand layer at 6 m depth, piles concrete compressed the sand and created necks at
that level. These necks allocated inside the line of basement retaining walls. When the excavation
22
reached this level, 11 piles in the eastern side had been sheared and fall down letting an
approximately 1m wide of supported soil collapse (Magdi M.E. Zumrawi, Ashraf EI-Amin, 2016).
Soil Flow
When soldier piles system is used as the retaining structure for soft soils, soil flow through the
gaps within the soldier piles may take place. This phenomenon may affect the stability of the
adjacent structures. The gaps within the soldier piles must be close enough to ensure the formation
of arching where the soft soils cannot penetrate or squeeze of the gaps.
Geotechnical Software
In recent developments, with the advance of computer technology, computer applications have
gained popularity and are being used in geotechnical analysis and design. However, wrong use of
the software results in wrong results obtained from the computer. This principle is known as
Garbage in, Garbage out. Some of the reasons that results in incorrect design and analysis are:
wrong application of the soil model, wrong adoption of soil parameters and wrong modelling of
undrained parameters (Gouw Tjie-Liong,Ir.,M.Eng.ChFC, 2012).
2.4 Cantilever wall design
A cantilever retaining walls derives its support from the passive resistance developed in the soil
below the excavation level in front of the wall. The wall must penetrate to a sufficient embedment.
For preliminary design use an embedment depth equal to 1.3 times the height of excavation
(Cassandra Rutherford, Giovenna Biscontin, and Jean-louis Briand, 2005).
2.5 Anchored excavation method
The anchored excavation counts solely on soil strength to offer the anchoring force. The higher
the soil strength, the stronger the anchoring force and vice versa. Granular soils (such as sandy soil
or gravel soils) have high strengths and thus offer strong anchoring force while clay has weak
strength and creep will further decrease the anchoring force. The anchored excavation method has
merits like high efficiency for excavation and underground structure construction, short
construction period and fit for excavation projects with large areas and shallow depths. On the
23
other hand, the anchored excavation method has drawbacks like excavation is not applicable to
weak soil layers, when applied to a depth 10m below the groundwater table in granular soils ( such
as sandy soils or gravel soils), anchors should be installed with care and large settlement may occur
if the construction quality of anchors is not good enough. (Ou, 2006)
Figure 2. 7 Photo of anchored method (Midroc, Foundation Specialist).
2.6 Failure analysis method
By understanding the potential causes of concrete soldier pile failure. It is easy to realize that to
ensure stability, it is necessary to determine whether to increase the resisting forces or decrease
the driving forces. This simple concept corresponds to the basic of most methods of analysis
termed “Finite element method”. Those basic methods are intended to determine deformation by
using plaxis 3D foundation software to determine deflection with depth.
2.6.1 Numerical analysis of concrete soldier pile
soldier pile walls have been used extensively as excavation support systems. The main advantages
of using soldier piles is their comparatively low cost and ease of installation compared to other
forms of support systems such as diaphragm walls and bored pile.
24
Numerical modeling and selected parameters
In order to make realistic prediction of the stability and deformation of the excavation and the
adjacent building, Mohr Coulomb model in plaxis 3D foundation program was applied for sand
idealization. This model was adopted to characterize the behavior of excavation and adjacent
building system and material properties.
Parameters and material modeling of sandy soil
The excavation soil is assumed to be a deposit of sandy soil as one layer. Two cases were chosen
medium sand (relative density (Dr) =50%) and dense sand (relative density (Dr) =75%). The sand
is modeled by 15-node triangular element in the analysis as an elastic perfectly plastic Mohr
Coulomb model. The properties of medium and dense sand are presented in Table 2.10.
Table 2. 10 Input physical and mechanical properties of soil (El-Naiem, 2016).
Parameters Medium sand Dense sand unit

Unsaturated unit weight γunsat 16 18 KN/m3
Saturated unit weight γsat 18 20 KN/m3
Young’s modulus, Es 25000 50000 KN/m2
Poisson’s ratio, υ 0.3 0.25 -
Undrained cohesion, Cu 1 1 KN/m2
Friction angle, φ 33 36 o
Dilatancy angle, ψ 3 6 -
Types of material behavior Drained Drained -
Concrete soldier pile
Three diameters for piles were considered in the analysis, pile (A) of diameter =0.4 m, pile (B) of
diameter = 0.5m and pile (C) of diameter = 0.6 m. the pile length (L), excavation height (H) and
25
spacing between piles (S) were considered. The pile was modeled by a circular vertical beam
element. Pile parameters are presented in Table 2.11.
Table 2. 11 Material properties of pile (circular vertical beam) (El-Naiem, 2016).
Parameter D = 0.4m D = 0.5m D = 0.6m unit
Type of behavior Linear elastic Linear elastic Linear elastic -
Pile young’s modulus, E 2.2x107 2.2x107 2.2x107 KN/m2
Moment of inertia, I 0.00125 0.0031 0.00636 M4
Unit weight, γ 24 24 24 KN/m3
Poisson’s ratio, υ 0.2 0.2 0.2 -
Interface Rigid Rigid Rigid -
Finite element model
The used finite element model for excavation and adjacent area are shown in Figure 2.9. This
figure shows a cut at the face of the excavation. model dimensions were selected so that the
boundaries are far enough to do not cause any restriction or strain localization to the analysis. The
excavation area is 12 m x 12 m to give an equal spacing between solider pile in case of using
spacing 2, 3 and 4m and the existing building is assumed to be 12 m x 12 m in plane and caused
2
stress on soil assumed to be 150 KN/m at1.5 m depth below the ground surface. This stress is
corresponding for the dense to medium sand soil bearing capacity. The dimensions of model are
50 m x 30 m x 25 m and the mesh were generated as fine mesh at excavation area where the stresses
are high whereas, coarse mesh at the boundaries of the model where the stresses are low.
Analysis process
After entering the finite element model, calculation stages started up. The parameters taken into
consideration in the analysis process are the excavation height (H) (five different height where
26
chosen 4,5,6,7 and 8m), pile spacing (S) 2,3and 4m were used, pile diameter (d) 0.4, 0.5 and 0.6m
were used, type of soil used, two types of sandy soil dense and medium sand and the adjacent
building stress (q) assumed to be 100 and 150 KN/m.
Output of the analysis
From the analysis of the results the maximum lateral displacement of soldier pile occurs at the top
of pile and decreasing by increasing pile depth until embedded depth (D) = 4.5m (pivot point and
begin in increasing by increase pile depth until end of pile length. And the maximum bending
moment of soldier pile occur at D = 2.25m
(a) Lateral displacement profile (b) Bending moment diagram
Figure 2. 8 Variation of lateral displacement and bending moment along the concrete soldier pile.
The analysis revealed that the spacing between the piles, pile diameter, soil type effect and cap
beam effect are the factors that affect the lateral displacement (Ux) and bending moment (M) of
concrete soldier pile.
2.7 Modes of failure for excavation support systems
The loads exerted on wall/soil system tend to produce a variety of potential failure modes. Among
the possible modes of failure on concrete soldier pile are the overturning, the structural, the sliding
and the deep-seated are the major one (Arora, 2004).
27
2.7.1 Overturning failure
Overturning failure due to inadequate pile penetration. Lateral soil and/or water pressures exerted
on the wall tend to cause rigid body rotation of a cantilever or anchored wall as illustrated in Figure
2.9. This type of failure is prevented by adequate penetration of the piling in a cantilever wall or
by a proper combination of penetration and anchor position for an anchored wall (Gilbert Gedeon,
1994). As studies show that from Arora, the modes of failure against overturning is calculated by
dividing the resisting moment by overturning moment.
Figure 2. 9 Overturning failure (Arora, 2004).
2.7.2 Pile structural failure
The piles fail in bending. Most likely location is at the ground surface where the piles are embedded
in substantial concrete foundations otherwise may be below the ground surface. Figure 2.10 shows
the pile structural failure.
28
Figure 2. 10 Pile structural failure (Gilbert Gedeon, 1994).
2.7.3 Sliding failure
Possible mode for non-cohesive soils. Wall moves outwards with passive failure of soil in front of
wall and active failure of soil behind wall. Factor of safety controlled by increasing depth of
embedment of wall. Unlikely to govern design for typical cases (Gilbert Gedeon, 1994). As studies
by Arora the modes of failure against sliding is calculated as the resisting force divided by driving
force
Figure 2. 11 Sliding failure (Gilbert Gedeon, 1994).
29
2.7.4 Deep seated failure
A potential rotational failure of an entire soil mass containing a cantilever wall is illustrated in
Figure 2.12. This potential failure is independent of the structural characteristics of the wall. The
adequacy of the system (i.e. factor of safety) against this mode of failure should be assessed by the
geotechnical engineer through conventual analyses for support structure stability. This type of
failure cannot be remedied by increasing the depth of penetration nor by repositioning the anchor.
The only recourse when this type of failure is anticipated is to change the geometry of retained
material or improve the soil strengths (Gilbert Gedeon, 1994).
Figure 2. 12 Deep-seated failure (Gilbert Gedeon, 1994).
2.7.5 Basal heave failure
Usually base failure to an excavation by upward heave applies particularly in very soft and soft
clays and silty clays. Stiff soils less prone to encounter this problem. The basal heave failure is
analogous to a bearing capacity failure, only in reverse being that stresses in the ground are relieved
instead of increased.
There are many methods to examine the basal heave failure and may be broadly divided according
to basic concepts such as those based on bearing capacity formula and those based on examination
of moment equilibrium. It is recommended that in the design, both methods are to be used for basal
heave check (S.S. Gue and Y.C. Tan, 1998).
30
2.8 Vertical stress distribution on a vertical plane
The vertical stress distribution on a vertical plane at a radial distance of r can be obtained from
Boussinesq’s equation. In this case, the radial distance r is constant and the depth changes. The
value of r/z are obtained for different depths z. the value of Boussinesq’s coefficient IB are obtained
from Boussinesq’s coefficient table which is presented in Figure 2.13 and Table 2.12 shows the
calculation for vertical stress on a vertical plane at r = 1m (Arora, 2004).
Figure 2. 13 Stress on a vertical plane (Arora, 2004).
31
2.8.1 Boussinesq’s coefficient table
Table 2. 12 Values of Boussinesq’s coefficient for calculation of stress from existing structure
(Arora, 2004).
Section modulus
For permanent walls and temporary walls that are considered critical, an allowable bending stress
in the soldier beam, Fb, of 0.55 Fy, where Fy is the yield stress of the steel, is recommended. Steel
sheet-pile and soldier beams are commonly either Grade 36 (Fy = 248 MPa) or Grade 50 (Fy =
345 MPa). For temporary walls, a 20 percent increase in the allowable stress may be allowed for
positive wall bending moments between anchor locations; no allowable stress increase is
recommended for negative wall bending movements at the anchor locations. The required section
modulus Sreq, is calculated as:
𝐌𝐦𝐚𝐱
𝐒𝐫𝐞𝐪 = − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − (𝟐. 𝟏𝟎)
𝐅𝐛
Standard SI units are S(mm3), Mmax (KN-m), and Fb (MPa). In most cases, several available steel
sections will typically meet this requirement (Sabatini, Pass, Bachus, 1999).
32
2.9.1 Modelling of soldier pile wall
The 3-node or 5-node plate elements are used to describe semi-two-dimensional structural objects
with flexural rigidity and a normal stiffness. Plate elements are slightly different from 3-node or
5-node line elements in the sense that they have three degrees of freedom per node instead of two
in the global coordinate system, i.e. two translational d.o.f.s (ux, uy) and one rotational d.o.f.s (φz).
The plate elements also have 3 d.o.f.s per node in the rotated coordinate system, i.e. one axial
displacement, one transverse displacement and one rotation (φz) (Papadopoulos, 2014).
Input parameters for plate

𝐛
𝐅𝐥𝐞𝐱𝐮𝐫𝐚𝐥 𝐫𝐢𝐠𝐢𝐝𝐢𝐭𝐲, 𝐄𝐈 = 𝐄 × 𝐡𝟑 × , (𝐛 = 𝟏) − − − − − − − − − − − − − (𝟐. 𝟏𝟏)
𝟏𝟐
𝐍𝐨𝐫𝐦𝐚𝐥 𝐬𝐭𝐢𝐟𝐟𝐧𝐞𝐬𝐬, 𝐄𝐀 = 𝐄 × 𝐡 × 𝐛 − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − −(𝟐. 𝟏𝟐)
𝐄𝐈
𝐄𝐥𝐞𝐦𝐞𝐧𝐭 𝐭𝐡𝐢𝐜𝐤𝐧𝐞𝐬𝐬, 𝐝 = 𝐡 = √𝟏𝟐 × − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − −(𝟐. 𝟏𝟑)
𝐄𝐀
𝐏𝐥𝐚𝐭𝐞 𝐰𝐞𝐢𝐠𝐡𝐭𝐬, 𝐰
= (𝐮𝐧𝐢𝐭 𝐰𝐞𝐢𝐠𝐡𝐭 𝐨𝐟 𝐜𝐨𝐧𝐜𝐫𝐞𝐭𝐞 − 𝐮𝐧𝐢𝐭 𝐰𝐞𝐢𝐠𝐡𝐭 𝐨𝐟 𝐬𝐨𝐢𝐥) × 𝐝𝐫𝐞𝐚𝐥 − − − (𝟐. 𝟏𝟒)
Figure 2. 14 Plate element (Papadopoulos, 2014).
33
2.9 Lateral earth pressure
Lateral earth pressure is a significant design element in a number of foundation engineering

problems. Retaining and sheet-pile walls, both braced and unbraced excavations, grain in silo walls
and bins, and earth or rock contacting tunnel walls and other underground structures require a
quantitative estimate of the lateral pressure on a structural member for either a design or stability
analysis. Earth pressures are developed during soil displacements (or strains) but until the soil is
on the verge of failure, as defined by the Mohr's rupture envelope, the stresses are indeterminate.
They are also somewhat indeterminate at rupture since it is difficult to produce a plastic
equilibrium state in a soil mass everywhere simultaneously most times it is a progressive event.
Nevertheless, it is common practice to analyze rupture as an ideal state occurrence, both for
convenience and from limitations on obtaining the necessary soil parameters with a high degree of
reliability. The lateral earth pressures are involved with active pressures approximately developed
behind the walls from the fill (or backfill) and passive pressures in front of the wall below the
dredge line. Either the Rankine or Coulomb lateral earth-pressure coefficients may be used for the
earth pressures. Relative soil-wall movement produces adhesion and/or friction depending upon
the soil. We need soil parameters of unit weight, internal angle and cohesion for both the wall
backfill and the base soil. Because the wall must survive the initial loading as well as long-term
loading, the undrained strength parameters are usually used. (Sabatini, Pass, Bachus, 1999).
Rankine’s theory (1857) considers the state of stress in a soil mass when the condition of plastic
equilibrium has been reached, i.e. when shear failure is on the point of occurring throughout the
mass. The theory satisfies the conditions of a lower bound plasticity solution. The Mohr circle
representing the state of stress at failure in a two-dimensional element is shown in Figure 2.15. the
relevant shear strength parameters being denoted by C and Ø Shear failure occurs along a plane at
an angle of 450 + Ø/2 to the major principal plane. If the soil mass as a whole is stressed such that
the principal stresses at every point are in the same directions then, theoretically, there
34
Figure 2. 15 State of plastic equilibrium (Sabatini, Pass, Bachus, 1999).

will be a network of failure planes (known as a slip line field) equally inclined to the principal
planes, as shown in Figure 2.15. It should be appreciated that the state of plastic equilibrium can
be developed only if sufficient deformation of the soil mass can take place (Arora, 2004).
Consider now a semi-infinite mass of soil with a horizontal surface and having a vertical boundary
formed by a smooth wall surface extending to semi-infinite depth, as represented in Figure 2.16.
The soil is assumed to be homogeneous and isotropic. A soil element at any depth z is subjected
to a vertical stress σz and a horizontal stress σx and, since there can be no lateral transfer of weight
if the surface is horizontal, no shear stresses exist on horizontal and vertical planes. The vertical
and horizontal stresses, therefore, are principal stresses.
35
Figure 2. 16 Active and passive Rankine state (Sabatini, Pass, Bachus, 1999).
If there is a movement of the wall away from the soil, the value of σx decreases as the soil dilates
or expands outwards, the decrease in σx being an unknown function of the lateral strain in the soil.
If the expansion is large enough, the value of σx decreases to a minimum value such that a state of
plastic equilibrium develops. Since this state is developed by a decrease in the horizontal stress σx,
this must be the minor principal stress σ3. The vertical stress σz is then the major principal stress
σ1. The stress σ1 (=σz) is the overburden pressure at depth z and is a fixed value for any depth. The
value of σ3 (= σx) is determined when a Mohr circle through the point representing σ1 touches the
failure envelope for the soil. The relationship between σ1 and σ3 when the soil reaches a state of
plastic equilibrium can be derived from this Mohr circle. (Craig's, 2004).
36
CHAPTER 3
MATERIALS AND METHODS
To achieve the objective of the research a review of application practices, research findings and
data on soil parameters like Young’s Modulus, poison’s ratio, initial stress coefficient, dilatancy
angle and excavation support structures of modulus of elasticity of selected site in Addis Ababa,
Mexico area is used for analysis of the cause of failure of temporary support structures.
3.1 Description of the study area
From geotechnical investigation firm, data is collected on soil parameter as well as support
structure from Addis Ababa, Mexico site. Some of the soil parameters which are not included in
the soil investigation report are correlated using different practices and used for the analysis
process.
Figure 3. 1 Location of the building site on satellite image.
37
3.2 Methodology
In the following session the methodology how to conduct the research were determined in detail.
The methodology started by modeling the soil and the concrete soldier pile. Finite element method
was used to analyze the causes of failure of concrete soldier pile by assuming soil as the Mohr-
Coulomb elastic plastic material, modeling the concrete soldier pile as elastic plastic by using
plaxis 3D foundation.
To model with the Mohr-Coulomb, five parameters are the basic to deal with this model and these
are: The Young’s Modulus, Poisson’s ratio, soil cohesion, angle of internal friction and dilatancy
angle. The Young’s Modulus is determined from correlation with the standard penetration value
of N70 which is in return the N70 converted to N’55 for the correlation from the equation of (Es =
3000(N+6)) for silty clay and for each selected layer the values are calculated according to the
N’55 values.
The shear strength parameters are directly obtained from the laboratory direct shear test of the
geotechnical report from the Radice Engineering PLC.
To start with the analysis, four cases has been selected. Namely, the deformation, stability, seepage
and sensitive analysis. After having these scenarios, a numerical modeling with plaxis 3D
foundation started by creating a geometry model. The geometry model is set by the area of the
excavation as well as by different work planes. Once the geometry model drawn, modeling of soil
as well as material followed. Then the analysis is ready for the generation of 2D finite element
mesh and 3D finite element mesh. Then the initial condition as well as the calculation stages done
accordingly. Finally, the outputs like the extreme total displacement, extreme incremental
displacement, effective stresses, active pore pressure, factor of safety, …so on taken for results of
analysis and discussion. Last but not least the conclusion and recommendation has been discussed.
In general, the work flow described in Figure 3.2.
38
3.2.1 Work flow chart

Methodology
Geometry model
Data collection,
Correlation & literature
Modeling of
soil &
Failure analysis, Numerical material
method (FEM - Plaxis 3D
Foundation)
done on selecting four cases
2D and 3D mesh
generation
Output Calculation Initial

stages condition
Result and Discussion
Conclusion and
Recommendation
Figure 3. 2 Shows flow chart.
39
CHAPTER 4
SITE OBSERVATION & GEOTECHNICAL PARAMETERS OF MEXICO SITE
4.1 General
This thesis output is mainly governed by availability of soil data and investigation reports that is
used as input in FEM analysis. Basic inputs for FEM analysis are gathered from a detailed
geotechnical investigation that is collected from consulting and geotechnical investigation firms.
Thus, the required geotechnical data have been adapted from investigation reports and some
parameters are correlated and shown if the investigation report does not include it.
Soil investigation data of 23 - story apartment building located in Addis Ababa around Mexico
was used to find the causes of the failure of concrete solider pile as a supporting system in basement
excavation. The project site is generally characterized by flat topography. And geotechnical
investigation was carried out by Radice Engineering PLC.
Two bore holes were drilled in the investigation. The co-ordinates and elevation of the bore holes
measured using hand held GPS are shown in Table 4.1.
Table 4. 1 Co-ordinates, depth and elevations of bore holes adopted from geotechnical report
data.
Borehole ID Depth Easting Northing Elevation
(m) (m) (m) (m)
BH-1 50 471691 995864 2360
BH-2 50 471691 995864 2360
For this thesis borehole number two (BH-2) was selected due to the nearest borehole for the failure
part and its soil parameters are thoroughly discussed and studied. Thus, it is used for simulation of
the soil-structure interaction for concrete soldier pile failure.
40
Site geology
The project site area is covered mainly by soft, dark gray CLAY mixed with Gravel and
concrete(fill) was encountered having maximum depth of 0.5m. Soft, dark gray, CLAY (top soil)
was encountered underlying the above soil layer with maximum thickness of 1.50m. Below the
soft, dark gray, stiff, reddish and orange brown, silty CLAY (completely weathered vesicular
basalt) was encountered having maximum depth of 17.0m. Underlying the above soil layer stiff,
reddish brown, gravel sandy silt (completely to highly weathered vesicular basalt) was encountered
with maximum depth of 3.0m. Below the stiff, reddish brown, gravel sandy silt, dense, brown,
silty sandy gravel (moderately weathered vesicular basalt was encountered with maximum
thickness of 1.65m. Weak, to medium strong, gray, fine grained, closely to moderately jointed
basalt (slightly weathered to fresh basalt) underlying the above soil layer with maximum thickness
of 16.95m. Dense, brown, silty sandy GRAVEL (moderately weathered vesicular basalt) was
encountered underlying the above layer having a maximum thickness of 9.5m.
Figure 4. 1 Geological map of the area and the project site.
41
For the study in this thesis, field investigation has been done by Radice Engineering PLC. for the
purpose of constructing 23-story building. Standard penetration test (SPT) have been used to
obtain geotechnical parameters and to calculate the allowable bearing of the soil formation.
4.3 Geotechnical parameters for modeling of the Mexico site
Before a geotechnical analysis can be performed, the parameters that is needed in the analysis must
be determined. Each parameter is determined in the following session.
Atterberg limit tests performed for layers of soil at Mexico project site is revised and the results
are shown in Table 4.2.
Table 4. 2 Description of soil layer and Atterberg limit obtained from soil investigation report
done by Radice Engineering P.L.C.
Soil layer Atterberg limit
Liquid Plastic Plastic
Limit Limit Index
Layer Color Description Station Depth (LL)% (PL) (PI)%
No. (BH) (m)
Stiff, reddish and

1 orange brown, silty
0.00 – 10.50 56.3 50.3 6
CLAY (Completely
weathered vesicular
2 BASALT) low to
BH-2 10.50 – 11.50 67.35 53.1 14.25
high plastic
SILTY/CLAY
3
11.50 – 17.00 64.25 50.1 17.50
42
Initial Stress Coefficient (Ko)
The ratio of the horizontal principal effective stress to the vertical principal effective stress is
called the lateral earth pressure coefficient at rest (Ko), that is,
𝛔’𝟑
𝐊𝐨 = − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − −(𝟒. 𝟏)
𝛔’𝟏
Where:
σ’3 = horizontal principal effective stress
σ’1 = vertical principal effective stress
The at-rest condition implies that no deformation occurs and Ko applies to effective principal, not
total principal stresses. For a soil that never subjected to effective stresses higher than its current
effective stress (normally consolidated soil), Ko = Konc is reasonably predicted by an equation
suggested by Jacky (1994) and Holtz and Kovacs (1981) empirical correlation formulas have been
taken respectively as follows:
𝐊𝐨 = 𝟏 − 𝐬𝐢𝐧(𝛉) − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − −(𝟒. 𝟐)
𝐊𝐨 = 𝟎. 𝟒𝟒 + 𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟒𝟐 × 𝐈𝐩 − − − − − − − − − − − −(𝟒. 𝟑)
Where:
KO = coefficient of earth pressure at rest
IP = Plasticity index
Ø = angle of internal friction
Using the equation (4.3) lateral earth pressure coefficient at rest (KO) values for soil in the study
site is summarized in Table 4.3.
43
Table 4. 3 Initial stress coefficient Ko of soil in the study area.

Soil layer Depth Plastic Initial stress coefficient
Layer Color Description Station Index Ko = 0.44 + 0.0042 × Ip
(m)
No. (BH) (PI)%
Stiff, reddish and

1 orange brown,
6 0.47
silty CLAY
0.00 – 10.50
(Completely
weathered
2 BH-2
vesicular 10.50 – 11.50 14.25 0.5
BASALT) low to
high plastic
3
SILT/CLAY 11.50 – 17.00 17.50 0.51
The values of the shear strength parameters which are necessary for the analysis of the causes for
failure of the concrete soldier pile were adopted from study of geotechnical report and listed in
Table 4.4.
Table 4. 4 Shear strength parameters adopted from geotechnical report.
Bore Hole ID Angle of internal friction, ϕ(o) Cohesion, C(kpa)
BH-2(0.00m-10.50m) 29.2 19
BH-2(10.50m-11.50m) 30.1 22
BH-2(11.50m-17.00m) 25.6 13
44
Considering the study of Bowles from literature, the Poisson’s ratio for Mexico project site is
shown below in Table 4.5.
Table 4. 5 Poisson's ratio for Mexico project site.

Soil layer
Layer
Description Depth Station ν Material
No. Color
type
(m) (BH)
1
Stiff, reddish and
orange brown, silty 0.00 – 10.50
2 CLAY (Completely BH-2 0.35 Silty clay

weathered vesicular 10.50 – 11.50
BASALT) low to high
3
plastic SILT/CLAY
11.50 – 17.00
SPT N Values
From the penetration count N, the modulus of elasticity may be estimated using different empirical
formulas. SPT N70 used to calculate N55 which in return helps to obtain young’s modulus (E).
And in below Table 4.6 equations for the modulus of elasticity as a result of N are given. So, the
value of SPT N70 is changed to SPT N55 using Eqn. (4.4).

𝟕𝟎
𝐍′𝟓𝟓 = × 𝐍𝟕𝟎 − − − − − − − − − − − − − − −(𝟒. 𝟒).
𝟓𝟓
45
Table 4. 6 SPT N55 values for Mexico project site.
Depth 𝟕𝟎
𝐍′𝟓𝟓 = × 𝐍𝟕𝟎
From To 𝟓𝟓
Layer N70
1 0.00 10.50 19 24.18

2 10.50 11.50 21.84 27.80
3 11.50 17.00 17 21.64
The calculated N55 should be converted to N70 because the stress-strain modulus, Es expressed as
N70 and the values are demonstrated in Table 4.7.
Table 4. 7 Stress - strain modulus Es for Mexico project site.
Depth(m) Es Eqn.
Layer Color Description N55 from table Es Material
From To 10.2 Eqn. (KPa) type
2.6
Stiff, reddish
and orange
1 brown, silty 0.00 10.50 24.18 9,054
CLAY
Silty clay
(Completely
weathered Es = 10,140
2 vesicular 10.50 11.50 27.80 300(N+6)
BASALT) low
3 to high plastic 11.50 17.00 21.64 8,292

SILT/CLAY
NB: Stress-strain modulus Es in KPa and for SPT N values should be estimated as N55 not N70.
46
Alternative stiffness parameters

In addition to Young’s modulus, plaxis 3D foundation allows for the input of alternative stiffness
moduli such as the shear modulus (G) and the oedometer modulus Eoed. These stiffness moduli
are related to Young’s modulus according to Hooke’s law of isotropic elasticity, which involves
Poisson’s ratio, υ.
𝐄
𝐆= × (𝟏 + 𝛍) − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − (𝟒. 𝟓)
𝟐
(𝟏 − 𝛍) × 𝐄
𝐄𝐨𝐞𝐝 = − − − − − − − − − − − (𝟒. 𝟔)
(𝟏 − 𝟐𝛍)(𝟏 + 𝛍)
When entering one of the alternative stiffness parameters, plaxis 3D foundation will retain the
entered Poisson’s ratio and calculate the corresponding Young’s modulus.
Using equation (4.5) and (4.6) the value of alternative stiffness parameters is calculated in Table
4.8.
Table 4. 8 Calculation of shear modulus and oedometer modulus.
Layer Depth Young’s 𝑮 𝑬𝒐𝒆𝒅

Poisson’s modulus 𝑬 (𝟏 − 𝝁) × 𝑬
No. From To = × (𝟏 + 𝝁) =
𝟐 (𝟏 − 𝟐𝝁)(𝟏 + 𝝁)
1 0.00 10.50 0.35 9,054 3,353.33 14,531.1
2 10.50 11.50 0.35 10,140 3,755.56 16,274.07
3 11.50 17.00 0.35 8,292 3,071.11 13,308.15
47
Ground water table
From the investigation of site report by Radice engineering the presence of groundwater was
checked in every borehole during the drilling before resumption and completion of every activities.
As a result, no ground water is observed during the investigation time.
Modulus of elasticity of pile
In this study, the maximum depth of pile is 15m considering this; the value of modulus of elasticity
of pile illustrated in Table 4.9.
Table 4. 9 Stress-strain modulus of concrete soldier pile (ESP) with respect to depth using
Equation. 2.9, and Figure. 2.4.
Modulus of elasticity of pile
Depth(m) 𝐟𝐜 = 𝟒𝟐. 𝟒𝟔 + 𝟎. 𝟒𝟑𝟑𝐙 (𝐌𝐏𝐚) 𝐄𝐬𝐩 = 𝟐𝟗. 𝟓𝟔 + 𝟎. 𝟎𝟖𝟒𝐙 (GPa)

1 42.89 29.68
2 43.33 29.74
3 43.76 29.88
4 44.19 29.98
5 44.63 30.08
6 45.06 30.18
7 45.49 30.27
8 45.92 30.37
9 46.36 30.46
10 46.79 30.56
11 47.22 30.65
12 47.66 30.74
13 48.09 30.84
14 48.52 30.93
15 48.96 31.02
48
4.3.1 Input parameters of soil for Mexico project site
The main soil parameters which is discussed and correlated above are summarized in Table 4.10.
These values are used in the modelling of the soil in plaxis 3D foundation.
Table 4. 10 Summary of soil parameters for the study area adopted from the geotechnical report.
No Parameters Symbol Layer-1 Layer-2 Layer-3 Units
1 Initial stress coefficient Ko 0.47 0.5 0.51 -

2 Angle of internal friction Ø 29.2 30.1 25.6 o
3 Cohesion C 19 22 13 KPa
4 Poisson’s ratio υ 0.35 0.35 0.35 -

5 Young’s modulus Es 9,054 10,140 8,292 KN/m2
6 Dilatancy angle ψ 0 0 0 o
4.4 Stress effect of existing structure (masonry wall)
Masonry wall are a common sight in many parts of the world. They are often used to divide up
agricultural land or separate adjacent properties. The load of a masonry is simply the force that the
masonry wall exerts on the ground on which it rests. In this study the dimension of the wall
measured from the site was 30mx0.3mx3.5m.
The overburden pressure due to the presence of the masonry wall calculated as follows:
Po = γ × z = 21KN/m3 × 0.5m = 10.5KN/m2
Self-weight of masonry wall = γ × z = 23KN/m3 × 3.5m = 80KN/m2
Total weight of overburden pressure from the masonry wall is the sum of soil and self-weight of
masonry and also the force becomes the area of the pressure. Po = (10 + 80)KN/m2 =
90KN/m2 × 3.5m = 315KN/m.
49
4.5 Material properties of concrete soldier pile (plate)
The properties of the concrete soldier pile wall are entered in a material set of the plate type. The
concrete has a Young’s modulus of 31.02Gpa and the wall is 0.6m thick. The properties are listed
in Table 4.11.
Table 4. 11 Property of concrete soldier pile.
No Parameters Name Value Unit

1 Type of behavior Material type Linear elastic -
2 Normal stiffness EA 1.861E+07 KN/m
3 Flexural rigidity EI 5.500E+05 KNm2/m
4 Equivalent thickness h 0.595 m
5 weight w 2.4 KN/m/m
6 Poisons ratio υ 0.2 -
50
4.6 Geotechnical and material parameters for input
All the input parameters that are needed for the analysis of failure in plaxis 3D foundation are
listed in Table 4.12.
Table 4. 12 Input parameters of soil and structure adopted from geotechnical report.
Concrete
Parameters Name Soil soldier pile Units
Layer -1 Layer-2 Layer-3 Layer-1,2&3
General
Mohr- Mohr- Mohr- Linear-
Material model Model coulomb coulomb coulomb elastic
-
Drainage type Type Undrained Undrained Undrained Non-porous
Dry unit weight γunsat 14 14 16 24 KN/m3
Saturated unit weight γsat 20 20 20 - KN/m3

Parameters
Young's Modulus E 9,054 10,140 8,292 3.102E+07 KN/m2
Angle of internal Ø 29.2 30.1 25.6 - o

friction
Cohesion C 19 22 13 - KN/m2
Dilatancy angle ψ 0 0 0 0 o
Poisson’s ratio υ 0.35 0.35 0.35 0.2 -
Interfaces
Interface strength - Rigid Rigid Rigid Rigid -

Interface Reduction
Factor Rinter 1 1 1 1 -
Initial
KO determination - Manual Manual Manual - -
KOX,
Earth pressure at rest KOY 0.47 0.5 0.51 - -
Depth
Height H 10.50 1 5.50 15 m
51
CHAPTER 5
ANALYSIS, RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
5.1 General
In this section, the causes for failure of excavation support structure at Mexico site are discussed.
In addition to this, interviewing has been done with personnel as well as laboratory report data
checked in detail. Moreover, the results discussed in detail with the modes of failure. Lastly, the
possible solutions for future constructed excavation support structure is given based on the causes
and modes of failure.
5.2 General overview of the causes of failure from laboratory data, design and interviewing
Before starting the analysis with the software plaxis 3D fondation, checking the laboratory report
data, the design and an interviewing of the personnel is the first step which will be discussed in
the following topics.
5.2.1 Laboratory data
Based on the data obtained from the Radice Engineering PLC the subsurface materials are
subdivided into seven geotechnical layers starting from the ground level down to a depth of 50m.
And a total of 13-standard penetration tests was conducted in the two boreholes and 11 disturbed
samples were conducted. In addition to this, six laboratory tests were conducted. Among these, 11
Grain size distribution, 11 Atterberg limits, 4 natural moisture content, 4 specific gravity and 5
free swell tests were conducted. Lastly, the shear strength parameters tests are conducted.
However, the investigated soil report data need to be checked using plaxis 3D foundation for
further analysis of the parameters, sensitive analysis will be conducted to see which parameters
are more sensitive for the failure of the excavation support structure.
5.2.2 Checking shoring design
During the design of the shoring the soil lateral earth pressure as well as considering the stress
effect of the existing structure is basic. Once, this determined the embedment depth and the section
52
modulus is designed. Moreover, in this section, installation of the concrete soldier pile, placement
of the re-bar and stress effect of the existing structure will be discussed.
Lateral earth pressure
Table 5. 1 Variation of active earth pressure from design report data.

Sqrt Pactiv, Checked,
Soil Depth (ka) ΔP,kpa kpa Pactiv, Kpa Variation
Ka
(m)
1 0 0.271 0.521 42 0.00 0.00 0.00
9-dz 0.271 0.521 231 36.57 36.55 -0.019
9+dz 0.271 0.521 231 36.57 36.55 -0.019
11-dz 0.271 0.521 273 47.95 47.93 -0.020
2 11+dz 0.249 0.499 273 42.93 43.027 -0.097
14-dz 0.249 0.499 336 58.60 58.714 -0.114
3 14+dz 0.307 0.554 336 75.52 75.452 -0.068
16-dz 0.307 0..554 378 88.43 88.35 -0.084
4 16+dz 0.260 0.510 378 72.66 72.78 -0.120
19 0.260 0.510 441 89.01 89.16 -0.15
Total variation from active earth pressure = 0.691. Even if, this is not the cause for failure of the
concrete soldier pile. However, any calculation error is not recommended as it leads to failure.
Table 5. 2 Variation of passive earth pressure from design report data.
Sqrt Ppasive, Checked,
Soil Depth Kp (kp) ΔP, kpa kpa Variation
ppasive, kpa
(m)
1 0 - - - - - -
9-dz - - - - - -
9+dz 3.69 1.921 0 96.05 96.05 -
11-dz 3.69 1.921 42 251.03 251.03 -
2 11+dz 4.023 2.006 42 269.242 269.266 -0.024
14-dz 4.023 2.006 105 522.678 522.715 -0.037
3 14+dz 3.225 1.804 105 431.934 431.975 -0.041
16-dz 3.225 1.804 147 568.627 568.685 -0.058
4 16+dz 3.852 1.963 147 664.351 664.394 -0.043
19 3.852 1.963 147 907.017 907.070 -0.053
53
Total variation from passive earth pressure = 0.256. This variation indicate that the total passive
earth pressure decreases within the value of 0.256. for this case the variation has no any significant
on the stability of the support structure. But this error not expected from real project.
During the analysis of the design, the variation of the active earth pressure was 0.691kpa and the
passive earth pressure was 0.256kpa from the original value. And the total earth pressure to be
found as the sum of active and passive pressure was 0.947kpa. The earth pressure calculated by
rechecking the previous design without changing any parameters. However, from the design
analysis there is an error during calculation of the earth pressure. Even if, the error does not cause
any failure on concrete soldier pile because of a small significant value.
Section modulus of the concrete soldier pile
After the calculation of the lateral earth pressure, the forces are calculated for having the maximum
design moment. The section modulus is provided based on the obtained maximum design moment.
In the following section, the section modulus from the previous study is compared with the output
of the stability analysis of the software.
Section modulus from previous study
The required section modulus, S can be calculated from the formula of the following:
Mmax
S=
allowable
The allowable can be calculated from the given fy value and it is estimated as fifty percent of it
whereas the fy obtained from S-500 and the steel grade.
500
so, fy = = 434.78MN/m2
1.15
Then, the allowable is 55%fy and which came 239MN/m2
The calculated maximum moment was 624KN-m/m
Hence, the required section modulus, S will be:
54
Mmax 624
s= = = 0.002610879m3 /m = 2.61 × 10−3 m3 /m
alowable 239,000
Section modulus of stability analysis
The calculated maximum bending moment from the analysis was 367.99KN-m/m
Hence, the required section modulus, S will be:
Mmax 367.99
s= = = 0.00153971m3 /m = 1.54 × 10−3 m3 /m
allowable 239,000
Results from previous analysis was 2.61m3/m-10-3. Whereas, from the stability analysis was
1.54m3/m-10-3. The variation is from the calculated maximum bending moment which is obtained
after the analysis of the stability using plaxis 3D foundation. Also, the variation of the section
modulus indicates that the provided section was higher than the analysis report. Thus, the
difference in the section modulus of the concrete soldier pile is considered to be one of the causes
for failure of the concrete soldier pile and further analysis of the causes is done by plaxis 3D
foundation.
Installation of concrete soldier pile near to exiting masonry wall
After the completion of the installation of concrete soldier pile, the excavation started. And the
excavation was well done on the part of no exiting structure. However, to the existing structure of
the masonry wall the installation as well as the excavation somewhat very near up to 30cm and on
the other side up to 1.15m far. Within the same line the failure happened on the nearest part of the
30cm. So, this step by step approach of the installation and excavation created an additional stress
on the excavation support structure which was not considered at first or the effects was not valued.
During an interviewing about the installation of the concrete soldier pile, the personnel in study
site have seen the installation from the beginning up to the end. One of the interviewer Muhammed
said, at the time of excavation everything was done properly and the distance from the excavation
to the exiting masonry wall was 1.30m. But, through the process of the excavation the gap between
the existing structure and the concrete soldier pile was 30cm. Also, this is due to the additional
55
requirement of the space. And, at the end failure happened on the part of the approached distance.
On the other hand, for the distance far from the existing masonry wall failure does not occurred
within the same line. Thus, the approached excavation distance is might be the causes for failure
of concrete soldier pile, further study will be performed using plaxis 3D foundation and the stress
effect will be calculated within 30cm radial distance.
Stress effect of existing structure (masonry wall)
The vertical stress incremental of the masonry wall calculated in Table 5.3 using Boussinesq’s
equation by inserting the calculated surface load (Q) of 315KN.
Table 5. 3 Calculation of vertical stress at r = 0.3m from existing structure.
z 1.5 3 4.5 6 7.5 9 10.5 12 13.5 15
𝑟 0.2 0.1 0.067 0.05 0.04 0.033 0.029 0.025 0.022 0.02
𝑧
IB 0.4329 0.4657 0.4715 0.4745 0.4751 0.4755 0.4758 0.476 0.4762 0.4763
0.4329Q 0.4657Q 0.4715Q 0.4745Q 0.4751Q 0.4755Q 0.4758Q 0.476Q 0.4762Q 0.4763Q
𝜎
136.36 146.70 148.52 149.47 149.66 149.78 149.88 149.94 150.00 150.03
The total incremental stress = 150.03KN/m2
Then, when this divided by for 20 failure concrete soldier pile, the incremental stress on the
individual will be = 7.5KN/m2
56
Placement of the re-bar
The placement of the re-bar needs some arrangement even the designer provide 80% on the soil
part. However, when it has seen on the front part of the excavation, there is only 20% of the re-bar
was placed. For having balance on the both sides, the arrangement of the re-bar is an important
method. So, placing the re-bar at least 30% in front of the excavation part is crucial. Figure 5.1
shows the placement of the re-bar.
Figure 5. 1 Placement of re-bar on concrete soldier pile from design report data.
On the back of the excavation much of the re-bar have been placed. However, in front of the
exaction few numbers of re-bar have been placed. The analysis displays that the placement of the
re-bar is one of the factors to maintain the balance of the concrete soldier pile.
From the analysis of the placement of the re-bar, up to 80 percent of the re-bar placed on the back
of the excavation. In contrast, on the part of the excavated area the re-bars are too small and does
not give balance when unexpected situation came. Hence, the number of the placement of the re-
bar will trigger failure on the excavation support structure.
57
5.3 Study of the causes for failure of concrete soldier pile using plaxis 3D foundation
In this section, to study the causes for failure of the concrete soldier pile, four analysis have been
conducted on deformation, stability, seepage and sensitive. The selected four cases are illustrated
to show the causes for failure of the concrete soldier pile. Also, the presentation illustrates the data
that is obtained from the geotechnical investigation. From the analysis of the plaxis 3D foundation,
the output of the total displacement, the extreme volumetric strain, lateral displacement towards
the x and z direction, effective stresses, active pore pressure, and factor of safety are examined to
find the causes for failure of the concrete soldier pile.
The analysis started with the modeling of the geometry. Figure 5.2 shows the geometry model of
the study area.
Figure 5. 2 Geometry model of the concrete soldier pile.

The geometry model is created with the dimension of 50m x 30m. and, from the dimension of the
excavation size, 10mx5m of the real problem examined. After setting dimension of the geometry
58
model, the boundary condition, separation of layers according to their dimension, the installation
of the concrete soldier pile including their spacing have been placed. Finally, separation of the
excavation, and material have been performed accordingly.
During the analysis of the problem, the generation of 2D finite element mesh have been completed.
Figure 5.3 displays a 2D finite element mesh.
Figure 5. 3 2D Finite element mesh of the concrete soldier pile.

After the cross-section model is complete. A 2D finite element model (or mesh) is generated before
the extension in to z-direction is considered. Results from the analysis also shows that the
connectivity of the mesh of a very coarse and excavation of the cluster. In addition to the mesh
generation itself, a transformation of input data (properties, boundary conditions, material sets,
etc.) from the geometry model (points, lines and clusters) to the finite element mesh (elements,
nodes and stress points) is made.
59
Following the generation of the 2D finite element mesh, a 3D mesh generated. Accordingly, Figure
5.4 illustrates the generation of 3D finite element mesh.
Figure 5. 4 3D Finite element mesh

From the analysis of deformation, the output of the initial stresses was found to be -151.27KN/m2.
And Figure 5.5 shows the initial stresses of the concrete soldier pile.
Figure 5. 5 Initial stress
60
5.3.1 Case study one: Deformation analysis
During the calculation stages of each phases, the preview of the presence of the structure is checked
whether it is activated or not in the required work planes. Consequently, the installation of the
concrete soldier pile as well as the excavation is shown in Figure 5.6 and 5.7.
Figure 5. 6 Preview of the installation of concrete soldier pile
Figure 5. 7 Stage construction preview for the excavation
61
Throughout the analysis of deformation, the extreme total displacement for concrete soldier pile
was 8.59mm. Figure 5.8 shows the extreme total displacement.
Figure 5. 8 Extreme total displacement

While conducting the deformation analysis results shows that the extreme total displacement on
the concrete soldier pile was 8.59mm. which is quite greater than the standard recommended value
for the deep excavation. And, it can be concluded that the extreme total displacement on the
concrete soldier pile during the analysis of the deformation has effects for the failure of deep
excavation support structure. Hence, before concluding the extreme total displacement is one of
the causes for failure of the concrete soldier pile, further analyses has been conducted on the
stability of the concrete soldier pile.
62
In the analysis of seepage, the extreme horizontal displacement on the concrete soldier pile was
6.59mm. Figure 5.9 illustrates the extreme lateral displacement towards the x-direction.
Figure 5. 9 Horizontal displacement (Ux)

After the analysis of the deformation, the extreme lateral displacement towards the x-direction was
found to be 6.59mm. From the analysis of the results, the deformation on the excavation increases
as the depth of the excavation increases. The increase in the deformation of the soil leads the
increase of displacement on the concrete soldier pile. So, from the output of the analysis of the
deformation, results show that the increase in the lateral displacement is one of the pointers for
further study of failure of the concrete soldier pile.
63
During seepage analysis, the extreme horizontal displacement on the concrete soldier pile was
7.64mm. Figure 5.10 illustrates the extreme lateral displacement towards the z-direction.
Figure 5. 10 Horizontal displacement (Uz)

From the analysis of the deformation, the extreme lateral displacement towards the z-direction was
found to be 7.64mm. And, the results of the deformation analysis indicate that there is extreme
deformation towards the z-direction rather than the deformation towards the x-direction.
Accordingly, the analysis of the results of the deformation on the excavation increases as the depth
of the excavation increases. The increase in the deformation of the soil leads to the increase of
displacement on the concrete soldier pile. So, from the output of the analysis of the deformation,
results show that the increase of the deformation is one of the indicators for further study of failure
of the concrete soldier pile.
64
5.3.2 Case study two: Stability analysis
In the analysis of stability, the extreme total displacement for concrete soldier pile was 7.61mm.
Figure 5.11 shows the extreme total displacement.
Figure 5. 11 Extreme total displacement.

Previously conducting the stability analysis, the extreme total displacement was found to be
8.59mm. But, later the results from the analysis offered that the extreme total displacement was
found to be 7.61mm. This displays that the extreme total displacement decreases on the concrete
soldier pile by 6.04%. The decrease in the stability is due to the collapse of soil body reaching to
the failure point in the stability analysis. Thus, the stability analysis indicates which parameters is
responsible for the failure of the concrete soldier pile and leads for further study on sensitive
analysis.
65
From the results of the analysis of stability, the mean stresses for concrete soldier pile was -
150.37KN/m2. Figure 5.12 displays the extreme mean stresses with depth.
Figure 5. 12 Effective stresses.

Previously conducting the stability analysis, the extreme effective mean stresses were found to be
-151.27KN/m2. But, later the results from the analysis presented that the extreme effective mean
stresses were found to be 150.37 KN/m2. This directs that the extreme effective mean stresses
increase on the concrete soldier pile by 0.36%. Thus, the incremental extreme effective mean
stresses induced instability on the excavation support structure.
66
5.3.3 Case study three: Seepage analysis
The seepage analysis started from the interviewing of the personnel. According to eye witnesses,
there was a drainage of rain water from the roof of an existing building. It is known that June to
September is rainy season in Addis Ababa, this drainage from an existing building passes through
the newly constructed building. This rainwater from the adjacent building was blocked from
entering in to the Mexico site without providing other drainage mechanisms. The water can flow
which lead to accumulation of water. After all the surface water accumulated to the side of the
existing structure of masonry wall and through time this water starts to seep in to the soil resulting
crack on the masonry wall. As it was a rainy season the flow of water increased with time, this
seepage of water started decreasing the shear strength of the soil and increased the saturated unit
weight of the soil. Various remedial measures were taken to prevent the failure. One of the actions
taken was filling the cracks by concrete. However, the supporting structure failed as the main cause
of failure was not dealt with.
Figure 5. 13 Failure of concrete soldier pile due to the seepage of water in to the soil.
67
Results from an interviewing for failure of concrete soldier pile was the seepage of surface water
through the soil during the rainy season. the same type of failure unexpectedly happened in Midroc
in Addis Ababa at the time of an interviewing of the personnel at Midroc specialist foundation.
And also, in study area the blockage of the drainage and the unexpected rainy water affect the
stability of the concrete soldier pile. Even if, the concrete soldier pile is designed to withstand any
forces that comes on it. However, the stability of the concrete soldier pile depends on the shear
strength of the soil. In addition to this, there is no lagging wall as well as anchorage that holds the
support structure. Thus, the results from the interviewing has led for further seepage analysis using
plaxis 3D foundation and the output from the analysis has discussed with the displacement load
curve, the horizontal displacement towards the x and z direction.
U(mm)
0.00
0.00 20.00 40.00 60.00 80.00 100.00 120.00 140.00 160.00
-0.10
Active PP (KN/m2)
-0.20
-0.30
-0.40
-0.50
-0.60
Displacement - Load Curve
Figure 5. 14 Active pore pressure in terms of total displacement.

While conducting the seepage analysis, the extreme total displacement was found to be 136.18mm.
But, later the results from the deformation analysis of the displacement–load curve was 107.08mm.
This displays that the extreme deformation on the concrete soldier pile increased by 11.96%. And
the active pore pressure linearly increased with the displacement. Thus, the linearly increase of the
deformation made instability on the excavation support structure.
68
During seepage analysis, the extreme horizontal displacement on the concrete soldier pile was
14.07mm. Figure 5.15 illustrates the extreme lateral displacement towards the x-direction.
Figure 5. 15 Horizontal displacement (Ux)

Earlier without considering seepage of water, analysis have been done on excavation support
structure and the lateral displacement were examined from the output of the analysis and found to
be 6.59mm. On the other hand, analysis have been done considering the seepage of water at the
water level head of -9.60m below the final excavation part. In this case, the extreme lateral
displacement was found to be 14.07mm. From the results of the analysis, the lateral displacement
on the concrete soldier pile is increased by 36.21%. The results of the lateral displacement as well
as interviewing of personnel on the site, one of the causes for failure of the concrete soldier pile is
the increase of the seepage of water.
69
Throughout seepage analysis, the extreme horizontal displacement on the concrete soldier pile was
-17.83mm. Figure 5.16 illustrates the extreme lateral displacement towards the z-direction.
Figure 5. 16 Horizontal displacement (Uz)

Earlier without considering seepage of water, analysis have been done on excavation support
structure and the lateral displacement were examined from the output of the analysis and found to
be -7.64mm. On the other hand, analysis have been done considering the seepage of water at the
water level head of -9.60m below the final excavation part. In this case, the extreme lateral
displacement was found to be -17.83mm. From the results of the analysis, the lateral displacement
on the concrete soldier pile is increased by 40%. The results of the lateral displacement as well as
interviewing of personnel on the site, one of the causes for failure of the concrete soldier pile is
the increase of the seepage of water. Thus, from the above analysis including the interviewing of
personnel on the site one of the causes for failure of the concrete soldier pile is the seepage of the
water.
70
5.3.4 Case study four: Sensitive analysis
The effects of varying the parameters like the embedment depth, angle of internal friction and soil
cohesion are examined to observe which parameters are more sensitive for the failure of the
concrete soldier pile. On the other hand, other parameters are kept the same while performing the
sensitive analysis. And the output of the results from plaxis 3D foundation like the results of the
total displacements, horizontal displacement towards x and z direction and the extreme volumetric
strain increment have been analyzed to know which parameters are more sensitive for the failure
Effects of varying the embedment depth
Varying the embedment depth analysis performed on the concrete soldier pile and the total
displacements was 8.89mm, the horizontal displacement (Ux) was 6.64mm, the horizontal
displacement (Uz) was -7.73mm and the extreme volumetric strain increment was found to be
265.46 x 10-3%. Figure 5.17 and 5.18 shows the extreme total displacements and the extreme
volumetric strain increment.
Figure 5. 17 Total displacements.
71
Figure 5. 18 Extreme volumetric strain increment.

On the analysis of sensitive earlier, the extreme total displacement was found to be 8.59mm. But,
later the results from the analysis showed that the extreme total displacement was found to be
8.89mm. On the other hand, the extreme volumetric strain increment during the sensitive analysis
was 265.46 x 10-3%. And, on the previous study it has been shown that 264.39 x 10-3%. The results
of the analysis indicate that the change in the embedment depth increases the extreme total
displacement by 1.72% increased however, the results from the extreme volumetric strain shows
a significant effect on the failure of the concrete soldier pile. Thus, varying the embedment depth
shows less effects on the stability of the concrete soldier pile.
72
During sensitive analysis, the extreme total extreme effective stresses for concrete soldier pile was
-140.81 x 10-3KN/m2. Figure 5.19 shows the extreme effective stresses with depth.

The variation in embedment depth decreases the extreme total extreme effective stresses by 3.58%.
From the sensitive analysis, the change in the embedment depth is less sensitive for failure of the
concrete soldier pile. This is because of the increase in the embedment depth decreases the extreme
effective stresses on the concrete soldier pile. Hence, the change in the embedment depth decreases
as the embedment depth increases on the other hand increases as the embedment depth increase.
From the fact of this the change in the embedment depth has less effect on the deformation of the
excavation support structure.
73
Effects of varying the angle of internal friction
While the study of the angle of internal friction for the sensitive analysis, the extreme total
displacements was 8.64mm Figure 5.20 demonstrates the extreme total displacements.
Figure 5. 20 Total displacements.

On the analysis of sensitive earlier, the extreme total displacement was found to be 8.59mm. But,
8.64mm. The results of the analysis indicate that the change in the in the angle of internal friction
increases the extreme total displacement by 0.29%. Thus, varying the angle of internal friction
shows less sensitivity on the stability of the excavation support structure.
74
In the analysis of angle of internal friction, the extreme volumetric strain increment was found to
be 266.16 x 10-3%. Figure 5.21 shows the extreme volumetric strain increment.

On the analysis of sensitive earlier, the extreme volumetric strain increment was found to be 264.39
x 10-3%. But, later the results from the analysis showed that the extreme volumetric strain
increment was found to be 266.16 x 10-3%. The results of the analysis specify that the change in
the angle of internal friction shows a significant increase of strain on the excavation support
structure. Thus, varying the angle of internal friction displays that not as much of sensitivity on
the stability of the concrete soldier pile.
75
In sensitive analysis, the extreme effective stresses on the concrete soldier pile was -151.32KN/m2.
Figure 5.22 shows the extreme effective stresses with depth.

The variation in the angle of internal friction has zero effects on the change of the extreme total
effective stresses. From the sensitive analysis, the change in the angle of internal friction is less
sensitive for failure of the concrete soldier pile. This is because of the change in the angle of
internal friction neither decreases nor increases the extreme effective stresses on the concrete
soldier pile. Hence, the change in the angle of internal friction has less effect on the deformation
76
Effects of varying the soil cohesion
Throughout the study of the soil cohesion for the sensitive analysis, the extreme total displacement
was 8.87mm. Figure 5.23 displays the total incremental displacements.
Figure 5. 23 Total displacement.

From the analysis of soil cohesion, the extreme total displacement was found to be 8.87mm. But,
8.59mm. The results of the analysis indicate that the change in the soil cohesion increases the
extreme total displacement by 1.6%. Thus, varying the soil cohesion shows high sensitivity on the
stability of the excavation support structure.
77
In the analysis of soil cohesion, the extreme volumetric strain increment was found to be 273.01 x
10-3%. Figure 5.24 shows the extreme volumetric strain increment.

On the investigation of sensitive prior, the extreme volumetric strain increment was found to be
264.39% x 10-3%. But, far ahead the results from the analysis showed that the extreme volumetric
strain increment was found to be 273.01 x 10-3%. The results of the analysis indicate that the
change in the soil cohesion shows increase of strain on the excavation support structure. So,
varying the soil cohesion displays high sensitivity on the stability of the concrete soldier pile. Thus,
the increase of the total displacement as well as the extreme volumetric strain indicate that more
sensitivity of the effects of soil cohesion on the failure of the lateral excavation support structure.
78
5.4 Modes of failure of concrete soldier pile
For the determination of the failure mechanism the safety factor, the incremental displacement as
well as the horizontal displacement have been analyzed on the bases of stability analysis and the
output from the analysis will be discussed in the following session.
During the analysis of stability, the extreme total displacement for concrete soldier pile was
7.61mm. Figure 5.25 displays the extreme total displacement with depth.
Figure 5. 25 Total displacement.

The results from the analysis of the stability indicates that the maximum deformation during the
analysis was 7.61mm. Whereas, at the time of deformation analysis, the maximum deformation
was 8.59mm. The overall total displacement increased by 6.04%. From the results of the two
analysis, the deformation has increased overall instability on the excavation and this leads for
failure of the excavation support structure.
79
During the analysis of stability, the total incremental displacement for concrete soldier pile was
135.63x10-3mm. Figure 5.26 displays the extreme total incremental displacement with depth.
Figure 5. 26 Presents the failure mechanisms in plaxis 3D foundation in terms of the total
incremental displacement.
The total incremental displacement shows that the failure mechanism of the excavation support
structure. From Figure 5.26 the direction of the maximum displacement is towards the x and z
direction. However, the outcomes of the deformation analysis indicate that there is extreme
deformation towards the z-direction rather than the deformation towards the x-direction.
Accordingly, the analysis of the results of the deformation on the excavation increases as the depth
of the excavation increases. This indicates that there is a large displacement of the concrete soldier
pile on front part of the excavation. Thus, from the total incremental displacement, the direction
of extreme horizontal displacement causes the concrete soldier pile to fail in overturning.
80
From the results of the stability analysis, on phase 3 which is excavation part two and phase four
which is excavation part three the stability was found to be lowest. Figure 5.27 shows factor of
safety as a function of the total displacement.
Stability analysis
7.000
Excavation part one
6.000 Concrete soldier pile
5.000
Excavation part two
Sum-Msf
4.000
Excavation part three Safety factor
3.000
2.000
1.000
0.000 0.500 1.000 1.500 2.000 2.500 3.000 3.500
(Utot)mm
Figure 5. 27 Sum-Msf (safety factor) as a function of the total displacement.

At the start of the excavation, the stability was good but when it comes to the second and third
excavation the stability of the excavation becomes less. Especially, at the third part of the
excavation, the stability is lowest. On the other hand, the displacement is high. In addition to the
safety factor, the horizontal displacement towards the x-direction and the z-direction was examined
to determine whether the structure fails in sliding or overturning. The maximum horizontal
displacement towards the x-direction was found to be 6.64mm whereas towards the z-direction
was found to be -7.73mm. From the observed values of the two displacements, over 7.58% of the
concrete soldier pile displaced towards the z direction. Thus, from the extreme total displacement
and the extreme horizontal displacement and the safety factor the concrete soldier pile fails in
overturning.
81
5.5 Possible solutions proposed for similar types of failure that would happen in Ethiopia
From sensitive analysis, the shear strength parameter especially the soil cohesion was found to be
the main causes for failure of the concrete soldier pile. This is because of the increase of
deformation on the support structure. So, to prevent failure against shear strength parameter,
proper calibration of the results needs especial attention while conducting the laboratory test
results.
If there is any drainage in construction site, the drainage must be study in detail. Because of the
poor study of drainage and seepage of water leads the structures to fail. For example, in Mexico
site there were drainage that pass through the territory of the new construction site. The drainage
is purposefully placed to dispose the roof water which is come during the time of the rain. And,
the surface water from the compound collected in one drainage and dispose to the outside. Due to
the expansion of the site the drainage blocked without providing alternative way to pass the surface
water. At the end, the increase in the seepage of water causes the excavation support structure to
fail. So, the basic remedial measure for failure of the support structure is blocking the seepage of
water by providing good drainage as well as studying the drainage in the prelaminar stage of
construction. In addition to this, considering some amount of ground water table during design
time even if the ground water table was not there. This consideration also can prevent the failure
excavation support structure.
Additional surcharge load which comes from the existing structure on newly constructed structure
sometimes not taken in to account at the time of design and leads to failure of the support structure.
This is because of giving attention only to the surcharge load which is present on the top of the
excavation and ensuring the taken surcharge load is quite enough. But the reality is not true. For
instance, the additional surcharge load which is calculated from the exiting masonry structure on
Mexico site was 7.5kpa. However, the additional external load was not the causes for failure of
the concrete soldier pile. Rather than ignoring the additional load, it is better to take in to account
during the design time. Thus, one of the solutions for support structure is to consider the additional
exiting surcharge load even if it is not the cause for this specific study. However, helps for future
constructed excavation support structure.
82
CHAPTER 6
CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION
6.1 General
The following section summarizes what was done in the whole study from the beginning up to the
end. And, this generalization described in the conclusion part. In the recommendation section the
things that should be done for the future planned excavation support structure also recommended.
6.2 Conclusion
Concrete soldier piles are a temporary support structures that are used to retain a soil for a specific
period of time, to build a structure in the other side of this wall. For example; if we want to build
a structure with three basement floors (underground) like Mexico site and this structure surrounded
by other structures, when the excavation process starts, if the soil under the surrounding structures
doesn’t retained by a concrete soldier pile, this soil will fail and will moves to the excavation site,
and the structure above this soil may collapse suddenly, so before establishment of excavation
process, concrete soldier pile must be constructed to retain the soil and prevent it from fails.
The numerical results obtained in this study clarify the evidences of the causes for failure in deep
excavation works supported by concrete soldier piles. In Mexico site concrete soldier pile used as
excavation support systems. However, the support structure exposed to failure and the thesis
discussed in detail the main causes for failure.
In this paper, numerical modeling made to find the main causes for failure of the concrete soldier
pile by using modern software plaxis 3D foundation. And the analysis performed by considering
four cases. Namely, the deformation analysis, the stability analysis, the seepage analysis and
sensitive analysis. Among, the outputs of plaxis 3D, the extreme total displacement, the horizontal
displacement towards to the x and z direction, the volumetric strain, active pore pressure, effective
stresses and factor of safety used for the analysis of the causes for failure of the excavation support.
The sensitive analysis showed that the main causes for failure of the concrete soldier pile is the
poor calibration laboratory test results of soil cohesion. This is due to the increase of the extreme
83
total displacement on the stability of the concrete soldier pile by 1.6%. On the other hand, the
analysis revealed that, the penetration depth, angle of internal friction as well as the addition of
existing stress found to be less sensitive for failure of the concrete soldier pile.
The supplementary causes for failure of the concrete soldier pile that is found on the site from the
interviewing of the personnel was the seepage of the surface water in to the soil. This is due to the
blockage of the drainage and the collected surface water from the compound, there is no way the
surface water to pass in alternative direction rather it returns to the back and gradually seeps in to
the soil. In addition to this, seepage analysis performed using plaxis 3D foundation by leveling the
ground water table at level of -9.60m. From the results of the analysis, the extreme total
displacement increased by 11.96%, the extreme lateral displacement towards the x – direction
increased by 36.21% and the extreme lateral displacement towards the z – direction increased by
40% on the concrete soldier pile. Thus, from the results of the analysis as well as interviewing of
the personnel one of the main causes for failure of the concrete soldier pile is the seepage of water.
The stability analysis showed that extreme total displacement on the concrete soldier pile increased
by 6.04%. at the final phase of the excavation. The increase of the extreme total displacement
induced instability on the excavation support structure. Also, the stability analysis identifies the
modes of failure by the factor of safety and which is found to be less than one. Hence, the results
from the factor of safety, the extreme total incremental displacement and the extreme lateral
displacement the modes for failure of the concrete soldier pile is overturning. Generally, the main
causes for the failure of the excavation support structures are: - the soil cohesion and seepage of
the water. In addition to this, the modes of failure for the concrete soldier pile was found to be
overturning.
The possible solutions for future planned excavation support structure are while conducting the
laboratory test, avoiding poor calibration of parameters. Especially, the soil cohesion as it is one
of the causes for failure, providing good alternative drainage system which enables decrease of
seepage of water in to the site. Overall, the solution presented here are based on the causes found
during the analysis of the concrete soldier pile and modes of failure in the Mexico site, Addis
Ababa.
84
6.3 Recommendation
In the succeeding ways, this work can be extended and studies for the future in the geotechnical
engineering discipline:
1. The analysis is carried out by using finite element method plaxis 3D foundation. But, for
further studies it could be possible to use also the finite element analysis Flack 3D to
analyze the causes for failure of the concrete soldier pile.
2. Especial attention should be given while calibrating the laboratory test results.
3. If there is any drainage that comes from existing structure and pass through the newly
constructed site, this should be given special consideration as well as alternative way
should be provided for surface water to flow.
4. During excavation process, especial attention should be given to the support structure
because the soil between the soldier pile sometimes may collapse. If needed for further
study, soil arch effect between the concrete soldier pile should be studied.
5. The additional surcharge load should be calculated and need to be considered during the
design time. Even if the calculated additional surcharge load has no effect on this specific
study, seeing the effects of existing surcharge load should be recommendable.
6. Especially, for temporary excavation support structure, stability analysis is crucial and tales
whether the lateral support structure is stable or not. So, stability analysis should be done
by modern software like plaxis 3D foundation.
7. At the time of sensitive analysis, the parameters which is more sensitive for failure of the
excavation support structure was found to be the soil cohesion. Thus, sensitive analysis
should be evaluated by varying soil and material parameters and keeping other parameters
constant.
85
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87
Annex
88
Appendix A – Cross section between boreholes
89
Appendix B – Borehole logs
90
91
Appendix C – In-situ and Laboratory test results
92
93
94
95
Appendix D – Stage construction preview of Plaxis 3D foundation
96

Study of Concrete Soldier Pile Failure As A Supporting System in Basement Excavation Using Finite

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Study of Concrete Soldier Pile Failure As A Supporting System in Basement Excavation Using Finite

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STUDY OF CONCRETE SOLDIER PILE FAILURE AS A SUPPORTING

SYSTEM IN BASEMENT EXCAVATION

STUDY OF CONCRETE SOLDIER PILE FAILURE AS A

COLLAGE OF ARCHITECTURE AND CIVIL ENGINEERING

ADDIS ABABA SCINCE AND TECHNOLOGY UNIVERSITY

STUDY OF CONCRETE SOLDIER PILE FAILURE AS A

A thesis submitted as a partial fulfilment of the requirement for the Degree in

COLLAGE OF ARCHITECTURE AND CIVIL ENGINEERING

ADDIS ABABA SCINCE AND TECHNOLOGY UNIVERSITY

Keywords: Inadequate, Deep excavation, Excavation supporting system, Concrete soldier

2.2.3 Formulation of Mohr – Coulomb model ----------------------------------------------------------- 13

4.3.1 Input parameters of soil for Mexico project site -------------------------------------------------- 49

Table 4. 8 Calculation of shear modulus and oedometer modulus. .............................................. 47

Figure 1. 1 Excavation support (Midroc, Foundation Specialist). .................................................. 3

Figure 3. 1 Location of the building site on satellite image.......................................................... 37

Figure 5. 24 Extreme volumetric strain increment. ...................................................................... 78

Appendix A - Cross-section between boreholes -------------------------------------------------------- 89

LIST OF SYMBOLS AND ABRIVATIONS

D.O.F = Degree of Freedom

Fb = Allowable bending stress

FEM = Finite Element Method

Ko = Coefficient of earth pressure at-rest

Ø = Angle of internal friction

γd = Dry unit weight

γsat = Saturated unit weight

SPT = Standard Penetration Test

1.1.1 Excavation supports

Types of excavation support system

Table 1. 1 Comparison of types of excavation support (Cassandra Rutherford, Giovenna

Structural Constructed before excavation Large volume of spoils generated and

Micro–pile Wall Constructed before excavation Large number required.

Figure 1. 1 Excavation support (Midroc, Foundation Specialist).

Figure 1. 2 Soldier piles and shoring (Midroc, Foundation Specialist).

Soil Nailing Method of Excavation Support

Figure 1. 3 Soil nailing (Nemati, 2007).

Very soft Less than 24 <12 <1.52

Soft 24-49 12-24 1.52-3.05

Medium 49-96 24-49 3.05-6.09

Stiff 96-192 49-96 6.09-12.19

Very stiff 192-383 96-192 12.19-24.38

Hard >383 >192 >24.38

Figure 1. 4 Shoring (Mexico site).

1.3 Statement of the problem

1.4 Scope of the study

1.5.1 General objective

1.5.2 Specific objective

To give possible solutions for basement excavation support structure.

1.6 Significance of the study

1.7 Application of this study

1.8 Organization of the thesis

Finally, conclusions and recommendations are made in the sixth chapter.

2.2 FEM modeling

2.2.1 General modeling aspects

Figure 2. 1 Node and stress points (Plaxis 3D Foundation).

2.2.2 Mohr – Coulomb model

Figure 2. 2 Mohr-Coulomb failure criteria (Papadopoulos, 2014).

Figure 2. 3 The Mohr-Coulomb yield surface in principal stress space (c = 0) (Papadopoulos,

2.2.3 Formulation of Mohr – Coulomb model

Basic parameters of the Mohr – Coulomb model

Table 2. 1 Basic parameters of the Mohr-Coulomb model.

Name Symbol Unit

Young’s modulus E KN/m2

Angle of internal friction Ø o