BK 304 - Technical - Lessons - PAC1, 2 and 3 EU 2019 11

New Sales Engineers Training Water
Technical Lessons
 Use these lessons as initial technical training for each topic, refresher
training, or further education on specific topics. Select a lesson and
begin by reading the assigned material. Then proceed to work on the
lesson
 Use the glossary in the Technical Manuals for any terms you are
unfamiliar with.
 Use the indexes to help find specific topics of additional interest
 Check the answers with your Primary Trainer or District Manager

LESSON 1: LIQUID SOLIDS SEPARATION INTRODUCTION
Reading Assignment: B-040 “Introduction to Water Clarification” and PAC-1 Technical
Manual (Book 1), Section 1.1
1. What are the two types of water supplies? Why is water treated?
2. What is the difference between water clarification and water softening?
3. What is the difference between coagulation and flocculation?
4. What are the major reasons for treating industrial wastewater?
5. What is BOD?
6. What is the purpose of primary wastewater treatment?
7. What is secondary wastewater treatment?
8. What is tertiary wastewater treatment?
9. What are the two classifications of oily emulsions
LESSON 2: BASIC WATER CHEMISTRY

Reading Assignment: PAC-1 Technical Manual (Book 1), Section 1.2
1. What ions make up hardness? Why is hard water “hard”?

2. Name the three factors that the solubility of a gas in water depends upon. Which is more
important from a water treatment perspective…dissolved nitrogen or dissolved oxygen?
3. What is the approximate solubility of free CO2 in pure water at 101.3kPa and 60˚C, in ml/l ? In
mg/l?
4. Explain the difference in the solubility curves for calcium carbonate vs. sodium carbonate. Draw
a graph of these curves with solubility vs. temperature.
5. What are the four common factors that influence metal corrosion and deposition problems,
caused by water and its impurities?
6. What are the four “Rules of Thumb” concerning the behavior of hardness, sodium, silica, and
iron and manganese compounds and their solubility characteristics?
7. What are mono-di- and tri-basic acids?
8. What is an amphoteric substance?
9. What is the definition of pH? Explain your answer. What is the H+ ion concentration
at a pH of 8.0?
10. What is the effect of NaCl on pH when it is dissolved? Explain why. What about the effect of
sodium carbonate?
11. What ions make up alkalinity? What is the methyl orange end point? What is the
phenolphthalein end point? At what pH does free hydroxide begin to appear?
12. A water sample has an “M” alkalinity of 150 ppm, and a pH of 6.9. How much CO2 is dissolved in
the water? If pH were increased to 7.5, how much CO2 would be dissolved in water?
13. When CO2 is added to water, the pH will normally drop. Why?
14. What is oxidation? What is reduction?
15. What is being oxidized in the following reaction? What is being reduced?
4Fe + 3O2 → 2Fe2O3
16. What are molecular weights of NaCl and CaCO3? What are the equivalent weights of
NaCl and CaCO3? What is purpose of reporting analytical results in calcium carbonate
equivalents?
Book 438E-EU (revision Nov 2019) FOR NALCO Water EMPLOYEE USE ONLY 2
LESSON 3: BASIC CALCULATIONS - PAC 1
1. Calculate the clarifier Detention Time (DT) for a circular clarifier of 20 m in diameter, 4.5 m
deep, with an average influent flow of 625 m3/h.
2. What is the weir overflow rate (WOR) of a circular clarifier, 22 m in diameter, 5 m deep, with a
weir diameter of 20 m, and a flowrate of 600 m3/h?
3. Calculate the solids loading (SL) of a rectangular DAF with a length of 26 m, a width of 14 m, and
a depth of 3 m and a solids loading of 3 t/h.
4. What is the sludge volume index (SVI) of a sample of secondary wastewater containing
3,500 mg/l mixed liquor suspended solids (MLSS) that settled to a volume of 460 ml/l?
5. Calculate the food to microorganism (F/M) ratio for a secondary system with an aeration basin
volume of 22,000 m3, MLSS of 6,500 mg/l, a BOD influent average of 3,500 mg/l, and flow of
200 m3/h. Actual units on this calculation are day-1, but the number is usually reported without
this unit.
6. Calculate the solids capture (SC) efficiency of a press where 6.5% sludge solids in
influent flow are dewatered to 25% cake solids and lost solids are 800 mg/l in a
15 m 3/h flow.
LESSON 4: COAGULATION AND FLOCCULATION

Reading Assignment:
PAC-1 Technical Manual (Book 1), Section 1.4
PAC -1 Application and Best Practices Manual (Book 315) – section 3.1
1. What is clarification? Why might coagulation and flocculation be used in clarification?

2. What is coagulation? Flocculation?
3. What is the “double layer” theory?
4. List the factors that affect the flocculation rate. Briefly describe their effect on flocculation.
5. List the common inorganic coagulants. List two major advantages of polymeric coagulants.
6. Explain the differences between a polymeric coagulant, and a polymeric flocculant. How are they
generally fed?
7. Discuss Mixing Intensity and how the Velocity Gradient (G Factor) and Retention Time are
related.
LESSON 5: PRETREATMENT
1. What is Pretreatment, as it relates to Raw Water/Wastewater treatment processes?

Why is it needed?
2. List the four main operations in Pretreatment. Briefly describe what each operation is designed
to accomplish.
LESSON 6: RAW WATER CLARIFICATION
1. Briefly list the common contaminants in natural water sources that might need to be removed in
raw water clarification.
2. List the four main types of raw water treatment.
3. What are the two main contaminants removed in clarification? Describe briefly where each
originates. What is removed in cold lime softening?
4. Iron and manganese in raw water can cause deposition and corrosion problems
downstream. Describe briefly which processes can be applied.
5. In addition to the main contaminants listed in Question 3, what other substances may be
removed by raw water treatment? Why may be removal of these necessary?
6. Contrast produced sludge characteristics when using an iron or aluminum coagulant, versus
a polymeric coagulant. How may produced sludge be handled?
LESSON 7: RAW WATER CLARIFICATION EQUIPMENT

PAC-1 Best Practices Manual (Book 315), Section 1.4
1. Compare an upflow sludge recirculating clarifier and a conventional horizontal clarifier. Which is
better for rapid flow changes? For high flow rates?
2. Compare a sludge blanket clarifier and an upflow sludge recirculating clarifier. How do they
function similarly? Differently?
3. How does sludge recirculation aid a clarifier?
4. What is the purpose of the rapid mix area for coagulant dosing?
5. What is a flocculation area?
6. Diagram a rectangular sedimentation tank labeling the various zones basic to the system.
Illustrate the projected trajectory of a particle entering the system at the 2/3-inlet height.
Briefly discuss the various zones.
7. How is sludge controlled in an upflow clarifier? What happens if sludge inventory is depleted?
LESSON 8: FILTRATION
Reading Assignment: Nalco Water Handbook Fourth Edition (Bk 010) 6.29-6.45
PAC-1 Technical Manual (Book 1), Section 1.8, Page 124-125
1. Describe how a floc particle, exiting a clarifier, that is either too large or too small can cause
problems for a filter.
2. What advantages does a pressure filter have compared to other types of filtration equipment?
3. What benefits could you offer your customer with the use of a filter aid program?
4. Briefly list, and discuss particle transport mechanisms.
5. List, and briefly discuss the interrelated filter components, especially of a conventional
rapid sand filter design.
6. What is filter conditioning?
7. Draw a schematic diagram of a vertical pressure filter, showing the major components.
8. Discuss the four main types of backwashing systems used for granular media filter beds.
9. What is the formula for filtration rate? What is a typical rate range for conventional rapid
sand filters?
LESSON 9: PRIMARY WASTEWATER TREATMENT

1. Describe the four types of settling that can occur. Where does each of these typically occur in a
waste treatment process?
2. List, and briefly discuss the four zones in a clarifyer basin.
3. What are the most critical parameters to prevent short-circuiting in a primary clarifier?
4. What principle is behind the concept of "inclined tube settlers"? Where would you recommend
against their use?
5. A primary clarifier is designed for a load of 1.3 - 2 m3/h/m2. What happens if the flow is lower?
Higher?
6. What can happen if the detention time in a primary clarifier exceeds 2 hours?
7. Briefly describe the DAF operation. Draw a schematic of a DAF unit.
8. What is the essential difference between a DAF and an Induced Air Flotation unit?
Where would one preferentially use an IAF unit?
LESSON 10: SECONDARY WASTEWATER TREATMENT
1. The dissolved oxygen meter is used to monitor the performance of an activated sludge system.
a. What is a normal oxygen uptake for a healthy activated sludge system?
b. If the oxygen uptake is flat (zero uptake), what does this mean?
c. If the oxygen uptake were lower than normal, what problems would you expect
downstream?
d. What are possible causes of low oxygen uptake?
2. The F/M ratio is important in controlling an activated sludge system.
a. What is the F/M ratio?
b. How is it determined?
c. What are the major nutrient requirements for an activated sludge system?
3. Microorganism growth can occur in three different manners.
a. How does excess food affect growth?
b. What is this stage called?
c. Which stage has an excess of bacteria?
d. Compare and contrast the declining growth phase and the endogenous phase.
4. List and discuss the microorganisms that are important in biological oxidation processes. Which
are the most important, and why?
5. Discuss sludge production in terms of the two biological treatment processes common in
secondary wastewater treatment. Discuss how organic carbon is removed. Draw a schematic of
how organic carbon is used by microorganisms.
LESSON 11: TERTIARY WASTEWATER TREATMENT

1. Why is tertiary wastewater treatment often required? What are the six most common goals of
tertiary wastewater treatment?
2. Why may chlorination and dechlorination be needed?
3. Briefly discuss breakpoint chlorination. Why is it not generally used? What has taken
its place?
4. What are the three main ways to remove phosphate? Write down the formula involved for the
first two (ignore calcium).
LESSON 12: HEAVY METALS REMOVAL
Reading Assignment:
PAC-1 Technical Manual (Book 001) – Section 1.13 pages 283-286, 289-293
PAC-1 Application and BP Guide (Book 315) – Section 1.10 pages 204 – 205
1. Why must heavy metals be removed from a wastewater stream? What are the two main
specifications for heavy metal discharge limits? Identify six sources or industries where heavy
metals may originate. List six common metal pollutants.
2. What is a “ligand”? Give four examples of ligands. What is the coordination number of a metallic
ion in a complex?
3. What is the solubility product constant? What does it mean in a non-chemical sense? Write its
formula down. Referring to Table 1.13.1, list the two most soluble and the two least soluble
compounds that appear here?
4. Discuss NALMET® and outline its advantage(s).
LESSON 13: ADVANCED WASTEWATER TREATMENT

Reading Assignment: PAC-1 Technical Manual (Book 1), Section 1.14 p. 311-318
1. Briefly discuss ED and EDR. Why are these not considered economical, compared to
RO or NF?
2. Outline chemical oxidation, as it relates to AWT (Advanced Wastewater Treatment).
List the six common chemical oxidants used, and discuss advantages and
limitations/disadvantages of each.
3. Outline advantages, and limitations of the use of UV light as an oxidant in AWT.
LESSON 14: SLUDGE STABILIZATION

PAC-1 Application and BP Guide (Book 315) - Section 1.12
1. Why is sludge stabilization necessary? Where do you normally find it used? List the three
primary methods of sludge stabilization.
2. Discuss the two methods of biological treatment used in sludge stabilization.
3. Discuss the following terms and units used in sludge stabilization:
a. SLR (Solids loading rate)
b. SRT (Solids Retention Time)
c. HRT (Hydraulic Retention Time)
d. HLR (Hydraulic Loading Rate)
4. Outline why chemical treatment (i.e. polymeric flocculants or chemical coagulants) may be
useful in both anaerobic and aerobic digesters.
LESSON 15: SLUDGE THICKENING
1. What does sludge thickening do? Why is it necessary in some situations? List the
equipment generally used in sludge thickening operations.
2. Draw a schematic of a typical sludge handling system, and label.
3. Discuss the four classifications of the gravity sedimentation process. Draw a schematic.
4. Define, and discuss the following terms used in sludge thickening:
a. Hydraulic Load Rate
b. Detention Time
c. Sludge Volume Ratio
d. Sludge Loading Rate
e. Thickener Efficiency
5. Discuss the application of chemical coagulants and flocculants to sludge thickening operations.
LESSON 16: SLUDGE DEWATERING

1. Draw a diagram of a Twin Belt Press. Label the filter belts, polyelectrolyte feed, and sludge
conditioning area. What are the four dewatering zones in the unit?
2. List three sludge characteristics that affect a dewatering system. Discuss each.
3. What mechanical changes can easily be made on a twin belt filter press?
4. What criteria are normally used to evaluate twin belt press performance?
5. Describe how a centrifuge dewaters solids? How is this different from belt filter
or chamber presses?
6. Describe how a chamber press operates.
7. Considering the inorganic chemicals normally used (ferric chloride, lime, etc.) in a plate
and frame filter press, what benefits would a polymer program provide?
LESSON 17: EMULSION TREATMENT
Reading Assignment: Nalco Water Handbook 4th Edition (Bk 010), Chapter 27
PAC-1 Application and BP Guide (Book 315) - Section 1.15 pages 297 – 300
1. There are three mechanisms that stabilize emulsions - ionization, adsorption and frictional
contact. Explain how each one stabilizes oil-in-water emulsions.
2. Describe the Hemholtz Double Layer theory. How is this double layer treated?
3. You recently learned that Dissolved Air Flotation (DAF) is used to thicken waste sludge, yet it is
also used to remove oil from oily wastes. Explain how DAF is used with oily wastewater
4. A DAF is 4.0 m in diameter. Flow is 32 m3/h and the recycle rate is 50%. What is the Hydraulic
Loading Rate (HLR) for this unit? This DAF is 3.8 m deep. What is the hydraulic retention time?
5. A process upset occurs to the customer in question #5. The plant begins running the DAF at 46
m3/h now. How will this change affect the performance of the DAF unit? What changes in the
amounts of air and polymer required might you expect?
LESSON 18: FOAM CONTROL

Reading Assignment: PAC-1 Technical Manual (Book 001) - Section 1.19 pages 407-409;
412
1. What causes the stability of foam?

2. How does an antifoam function against the above causes?
3. What effect does pH have on antifoam performance?
4. Why feed point selection important for antifoam?
5. Why is persistence important in the selection of antifoam?
LESSON 19: ODOR CONTROL

Reading Assignment: PAC-1 Technical Manual (Book 001) - Section 1.20 pages 415 and 418
1. What is “odor”, in the sense outlined in Section 1.20? Where might offensive odors originate?
2. What are the three main objectives of odor control? Which is the most important?
LESSON 21: BOILER WATER INTRODUCTION
PAC-2 Application and Best Practice Guide (Book 314) Section 2.1
1. What is the significance of lost production?

2. List four types of pretreatment.
3. List the three water systems that support the boiler system.
4. Reduced cycles of concentration (COC) can (circle the most appropriate):
a. Increase energy costs
b. Increase chemical costs
c. Increase water costs
d. All of the above
5. Poor performance of the makeup water pretreatment system can lead to (circle all that apply):
a. Boiler scale and corrosion
b. Increased condensate return
c. Increase condensate corrosion
d. Increase chemical consumption
e. Increase water usage
6. Describe the MOC (mechanical-operational-chemical) survey model.

7. Which of the following is part of a good service program?
a. A detailed up-to-date system survey
b. Understanding the blowdown heat recovery system
c. Understanding the regeneration procedures for the demineralization system
d. All of the above
8. You know that energy saving projects are an important aspect of a good service plan and, one
day as you walked through the plant, you spot a large amount of condensate being dumped to
the sewer. You should:
a. Evaluate the cost to the plant for this lost condensate
b. Question the supervisor or superintendent as to why this condensate is being dumped
c. Test the condensate for conductivity
d. Ask the operator to return the condensate to the system
9. During a plant survey, you have collected a great deal of MOC information. Much of the time
during the survey, you were by yourself because the supervisor was not available. Your next step
in the survey is (circle correct answer).
a. Use the plant manuals to confirm the accuracy of the information
b. Write up your survey and place it in a file
c. Meet with the supervisor or superintendent to confirm the accuracy of the information
d. Measure the feed rates of the chemicals to the system
LESSON 22: Basic Concepts BOILER WATER
Reading Assignment: PAC-2 Technical Manual (Book 2), Section 2.2 PAC-2 Application
Best Practice Guide (Book 314), Section 2.2, p 13-21; 31-48
1. Why is water used for heat transfer?

2. Why is condensate important?
3. What is makeup water?
4. Define boiler blowdown.
5. Mathematically define blowdown.
6. Given: the flow of steam is 45 t/h and the COC is 30, what is the blow down flow?
7. In question 8 above, what is the feedwater flow?
8. Given: The steam flow is 35 t/h, the total dissolved solids (TDS) of the condensate is 10 ppm
(mg/l), the TDS of the feed water is 90 ppm (mg/l), the TDS of the boiler water is 2,000 ppm
(mg/l), and the TDS of the makeup is 200 ppm (mg/l).
a. What is the percent makeup flow?
b. What are the cycles of concentration?
c. What is the feed water flow?
d. What is the makeup flow?
9. What is the difference between the terms ‘ppm’ and ‘mg/l?

10. A sample of water has been sent to the labs for analysis and the analytical report shows that the
sample contains 100 ppm chloride as Cl-. What is the concentration as:
a. NaCl?
b. CaCO3?
c. K2SO4?
Given that the atomic weights of:

Na = 23 Cl = 35.5
Ca = 40 O = 16
C = 12 K = 39.1
S = 32
11. You have sent a sample of water to the laboratory for analysis in order to calculate the results of
a treatment. What is the first thing you must do before proceeding with the calculations?
12. When the cations and anions do not balance in a water analysis what should be done before
proceeding with any calculations based on the analysis?
13. You are going to make up a 200 l day tank solution of phosphate by adding 4 l of a product
having a density of 1.25 kg/l to water. The concentration of phosphate in the product is 21.9%
active. What is the concentration of active phosphate in the day tank?
14. You have a customer that is going to lay-up a boiler using sulfite as the oxygen scavenger. The
product factor is 4.56 ppm product per ppm as sulfite (SO3) and the target residual is 100 ppm as
SO3. The holding capacity of the boiler when totally filled is 20 m3. How much product should be
added to the boiler?
15. You wish determine the flow rate of water through a pipe using Nalco TRASAR® Technology that
has a density of 1.11 kg/l. You set the TRASAR feed rate to 10 ml/min and measure the TRASAR
down stream at 20 ppm. What is the water flow through the pipe?
16. During a plant survey, you have found a source of lost condensate having a temperature of 65°C
and the flow of the condensate is 10 m3/h. Calculate the ROI for recovering this lost condensate
given the following information:
- The cost to install the required piping = $50,000 (inclusive of man-power, piping, etc.)
- The boiler steam flow = 45 t/hr
- The enthalpy of the boiler water = 714 kJ/kg
- The enthalpy of the condensate = 272 kJ/kg
- The enthalpy of the makeup water = 65 kJ/kg
- The energy cost for the plant = $2.71/GJ
- The cost of water = $0.264/m3
- The present feedwater conductivity = 200 µS/cm
- The boiler maximum conductivity = 3000 µS/cm
- Makeup water TDS = 390 ppm
- Condensate TDS = 10 ppm
- There is no blowdown heat recovery in the system
17. What is the maximum cycle of concentration that is permitted given the information below?
(You will need the European norms (EN 12952 and EN 12953 respectively) guidelines on the
Nalco Water EMEA Technical Training Site on CONNECTIONS.
The boiler pressure is 4.5 MPag
The feed water contains 3 ppm (mg/l) Silica, 0.2 ppm hardness as CaCO3, 50 ppm total alkalinity
as CaCO3 and has a conductivity of 100 µS/cm.
LESSON 23: Feedwater impurities & Lime Softening
Reading Assignment: PAC-2 Technical Manual (Bk 002) - Sections 2.3 pages 23 – 30 / 39-40
1. What major impurities are removed by clarification?

2. What is the effect of temperature on the solubility of calcium carbonate?
3. Write the balanced equations for the reactions of lime with Ca(HCO3)2, Mg+2 and CO2
4. What are the primary goals in cold lime softening?
LESSON 24: Ion Exchange
Reading Assignment:
Nalco Water Hand Book 4th Edition (Bk 010)–Chapter 7.1–7.15; 7.34; 7.38; 7.47-7.50; 7.58-7.68
1. List all of the types of ion exchange processes.

2. Which type of ion exchange process is generally found if the purpose is to remove only
hardness?
3. What ion exchange processes are used for dealkalization?
4. In a softening process using a SAC (Na+), which ion is expected to leak first at the break point?
5. In a demineralization system using a SAC (H+), which ion is expected to leak first at the break
point?
6. What equipment should be installed following a SAC (H+) in a split stream dealkalizer, and why?
7. In a demineralizer system using a SAC (H+) and a SBA (OH-), what water parameters should be
monitored on the effluent of the cation unit?
8. In a demineralization system using a SAC (H+) and an SBA (OH-), what will happen to the finished
water if the cation resin is over run?
9. Are there potential problems with WAC (H+) resins when using cationic polymers upstream?
Explain your answer.
10. List two major differences between SBA (OH-) and WBA (OH-) resin.
LESSON 25: Reverse Osmosis
Reading Assignment: Nalco Water Hand book Fourth Edition (Bk 010) - Chapter 8
PAC-2 Technical Manual (Book 2), Section 2.5, pages 155 – 184 (questions 1 – 16)
PAC-2 Application and Best Practice Guide (Book 314) Section 2.5 pages 152 – 188 (questions 17 –
24)
1. What is osmosis?
2. What is reverse osmosis?
3. What are the two basic membrane materials used in reverse osmosis?
4. What does the term ‘Permeate Recovery’ mean?
5. To what does the term ‘Salt Rejection’ refer?
6. What is meant by pressure drop?
7. What is meant by the term ‘Normalized Permeate Flow Rate’?
8. What would be symptomatic of a membrane that is fouled?
9. What piece of equipment should precede an RO system?
10. Describe, in general, the SDI test.
11. If the silt density index of the feed water to an RO system with a PA membrane is very low but
fouling is occurring, what could be the causes?
12. How do Electrodialysis (ED), Electrodeionization (EDI) and Electrodialysis Reversal differ from
Reverse Osmosis (RO)?
13. With all other factors being constant, if an RO system using PA membranes is showing a
decrease in rejection and an increase in permeate flow; what could be causing this situation?
14. If the condition in question 13 is occurring, what can be done to restore the membrane?
15. An RO system with a PA membrane is preceded by a clarifier that uses polymer and chlorine, a
gravel filter and a micron filter. What should be added to water to protect membranes?
16. What can be done to reduce the amount of carbon dioxide in the permeate from a water source
that has a high concentration of bicarbonate alkalinity?
17. List all common design parameters associated with an RO unit, and discuss each.
18. List the six common RO problems. Which ones are associated with deficiencies in the
pretreatment equipment or processes used ahead of the RO system?
19. What problems can silica in the feedwater to an RO unit cause. Iron and manganese? Organic
matter? Microbial matter? How are each controlled?
20. What is the free chlorine level tolerated by a PA (polyamide) TFC RO membrane? By a cellulose
acetate (CA) membrane? How does one typically ensure that chlorine is removed, if needed,
before an RO unit?
21. Define Saturation Index (SI). What does an SI >1 signify?
22. List four ways to affect scale control in an RO unit. List two advantages and two disadvantages of
each.
23. List factors that impact membrane degradation. List normal limits for each for the two common
types of membranes.
24. List when it may be advisable to recommend RO membrane cleaning. List when it may not be
advisable to recommend cleaning. Why might cleaning not be an option? What do you
recommend if cleaning is not advisable?
25. Outline what products you would recommend for cleaning an RO membrane fouled with:
- Organic deposits
- Mineral scale
26. Why do we conduct a membrane autopsy on a failed RO membrane
LESSON 26: CONDENSATE POLISHING
Reading Assignment:
PAC-2 Technical Manual (Book 2), Section 2.6 pages 187 – 193 and 201 – 202
Nalco Water Handbook 4th Edition (Bk 010), Chapter 13.21 – 13.22
1. What are the purposes of condensate polishing?

2. What are the three basic methods used for condensate polishers?
3. How can weakly magnetic hematite be removed with a magnetic condensate polisher?
4. Your customer is an automotive plant. In their process, reciprocating engines release a rather
large amount of oil into the condensate and even after the decanters; the oil in the condensate
is rather high at 15 ppm. What can be done to protect the boilers from the deposition of oily
deposits?
LESSON 27: OXYGEN REMOVAL
PAC-2 Application and Best Practice Guide (Book 314), Section 2.7, page 222-236;
1. What is the purpose of a deaerator?

2. Approximately, how much faster will the corrosion rate from oxygen be if a water supply,
containing dissolved oxygen, is heated from 20°C to 100°C
3. What type of corrosion is caused by the presence of dissolved oxygen?
4. In a corrosion cell, where does the metal loss occur?
5. Why is oxygen corrosion of special concern in a boiler feed water system?
6. What is the expected concentration of dissolved oxygen in the boiler feed water exiting a
pressure deaerator?
7. Name the basic principle used in pressure deaeration and explain it?
8. What are the three basic types of pressure deaerators?
9. When a tray type deaerator is used in a plant that returns high-pressure condensate at a
saturation temperature greater than the saturation temperature of the deaerator, where should
the condensate be added, and why?
10. If the returned condensate to the boiler feed water system is more than 45C° higher than the
makeup water, where should the condensate be added, and why?
11. What is one of the most common causes of poor deaerator performance?
12. Typically, what is the maximum amount of steam required for venting a tray or spray type
deaerator as a percent of the feed water flow?
13. How can the proper amount of vented steam be determined?
14. If a deaerator is producing water containing only 7 ppb dissolved oxygen, is an oxygen scavenger
really necessary, and why?
15. Where should an oxygen scavenger be added to the boiler feed water system?
16. Your customer has a tray type deaerator and you find that the dissolved oxygen concentration is
50 ppb. What should you look for?
17. Given the following parameters, calculate the amount of steam required to be added to the
deaerator.
NOTE: assume the venting rate is 0.2% of the FW flow, and the COC are 25.
System Given
Boiler 2.34 MPag
Steam load 20 t/hr
Deaerator 30 kPag, 107˚C
Condensate 92˚C, 67% returned
Makeup water 15˚C
18. Should an oxygen scavenger be mixed with other products? If not, why not. What should the pH
of the FW be (for optimal chemical oxygen scavenging purposes)?
19. What is the essential difference between a FW tank and a deaerator? What is end result of this
difference concerning oxygen removal efficiencies, and chemical oxygen scavenger usage?
LESSON 28: FEEDWATER HEATERS
1. What are the differences between open and closed feed water heaters?
2. What is an economizer and where is it located is the boiler system? What does it do? How much
energy might it recover?
3. What are the major problems encountered with economizers?
4. What should be the main concern during start-up of a boiler with an economizer?
5. What steps should be taken to protect an economizer during operation?
6. Describe economizer construction or design characteristics and some of the typical water
treatment or fireside problems seen in this equipment that result from the design.
7. What is an incentive to use a LP FW heater? What might be a drawback?
8. For mixed metallurgy feedwater heaters (i.e., copper alloyed construction), what was the
recommended feedwater pH? What does recent work by EPRI now suggest the pH should be,
and what better way to control copper corrosion has now been identified?
9. List the five design parameters, operating conditions, or chemical environments that can lead to
Flow Assisted Corrosion (FAC).
LESSON 29: BOILERS
1. What is a firetube boiler?

2. What is a water tube boiler?
3. What does the number of passes for a firetube boiler mean?
4. How can one determine if a firetube boiler has an even or odd number of passes?
5. What is the type of boiler that uses heat from a process to generate steam?
6. What is the purpose of chemically treating a boiler?
7. What is the purpose of a waste heat boiler?
8. What is a once through boiler and what are the special requirements for treating these units?
9. What is the efficiency of a gas fired boiler that is operating under the following conditions:
Steaming rate = 45 t/h
Steam heat content = 2,798 kJ/kg
Fuel heating value = 38 MJ/m3
Fuel firing rate = 4,258 m3/h
10. What is the efficiency of an oil-fired boiler that is operating under the following conditions:
Steaming rate = 70 t/h
Heat content of the steam = 2,800 kJ/kg
Feedwater heat content = 449 kJ/kg
Oil firing rate = 5 m3/h
Density of the oil = 0.946 kg/l
Heat value of the oil = 43 MJ/kg
11. What is meant by the term “Boiler Circulation Ratio”?

12. What is the “normal” range in the circulation ratio?
13. What is the significance in a boiler operating with a low circulation ratio?
14. When planning to inspect a boiler, what are the first things one must do?
15. Having met ALL safety guidelines, what should one do next, before beginning a boiler
inspection?
16. The operating history of the boiler since its last inspection may have a definite influence on its
tendency for scaling, deposition, or corrosion. What operating parameters should one
investigate?
17. When inspecting the waterside of a water-tube boiler, outline in some detail what to look for,
and what operational issues one might be able to identify.
18. Outline in some detail what areas of the boiler FIRESIDE should be inspected, and what one
should you look for.
19. List three important tools used in any boiler inspection.
20. Calculation of reasonably accurate boiler water COC is relatively simple in low pressure boilers,
with simple softening for the FW. Explain why accurate COC calculation becomes difficult or
impossible with high purity FW (DI, RO, all condensate).
Under these latter conditions, how can one best calculate COC?
21. Using Figure 2.9.11 in the PAC-2 Application and Best Practice Guide (Book 314), Section 2.9, page 273
estimate the silica steam / boiler water ratio under the following conditions:
a. Boiler Pressure = 15 MPag, boiler water pH = 11.3
b. Boiler Pressure = 6 MPag, boiler water pH = 12.1
c. Boiler Pressure = 17 MPag, boiler water pH = 11.7
22. For the following feedwater chemical treatment programs, what chemical tests should be
routinely performed by boiler operators?
- Phosphate residual program?
- All polymer program?
- Phosphate-pH program?
- AVT program?
23. What is the maximum oil level permitted in boiler FW by the European norms (EN 12952 and EN
12953 respectively) for boilers operating at less than 2 MPag? How does oil most commonly get
into the FW? Where does oil commonly come from? Why is oil problematic for boilers? How can
oil be detected in boiler water (4 ways)?
24. List four reasons why coil boilers have become popular. Outline the two main design differences
of coil boilers. Discuss treatment difficulties, including chemical oxygen control, and internal
treatment control.
25. Discuss four common operating issues with coil boilers.
LESSON 30: SUPERHEATERS AND REHEATERS (not for Light)
1. What is superheated steam?

2. What is the difference between a superheater and a reheater?
3. How can oxygen attack occur in superheater tubes?
4. What are the two types of superheaters?
5. What are the three operational problems encountered by superheaters?
6. During a boiler start-up, what are the two main concerns for the superheaters?
7. How can the water be removed from non-drainable superheaters?
8. How can it be determined if all of the water has been removed from non-drainable superheaters
during start-up?
9. Since steam is pure water vapor, how can deposition occur on the waterside of superheater
tubes?
10. What methods can be used to control the temperature of the steam?
11. Why is the control of steam temperature important?
LESSON 31: TURBINES (not for Light)
Nalco Water Handbook Fourth Edition (Bk 010) – Chapter 12
1. What are the two basic types of turbine stages and what are the difference(s)?
2. For best economy, at what speed velocity should be moving element travel with respect to the
incoming steam velocity?
3. What are the two main classes of turbines?
4. If the main purpose of a turbine is the generation of electrical power, what type of turbine is
generally used?
5. What is stress-corrosion cracking in a turbine?
6. What is the main cause solid particle erosion on a turbine?
7. How can the effects of solid particle erosion be differentiated from moisture erosion?
8. If copper deposits are found in a turbine where the boiler is operating at more than psig (16.5
MPag), how do these deposits get to the turbine?
9. Where in the turbine would one expect to find sodium salt deposits?
10. Where would one expect to find corrosive pitting in a turbine?
11. Where are the largest diameter wheels found in a turbine and why?
12. In the simplest terms, explains what turbines do.
13. If the strainer of throttle valves of a turbine are white, what does this tell you? If red or black
with iron deposition?
14. Explain how to collect a sample of turbine deposit from areas where extremely small amounts of
deposits have formed.
15. Discuss the impact of 100 ppb sodium in the steam going to a turbine? What are the proper
recommendations? 40 ppb sodium in the steam? Recommendations? Why is good steam purity
going to a turbine so critical?
16. Does silica in a turbine deposit generally imply selective silica or vaporous silica carryover has
occurred? Explain your answer.
LESSON 32: STEAM CONDENSERS (Not for Light)
Cooling Water Best Practices (Book 313): Section 3.9
1. What are the two basic types of surface condensers?

2. What are the purposes of a surface condenser?
3. Since steam condensers operate at very low vacuums, how can non-condensable gasses be
removed from these systems?
4. How is corrosion from carbon dioxide and ammonia controlled in the air ejector?
5. How is the vacuum produced for an air ejector?
6. What are the problems that result from steam-side corrosion in a wet condenser?
7. What are the symptoms of excessive air in leakage in a condenser?
8. What methods can be employed to detect cooling water in leakage at a condenser?
9. What should be done when a condenser leak is detected?
10. What methods are commonly used to locate a tube leak in a condenser on a condenser with
divided water boxes?
LESSON 33: BLOWDOWN CONTROL & HEAT RECOVERY

1. What is the purpose of boiler blowdown?

2. What are the two forms of blowdown that can be applied to a boiler?
3. What type of blowdown is most effective in removing suspended solids or sludge?
4. In addition to boiler water solids, what else is lost through blowdown?
5. How often should a NALCO Water representative operate the boiler bottom blowdown valve?
6. What procedure should be used to bottom blowdown a boiler?
7. A boiler is generating 45 t/h of steam. The ppm TRASAR® in the feedwater is 1 ppm and the ppm
TRASAR in the blowdown is 20 ppm. What is the percent blowdown flow based on the
feedwater flow?
8. In question 7 above, what is the feedwater flow?
9. In question 7 above, what is the blowdown flow?
10. To what does the term ‘Holding Time Index’ or HTI refer to?
11. A boiler generates 45 t/h steam at 50 cycles of concentration. The holding capacity of the boiler
is 36 m3. What is the HTI?
12. The boiler in question 11 above has received some contamination that measures 100 ppm in the
boiler water. If the blowdown remains unchanged, how long will it take for the concentration to
be reduced to 5 ppm?
13. What can be done to recover heat from the continuous blowdown exiting a boiler?
14. If there is a need for low pressure steam and a combination of a flash tank and a heat exchanger
is going to be used, where should the heat exchanger be installed in relationship to the flash
tank and why?
15. [For this question, you will need a copy of Table 2.13.4, on Page 354 (Book 2) or the WASP
program]. Your customer has a boiler generating 45 t/h of 4 MPag steam at 30 cycles of
concentration. How much steam could be recovered from a 0.069 MPag flash tank and how
much heat would be recovered per hour?
16. In question 15 above, how much additional heat can be recovered per hour with the use of a
heat exchanger if the makeup water temperature is 20°C, assuming a clean heat exchanger and
if the feedwater is 50% makeup?
17. A boiler system is generating 35 t/h steam and operating on soft water makeup having a
temperature of 15˚C. The boiler water conductivity is limited to 2,100 µS/cm, the makeup
conductivity of the makeup water is 200 µS/cm, the conductivity of the condensate is 10 µS/cm,
and the conductivity of the feedwater is 105 µS/cm. The boiler cycles controlled at 20 cycles
limited by TDS. The makeup water rate is 50% of the feedwater. When the system is surveyed,
you find a source of clean condensate having a conductivity of 10 µS/cm that is currently being
lost but could be returned to the system at a cost of $20,000 US to install the piping required.
The plant’s energy cost for heat is $2.71/GJ. The temperature of this condensate is 65˚C, and
the estimated flow of this condensate is 9 t/h. How much heat could be recovered from this
condensate?
18. From the heat recovered from the condensate alone in question 17 above, would it be cost
effective to install the piping to return the condensate?
19. In question 17 above, if the 9 t/h condensate were to be returned to the boiler feedwater, how
would this affect the cycles of concentration and what does this mean to the plant?
20. [This question will require the use of Table 2.13.4 from Book 2 or the WASP program]
A boiler is generating 45 t/h saturated steam at 1.72 MPag. The fuel is natural gas having a
higher heating value (HHV) of 37 MJ/m3. The fuel consumption is 4,258 m3/h. What is the
thermal efficiency of the boiler?
21. Your prospect has a 8.6 MPag boiler that uses demineralized makeup water and polished
condensate. He has been treating his boiler with a congruent phosphate/pH program and
controlling the blowdown based on boiler water conductivity. Your survey of the system has
shown the following:
- Steam flow = 57 t/h
- Makeup flow = 28.65 m3/h
- Condensate flow = 28.65 m3/h
- pH range 9.6–9.8
- ppm phosphate in the boiler water = 12-15 ppm
- Boiler water conductivity = 150-160 µS/cm
- Demineralized water silica = 0.025 ppm
What potential problems would you expect and why and what action should be taken?
22. List the three main designs of a blowdown (BD) flash tank.
23. To prevent boiler water carryover, or entrainment, in the flashed steam from a flash tank, what
must one control?
24. Above what percent BD is BD heat recovery generally advisable?
25. Given the following information:
- Steam flow = 45 t/h
- Boiler Pressure = 1.7 MPag
- Boiler Total Dissolved Solids (TDS) = 2,000 ppm
- Makeup TDS = 200 ppm
- Feedwater TDS = 90 ppm
- Condensate TDS = 10 ppm
a. What are the Cycles of Concentration (COC)?
b. What is the feedwater flow?
c. What is the percent makeup?
d. What is the makeup flow?
e. What is the blowdown flow?
f. If the blowdown is flashed to 69 kPag in a flash tank, what is the heat content of the flashed
steam, the heat content of the flashed water and the heat content of the blowdown from
the boiler? Use the WASP program
g. How much flash steam could be recovered from the flash tank?
h. How much heat could be recovered from the flash steam?
i. What is the flow of the flash tank water?
j. If the makeup temperature is 15°C and a clean heat exchanger is used, how much heat could
be recovered per hour? (Assume 100% heat transfer)
26. List the factors that affect the maximum attainable boiler efficiency.
27. List the factors that affect day-to-day boiler efficiency.
28. For the Heat loss or indirect method of calculating boiler efficiency, list the losses that are
normally used in this calculation.
29. For question 28, which of these losses are the largest?
30. Given:
Natural Gas is the fuel, the excess O2 in the stack gas is 5%, and the stack gas temperature minus
the ambient air temperature (combustion air temperature) is 228 ˚C, what is the energy loss of
the stack gases?
LESSON 34: WASTE HEAT BOILERS (not for Light)

1. What is the economical benefit of a waste heat boiler?

2. In what respect are waste heat boilers unique?
LESSON 35: HIGH-PRESSURE SYSTEMS (not for Light)
PAC-2 Application and Best Practice Guide (Book 314) Section 2.15 & 2.16
1. What does NALCO Water consider to be the pressure break for high-pressure?
2. Why are high-pressure systems a particular concern?
3. What is a supercritical pressure boiler and what is unique about these units?
4. What is the maximum allowable concentration of silica in steam supplying a turbine?
5. What are the major deposits found in a high-pressure boiler?
6. What is the main concern in the water treatment of high-pressure boilers?
7. What is a by-product of boiler waterside corrosion?
8. What is the difference between caustic gouging and hydrogen embrittlement?
9. What is the usual type of water pre-treatment that is used for the feedwater for
high-pressure boilers?
10. What is selective silica carryover and how can it be prevented?
11. What is the preferred pH range for feedwater systems with mixed metallurgy (Fe-Cu)?
12. What is the preferred pH range for feedwater systems with all-ferrous metallurgy?
13. What is the NALCO Water recommended pressure limit for use of sulfite as an oxygen scavenger
and why?
14. What makeup pretreatment equipment does one normally find in HP boiler systems? Why?
What equipment does one generally find in a condensate return system in HP boiler systems?
Why?
15. Why is it very hard to accurately determine COC in HP boilers?
16. List the three ways that can be used to calculate HP boiler COC. List the equations, where
appropriate.
17. What is the FW hardness requirement for a phosphate residual program in a HP boiler system?
When might such a program be a good idea to use in a HP boiler operation? What is the major
drawback to the use of such a program?
18. Are All-Polymer programs used to any great extent in HP boiler systems? Explain.
19. What are the FW purity requirements when an AVT program is used? What products make up an
AVT program?
20. For power boilers, and HRSG units, what is the main focus for applied feedwater chemistry?
Applied Boiler Water Chemistry?
21. What is cation conductivity and why is it the primary measure of steam purity of condensed
steam in most plants?
22. What are the limits (EN12952-12:2003) for feed water conductivity, silica, and TOC, and steam
cation conductivity?
23. List the three ways that steam purity can be affected negatively.
24. Although very rare in high pressure, high purity steam operations, carryover can occur. When
(list three reasons or occasions)?
25. List the main sources of TOC in a boiler FW sample.
26. When elevated oxygen levels are present in the FW of Power Boiler or HRSG Units, the tendency
is to compensate by feeding increased levels of oxygen scavengers. Why is this to be
discouraged?
27. If both CO2 and oxygen are present in FW, are corrosion rates increased above the sum of the
individual corrosion rates? If so, why, and by how much?
28. List the risk factors for FAC. How does one combat this problem?
29. For Na:PO4 molar ratios greater than 3.0, what is the main problem? For a ratio of less than 3.0?
30. Define phosphate hideout. Why is it a problem?
31. What is DNB and when does it occur?
32. Why do some plants not use organic amines for condensate treatment? What do they use
instead?
33. For preboiler equipment constructed of both steel and copper alloys, what problems are seen?
34. What is the limit for DO at the condensate pump discharge in a condenser?
35. In the usual internal chemical treatment programs used in HP boilers, what can cause a boiler
water pH increase? A decrease?
LESSON 36: BOILER SCALE AND DEPOSITS
Boiler System Sampling – TF-141
1. What is the most important thing that must be done to prevent serious boiler scale?
2. What is mineral scale and how does it form?
3. Why is mineral scale a concern?
4. What are the two most common forms of silica-based deposits?
5. Write the three equations that represent the formation of magnesium silicate?
6. In which type of boiler systems would one expect to find silica-based deposits or mineral scale?
7. At what pressure does selective silica carryover become a potential problem?
8. Since the boiler is made of steel, why are iron deposits a concern?
9. What are the sources of iron that form deposits on boiler heat transfer surfaces?
10. Do polymers, added to the boiler feedwater, assist in the control of iron deposition
and if so how?
11. A boiler is being treated with a polymer and the total iron concentration is monitored in the
boiler blowdown. It is noted that as the polymer dosage is increased, the total iron
concentration in the blowdown increases.
True or False: The monitoring is good and polymer dosage should be left at a high dosage to
clean up the boiler.
12. What are the steps that should be taken to control iron deposition in a boiler?
13. What are the three common internal chemical treatment programs used to prevent scale?
14. What is the basis behind a phosphate residual program and when is this type of treatment
considered?
15. What are the control parameters for a phosphate residual program?
16. You have a prospect that has a dirty boiler from a competitor’s phosphate residual program and
he wishes to convert to an all-polymer program. He states that he will go with you, but only if
you will clean his boiler on-line because he can’t afford the time and cost to acid clean his unit.
If you don’t do this, he will go with the competitor’s soluble program. What do you do?
17. What is an all-polymer program?
18. What is maximum pressure for an all-polymer program?
19. A customer wishes to determine the amount of iron transport through his boiler.
How do you respond?
20. For a low-pressure boiler operating with a phosphate precipitation program, using soft water
MU, what is the expected deposit(s)? What would one conclude if there is detectable calcium
sulfate, and sodium salts found in a boiler deposit.
21. For a high-pressure boiler operating with DI MU, and a phosphate pH program, what is the
expected boiler deposit? What would one conclude if there are hardness deposits and some
carbonate found in boiler deposit?
22. When a weight gain is seen after a deposit is heated to 925˚C. to a constant weight, what does
this mean? What components of a typical boiler deposit are lost during this test?
23. List the tests routinely done in a DEP code analysis. List the optional tests available.
24. If a carbonate deposit is found in a boiler operating well above 4 MPag, what does this tell you
about the deposit? The presence of carbonate in a turbine deposit? In a cooling system deposit?
LESSON 37: BOILER CORROSION
1. Where is the most common place for corrosion to occur within a boiler system?
2. What is generally considered to be the two types of corrosion?
3. Of the nine most common causes of corrosion, list at least six.
4. What are the two components of a corrosion cell?
5. How is oxygen corrosion prevented?
6. What is metal passivation and why is it necessary?
7. Why is oxygen corrosion such a serious situation and where is this type of corrosion normally
seen in a boiler system?
8. What are the two basic mechanisms by which Hydrazine and ELIMIN-OX® react with oxygen and
describe them? Which is the slower reaction?
9. What is ELIMIN-OX® and how does it differ from hydrazine?
10. Since many boilers operate at an elevated pH with free caustic in the water, why is caustic
corrosion a concern?
11. What treatment approaches can be used to protect a boiler system against caustic corrosion?
12. You have a customer that is using a congruent pH phosphate program. The customer is
complaining that he is having serious difficulties in controlling the pH and the concentration of
phosphate in the boiler water. He indicates that when his steam load increases, the pH of the
boiler water increases and the phosphate decreases and when the load is reduced, the pH
decreases and the phosphate increases. You find that the pretreatment system is well
controlled. What is happening and what would you recommend?
13. When should a sulfite oxygen scavenger NOT be recommended and why?
14. What are the prerequisites for an all-volatile (AVT) treatment program?
15. True or False. You inspect a boiler and find the internals of the unit are black with a thick layer
of magnetite. This boiler is well passivated.
16. How do porous deposits contribute to corrosion?
17. To what does the term “sodium-to-phosphate ratio” refer?
18. Boiler water is found to contain 20 ppm (mg/L) sodium, 10 ppm (mg/L) phosphate and has a pH
of 9.8. What is the sodium-to-phosphate ratio of the boiler water?
a. 2.0
b. 8.3
c. About 2.7 (need a graph for the determination)
d. Insufficient information to determine.
19. What is considered a “safe” sodium-to-phosphate ratio for a congruent phosphate control
program?
20. What is an equilibrium phosphate or phosphate continuum control program and when is it
used?
21. What is acid phosphate corrosion?
a. Corrosion caused by contamination of boiler feedwater with acid when a phosphate
program is used.
b. Corrosion that occurs when an acid phosphate product is used.
c. Corrosion caused when phosphates are fed during phosphates hideout, or when phosphates
concentrate such as under deposits, or at steam/water interfaces.
d. Any of the above.
22. What is the cause of boiler cold-end corrosion and where does it occur in a boiler?
23. What is cause of hot end corrosion in a boiler fired with oil and where is it most commonly seen?
24. Outline the internal chemical steps required in the event of a major FW hardness contamination
event that cannot be corrected quickly.
25. Outline the end result of a boiler water alkalinity upset (alkalinity too high)
26. Outline possible causes of a low pH boiler water excursion.
27. Why is colloidal silica in the makeup problematic in higher pressure boilers?
28. Outline causes for routine FW oxygen excursions. List the reasons why this is not desirable.
LESSON 38: STEAM QUALITY AND STEAM PURITY
1. What is the difference between steam quality and steam purity?

2. What are the four common types of carryover?
3. What is direct spray attemperation?
4. When is steam purity a concern?
a. If the boiler has superheaters.
b. If there is a turbine in the system
c. If product contamination is a concern
d. If the boiler is in a hospital
e. All of the above
5. In a water tube boiler, what should be present in the boiler if steam purity is a concern?
6. What are the three common means of measuring steam purity?
7. Why is sodium such a useful ion to monitor the purity of the steam?
8. A customer wishes to do a steam purity study but does not have a steam sample nozzle installed.
He suggests that a steam sample could be obtained from the steam drum vent. Could an
adequate steam sample be obtained from this sample point and why or why not? What is the
preferred sampling point for a condensate sample?
9. What are the preferences for the location of a steam sample nozzle in a steam line?
10. With respect to a steam sample nozzle, what is meant by isokinetic flow?
11. What must be ensured when sampling superheated steam for a steam purity study and why?
12. A customer has a boiler system containing a condensing turbine. What level of sodium in
the steam is a concern?
13. List the preferred sample point for any water sample.
14. Boiler water samples should generally be taken from two locations. Where, and why?
15. What is preferred metallurgy for use in any sampling system. Why? Should copper lines or valves
ever be used? Why?
16. What temperatures should sample coolers be capable of cooling hot samples down to? Why?
17. Where should sample line throttling occur? Why?
18. Why do most plants with a history of condensate contamination generally install a redundant
condensate dump system? Where is it normally installed?
19. What precautions involving the pH meter should you take when measuring condensate pH?
20. Where is the best sample point for a steam purity study (sodium study) located? Why?
LESSON 39: CONDENSATE SYSTEMS
Program Profile PR-107; Reprint R-543
Nalco Water Handbook Fourth Edition (Bk 010) - Chapter 13
1. What are the sources of condensate corrosion?

2. What gas is most commonly associated with condensate corrosion?
3. What is the primary source of this corrodent?
4. What are the two major areas from where oxygen can enter a condensate system?
5. What does carbonic acid attack in a condensate system look like?
6. What does oxygen attack in a condensate system look like?
7. How can the concentration of carbon dioxide in boiler steam be estimated?
8. Your customer is complaining about the cost to chemically treat his condensate system. He
states that his makeup water is demineralized so he should not have to treat the condensate.
What is your response?
9. What means are available to prevent carbonic acid corrosion in condensate systems?
10. How do neutralizing amines function to prevent condensate corrosion?
11. How do filming amines function to prevent condensate corrosion?
12. What are the five most important characteristics of neutralizing amines that determine which
amine (or combination of amines) is the best for a specific system?
13. What may happen if a filming amine is overfed to the system?
14. What are the requirements for using Nalco ACT®?
15. What are steam traps and what are the consequences of steam trap failures?
16. True or False: A condensate sample taken from a vented condensate receiver is a good point to
monitor the condensate pH.
17. You are starting up a filming amine program on a system that has been improperly treated in the
past. How should you control the amine dosage?
18. True or False: Filming amines and Nalco ACT help protect the condensate system against oxygen
corrosion.
19. How is the proper dosage of neutralizing amine calculated?
20. You have a prospect that has a boiler system operating at 1.7 MPag and the condensate system
is an all-ferrous system. The makeup water has high alkalinity and the feedwater is 50%
makeup. The condensate pH averages about 6.1. What would you recommend as the first step
in a treatment approach to protect the condensate system?
21. Your prospect has a boiler system generating 4.1 MPag steam. The makeup water is softened
and dealkalized and the feedwater is 40% makeup. Some of the steam supplies a partial
condensing turbine with an exhaust steam pressure of 1.0 MPag. The condenser is admiralty
brass while the remainder of the system is carbon steel. The remainder of the steam is let down
to 1.0 MPag for use in the process. Some of the condensate that is formed in the process is
flashed in flash tanks to 0.069 MPag for use in some other areas for heating purposes. All of the
returned condensate enters an atmospherically vented receiver that returns the condensate to
the deaerator. A neutralizing amine is to be used. Is a single feed point of amine sufficient to
treat this system and why? [Hint: It will be helpful to sketch this system.]
22. Outline the two equations that show how alkalinity in the boiler feedwater can generate carbon
dioxide in the steam and condensate. For a 400 kPag boiler, how much carbonate is likely to
decompose to carbon dioxide?
23. Explain why the presence of certain organic matter in the feedwater may be a problem for the
condensate system, and neutralizing amine consumption.
24. List the pH value at which the following filming treatments lose their ability to form a protective
film on steam and condensate piping and equipment.
a. Octadecylamine
c. Nalco ACT
25. List the four common components or reasons for water hammer.
26. Outline why it is important, during a steam and condensate system MOC survey, to understand
how the steam load varies during a 24-hour period.
27. For pure water, how much CO2 is needed to yield a pH of about 5.6 at 80 oC. A pH of 6.0 at 0 oC?
28. Explain briefly why a cascading steam system is more difficult to treat than a non-cascading
system. What is the preferred neutralizing amine product for such a system.
29. Describe why steam jacketed reactors that cycle between steam heating and cooling water
cooling are difficult to properly treat.
30. Explain how reboilers might suffer very serious corrosion from CO2 accumulation. Outline how
best to deal with these.
31. List the three main causes of steam trap failure.
32. List the equations that allow one to calculate how much steam is lost through a failed open
steam trap.
LESSON 40: SPECIAL PROCEDURES
Reading Assignment:
PAC-2 Technical Manual (Book 2), Section 2.20 pages 540-548 and 554-560
PAC-2 Application and Best Practice Guide (Book 314) Section 2.19 and Section 2.20
1. Above what temperature does boiler steel’s microstructure begin to change?

2. What are the three major modes of metal deterioration of boiler tube metals?
3. How often should non-drainable superheaters be chemically cleaned?
4. What is a boil-out procedure, what is its purpose and when should this be done?
5. Where can you find detailed information on boiler metal failures?
6. In most installations, what is the time required to prepare a boiler for service?
7. Why is boiler lay-up important?
8. When a boiler is to be brought on line, what reference should be consulted for the proper and
specific procedure?
9. List the applications where TRASAR might be very useful to use.
10. What are the measured COC if FW TRASAR is determined to be 2.5 ppm, and the average boiler
water TRASAR, after allowing for product cycling, is 100 ppm?
11. Calculate a boiler HTI given:
- Amount of TRASAR added to boiler = 0.5 kg
- Steady state concentration of TRASAR in boiler after 15 minutes, with zero BD = 10 ppm
- BD = 1,000 kg/h
12. Calculate the condensate flow, given:
- TRASAR feed rate into the condensate = 29 ml/min
- TRASAR concentration = 12 ppm
- TRASAR Background = 0 ppm
- TRASAR density is 1.04 g/ml
- TRASAR added to the condensate = 12 – 0 = 12 ppm
13. For boiler lay-up, what is the target relative humidity for air in contact with steel, to ensure
negligible corrosion.
14. What factors should be considered if you are trying to decide between a wet and dry lay-up?
15. List the common desirable properties of an oxygen scavenger used during lay-up.
LESSON 41: COOLING WATER INTRODUCTION
Reading Assignment: PAC-3 Technical Manual (Book 3), Sections 3.1
Cooling Water Application & Best Practices Guide (Book 313), Section 3.1
Bulletin B-034
1. What is the basic difference between once-through, closed recirculating, and open recirculating
systems?
2. What are key components of a cooling tower that provide the ability to cool the water?
3. What are the four basic problems in cooling water systems, and how do they affect the system?
4. What causes some of these problems to be more severe in open recirculating cooling systems
than in either once-through or closed recirculating systems?
5. Give some examples of how the four problems in cooling systems are interdependent.
6. How does a total treatment program address cooling system problems?
LESSON 42: BASIC CONCEPTS COOLING WATER
Reading Assignment:
PAC-3 Technical Manual (Book 3), Sections 3.2
PAC-3 Quick Reference Guide
Cooling Water Application and Best Practices Guide (Book 313), Section 3.2, pages 16-24; 29; 36-39
1. What properties make water a good choice as a cooling medium?

2. Unlike most salts, many magnesium and calcium salts are inversely soluble with temperature.
Why is this important in cooling water systems?
3. What is the basic difference between compounds with an ionic bond vs. a covalent bond?
4. Substances with covalent bonds can be either polar like water or non-polar like benzene. What
does it mean to be a polar compound, and what is the significance of the polar character of
water?
5. How is conductivity measured?
6. What is the impact of gas solubility on cooling water systems?
7. Why is the solubility of some gases like carbon dioxide higher than others like oxygen?
8. What are problems that suspended solids can cause in a cooling system?
9. Why are equivalent weights used for chemical reactions and what is the significance in cooling
water?
10. How does the variation of the dissociation constant of water impact the measurement of pH?
11. Give a general description of how to determine the balance of alkalinity species (bicarbonate,
carbonate, and hydroxide) in a cooling water sample.
12. The alkalinity of water is 150 mg/l as CaCO3. How much H2SO4 (as both CaCO3 and H2SO4) will it
take to lower the alkalinity to 60 mg/l? The density of 98% H2SO4 is 1.84 kg/l
13. In a cooling water system, which of the following is more likely to corrode, scale, or foul: mild
steel, stainless steel, or admiralty brass? Why?
14. What is the significance of redox reactions in cooling water?
15. What is the difference between laminar and turbulent flow and why is this important in cooling
systems?
16. What factors affect heat transfer in a heat exchanger?
17. A new cooling water system is supposed to remove about 3 MW. If the recirculation rate is 450
m3/h, what is the temperature differential?
18. A heat exchanger cools liquid toluene (assume specific heat is 1.75 kJ/kgoC from 88oC to 38oC.
The toluene flow is 30 t/h. What is the heat load (Q) on the exchanger? If the cooling water
temperature climbs from 24oC to 37oC, what is the cooling water flow?
19. The cooling water exiting one exchanger combines with the outlet water from a second. The
combined flow is unknown. The flow of the first is 35 m3/h at 30oC. The flow of the second is 60
m3/h with a temperature of 50oC. Calculate the flow and the temperature of the combined
water.
LESSON 43: OPEN RECIRCULATING SYSTEMS
Cooling Water Application and Best Practices Guide (Book 313), Section 3.3
1. What is the difference between a cross-flow and a counter-flow cooling tower?

2. What is the value of a thorough cooling tower survey using the MOC process?
3. What are the differences between splash and film type fill?
4. What is the purpose of a drift eliminator?
5. What is the difference between a typical cooling tower and an evaporative condenser?
6. What problems can sludge in a tower basin cause?
7. What are three pieces of equipment commonly used to remove suspended solids from a cooling
water system?
8. Describe the problems that occur in wood used in cooling towers.
9. What are recommended feed points and any special considerations for:
a. Chlorine or bleach
b. Treatment products
c. Non-oxidizing biocide
d. Acid
e. Caustic
10. If a cooling tower recirculates 2,270 m3/h with 8.3oC temperature differential, determine the
following:
a. What is the evaporation rate?
b. What is the blowdown rate at four cycles of concentration?
c. What is the makeup rate?
d. What is the blowdown rate in gpd m3/h? How many kg/h?
e. If the volume of the cooling water system is 150 m3, what is the Holding Time Index (HTI)?
f. Explain what the HTI means. Why is it important?
11. A cooling tower has a metered makeup that averages 110 m3/h. The concentration ratio
averages 5.3.
a. What is the blowdown rate in m3/h?
b. What is the evaporation rate?
c. If the recirculation rate is 4,800 m3/h and the volume is 320 m3, what is the time/cycle?
d. What is the Holding Time Index (HTI)?
12. For the cooling tower in Problem 11, calculate the following:
a. The feed rate of a product needed to achieve an applied dosage of 75 mg/l (product density
= 1.08 kg/l)
b. The residual dosage if active consumption is 30%
c. The amount of biocide needed for a slug dosage of 100 mg/l (density = 1.14 kg/l)
13. A cooling tower water and makeup have the following analyses. What is the concentration ratio
of the cooling tower? Why could the CR for alkalinity, Cl, and SO4 be so different?
Makeup Recirculation Water
Calcium 170 780
Magnesium 120 540
Alkalinity 160 50
Chlorides 80 500
Sulfates 50 700
SiO2 18 83
Conductivity 600 2900
14. What is the use of a psychrometric chart?
15. A cooling tower has an estimated volume of 340 m3. To determine the volume (holding capacity)
of a cooling tower system, one 500 g container of TRASAR #2 (Dosing Reagent 299) was added to
the system. (Nalco 23299 has a product factor = 1.0.) After adding Dosing Reagent 299, the
TRASAR technology reading increases from zero to 1.67 mg/L after complete mixing. What is the
system volume?
16. If the TRASAR #2 in Question 16 drops from 1.67 mg/l to 0.45 mg/l in 47 hours, what is the
blowdown rate?
17. Given the following data, what is the recirculation rate and evaporation rate for the cooling
tower?
a. Concentration Ratio (CR) = 5
b. Temperature range (ΔT) = 7oC
c. Relative humidity = 92%
d. Ambient temperature = 21oC
e. Basin length = 12 m
f. Basin width = 6 m
g. Basin drawdown = 15 cm in 2 minutes (when makeup water valve is completely off)
18. A tower has a liquid to gas ratio (L/G) of 1.0 and an approach to wet-bulb temperature
of 3oC. If the plant wants more cooling and increases the recirculating rate,
what happens to the L/G ratio?
What happens to cooling tower performance and the approach temperature?
What should they have done instead, if possible?
LESSON 44: CLOSED RECIRCULATING SYSTEMS
Cooling Water Application and Best Practices Guide (Book 313), Section 3.4
1. What are some of the key characteristics that can impact treatment of closed systems and some
advantages of closed systems over open systems?
2. What are common sites of uncontrolled water loss from a closed cooling system and how does
design of a closed system affect leakage?
3. What are two reasons why galvanic corrosion is a problem in closed cooling systems and how
can it be minimized?
4. Why can closed systems be buffered up to pH 9-11 without scale problems and open systems
can’t?
5. When surveying a closed system, what are some of the reasons why sidestream filtration would
be needed on the system?
6. What are key non-chemical or operational methods that can minimize corrosion in closed
systems?
7. Why are scaling inhibitors sometimes employed in closed system treatment products, even if
softened water is used in system? In this case, what is valuable to know about the makeup water
source?
8. Why are boron-nitrite inhibitors most commonly used in closed systems?
9. What are some of the ways nitrite can be consumed in closed systems?
10. What is one of the requirements when using molybdate by itself as a corrosion inhibitor in
closed system applications?
11. What are some of the unique concerns if glycol is used in a closed system, either just for freeze
protection in cold weather or continuously?
12. Describe the reasons why a staged filtration system is needed after cleaning a closed system and
two ways of staging a filtration system to sequentially remove smaller particle sizes of
suspended material from a closed system.
13. What are the key similarities and differences between a short term and long-term lay-up of a
closed cooling system (other than the time difference)?
14. Why is it important to ensure the maintenance of a proper dosage level with nitrite?
15. Calculate the HTI for a closed system with 4.5 m3 volume (holding capacity),
R = 180 m3/h, and a leakage of 2 ml/min. Compare to a normal HTI for
an open recirculating system? What types of corrosion inhibitors for open recirculating and
once-through systems would not be used in closed systems because of the HTI?
16. What dosages of nitrite and triazole would you recommend for a system with an HTI of
1.5 years at 90oC, with softened makeup water containing a combined chloride and sulfate
concentration of 150 mg/l? What dosages of PSO and triazole would you recommend?
17. Why is microbiological control important in a closed system? For which inhibitor in particular is
microbiological control important? Why?
18. What is the upper temperature limit for a nitrite treatment product? What material can be used
in systems operating above this temperature?
19. List an advantage and disadvantage of molybdate compared to nitrite for closed system
corrosion control.
20. What are some of the general treatment concerns and requirements of high temperature
systems, high heat flux systems, and low temperature systems?
21. Why are the requirements of low-conductivity systems unique?
LESSON 45: ONCE-THROUGH SYSTEMS
Reading Assignment:
Cooling Water Application and Best Practices Guide (Book 313), Section 3.5, pages 153 –
155; 159 – 162 and 163 - 164
1. Considering makeup sources for a once-through system as well water, clarified river water,
or unclarified river water, from which source(s) would you expect the following problems
in a system?
a. Aluminum in deposits, but little SiO2
b. Aluminum and SiO2 in deposits
c. Sulfate reducing bacteria
d. Loose foreign objects plugging exchanger inlets
e. Iron and manganese in deposits
f. Water analyses varying throughout seasons of the year
2. What differences exist in well water vs. surface water? (Suggestion: create a table of the
differences in: Temperature, dissolved solids, oxygen, carbon dioxide, pH variability, metal ions
and turbidity)
3. What methods of pretreatment are common for surface waters?
4. The problems in once through systems are sometimes specific to a given industry or water
source. Give some examples of problems in once-through systems.
5. What is a common microbial control practice for once-through systems?
6. What scale inhibitors are used for once-through systems?
7. How is fouling from suspended material minimized in once-through systems?
8. What unique biological problems occur in once-through systems?
9. Describe how macrofouling in once-through systems can be prevented.
10. A once-though system uses 15,000 m3/h of water. A polymeric dispersant product is applied at
0.2 g/m3. How many g/h of product is needed if the product density is 1.06 kg/l ?
LESSON 46: HEAT EXCHANGERS
Reading Assignment: Nalco Water Handbook 4th Edition (Bk 010), Chapter 14.1 – 14.23
Cooling Water Application and Best Practices Guide (Book 313) - Sections 3.6 pages 173-
191; 195 – 199; 201 – 203; 210 – 219; 221 – 232; Section 3.9, pages 391-400
1. What are the two primary mechanisms of heat transfer from the process fluid to the water in
process heat exchangers? Does the third mechanism exist also?
2. What are the basic components of a tube-and-shell heat exchanger and the functions of each?
3. What types of special tubes are used in some heat exchange applications, and what problems
can they cause?
4. In what type of exchanger can the process outlet temperature be lower than the cooling water
outlet temperature?
a. counter current
b. co-current
c. can be in both types of heat exchangers
d. can never be
5. The overall heat transfer coefficient (U) is used to lump several heat transfer factors together.
a. Which factors?
b. How is U value used?
6. What is the fouling factor (f)?
7. You open the channel end of a heat exchanger with water on the tube side and there are 4
compartments in the headspace. How many waterside passes does this exchanger have?
8. If there are 200 tubes in an exchanger with water on the shell-side that is 9 m long with an
external tube diameter (OD) of 19 mm, what is the area of the heat exchange surface? What is
the heat flux on the exchanger if the heat duty (Q) = 366 kW?
9. For heat exchangers, define approach temperature, temperature difference, and terminal
temperature difference. When should you use each, and under what conditions should you
avoid using each?
10. A heat exchanger is used to cool air. It has the following process and water temperatures:
Process in 82oC Water in 27oC

Process out 35oC Water out 32oC
a. If the exchanger has co-current flow, what is the Log Mean Temperature Difference (LMTD)?
b. If the exchanger has counter-current flow, what is the LMTD?
c. The exchanger cools 5,500 kg/h of air, specific heat (Cp) = 1 kJ/kgoC. The area of the
exchanger is 6.5 m2. What is the U coefficient? - Use counter-current flow.
d. What is the water flow through the exchanger?
11. You have been monitoring Approach Temperature in a customer system for three months.
Today you note a significant increase in the Approach Temperature. In what order should the
following actions be ranked, in terms of affect on the approach temperature or value to the
customer?
a. Check the clarifier for carryover . ____
b. Increase the chemical pumps. ____
c. Check the operator’s records of chemical tests. ____
d. Ignore the problem. Come back tomorrow. ____
e. Check the load on the exchanger. ____
f. Check the cooling water inlet temperature. ____
g. Check the chemical pump feed rate. ____
h. Check LMTD or U value. ____
12. A single pass heat exchanger has cooling water on the tube side. The process flow has been
reduced because of a turnaround; therefore, the plant has “throttled back” the cooling water
flow. You have the following information.
Process flow = 36,000 kg/h

Process temp in = 88oC
Process temp out = 46oC
Water temp in = 27oC
Water temp out = 40oC
Process specific heat = 2 kJ/kgK
Exchanger tubes = 120
Tube diameter (ID) = 19 mm
a. What is the heat load on the exchanger?

b. What is the water flow?
c. What problems would you expect with this velocity? Why?
13. An exchanger with a heat load of 26 GJ/h has the 1-pass water on the tube side. The exchanger
has a 65 cm shell ID with 25.4 mmm OD tubes on 32 mm square pitch. The tubes are 16 BWG,
the tube ID is 22.1 mm and the effective length of the tubes is 6 m. The cooling water velocity is
1.0 m/s, the inlet temperature is 35oC and the exit temperature is 46 oC.
a. What is the waterside skin temperature for a co-current exchanger?
b. What is the waterside skin temperature for a counter-current exchanger?
c. What does skin temperature indicate about differences between the two types of
exchangers?
LESSON 47: SPECIAL COOLING & REFRIGERATION SYSTEMS
Reading Assignment: PAC-3 Technical Manual (Book 3), Section 3.7 Page 125 – 132 / 145 /
156 – 166. (Reps working in steel or chemical industry: read additionally page 132 – 156 )
Follow the Industry Focused Training (IFT 200 Refrigeration)

Conduct the IFT 200 Refrigeration on Workday Learning
LESSON 48: DEPOSITION – SCALING/FOULING PROBLEMS AND

CONTROL IN COOLING WATER SYSTEMS
Reading Assignment: PAC-3 Technical Manual (Book 3), Section 3.8 and Section 3.9
1. What are the common types of deposition problems in cooling systems?

2. What is scale and how does it form?
3. How do other ions in solution affect the equilibrium of a scale-forming mineral?
4. How does pH affect scale formation?
5. How does temperature affect where scale forms in a cooling water system? Why?
6. How useful are the Ryznar and Langelier Stability Indices for predicting the scale-forming
tendency in a cooling tower system?
7. What is the benefit of using computer models to predict whether scale will form in a cooling
system?
8. What is the affect of flow velocity or physical obstructions to the flowing water on scale
formation?
9. What materials are commonly considered fouling deposits in cooling water systems?
10. When and where might the different forms of calcium sulfate scale be expected in a cooling
tower system?
11. What factors must be considered when balancing the potential for silica and magnesium silicate
scale control?
12. What factors must be known about calcium phosphate and a cooling water system to help
prevent this scale?
13. What is the most important factor in limiting the possibility of calcium phosphonate scale?
14. What are possible sources of iron deposits?
15. What must be known about a cooling system to determine whether silt is a potential fouling
problem?
16. Why is manganese fouling a potentially severe problem when it occurs?
17. What are the benefits of controlling pH for deposit control, and why does it normally only having
an indirect affect on fouling?
18. Why are control of concentration ratio important and what methods can be used to monitor
cycles of concentration?
19. What are the common methods of makeup water pretreatment, and what are the advantages
and disadvantages of them?
20. What are advantages and disadvantages of sidestream filtration of cooling tower water?
21. How do flow and hydrodynamics affect fouling?
22. How can baffles cause or prevent fouling?
23. Why does throttling the cooling water increase fouling potential and what is the best option for
prevention?
24. What are the similarities and differences of back flushing and air rumbling?
25. Does one have an advantage over the other?
26. What can improve the efficacy of back flushing or air rumbling?
27. The heat exchangers in a cooling system you service have always had substantial amounts of
sludge deposits, plugging some of the tubes. What are possible causes that you could provide to
your customer? What possible recommendations could you make to alleviate this problem?
28. Describe how scale inhibitors function as threshold inhibitors, crystal modifiers, sequestrants, or
by dispersion.
29. How do polymers disperse suspended material by charge reinforcement or steric stabilization?
30. How do surfactants act upon solids, oils or grease in cooling water?
31. What is a key difference between polyphosphates and organic phosphates? What is one
problem that some organic phosphates have that polyphosphates do not have?
32. Of the phosphonates, why are PBTC and PAPEMP generally better than HEDP or AMP for calcium
carbonate inhibition?
33. In what applications will phosphonates tend to precipitate as calcium phosphonate under
certain conditions? What are key conditions that cause this?
34. What is the difference between a polymer, a copolymer and a terpolymer?
35. What products make the best calcium carbonate and calcium sulfate inhibitors?
36. How can a surfactant benefit a cooling water treatment program?
LESSON 49: CORROSION PROBLEMS AND CONTROL IN COOLING WATER
SYSTEMS
Reading Assignment: PAC-3 Technical Manual (Book 3), Section 3.10 and Section 3.11
Bulletin B-495; Reprint R-815
1. Why does corrosion occur?

2. Why is it impossible to use just one metal for all situations in cooling water systems?
3. What is white rust and what conditions increase the possibility of white rust occurrence?
4. Why should we be concerned with degradation of nonmetallic components of the cooling
system?
5. What are some of the factors that influence corrosion in a cooling system and what is the impact
of each?
6. What are the four parts of the electrochemical process and why must they all occur for corrosion
to occur?
7. What is the value of the corrosion cell model and what is one drawback?
8. Describe the common anodic and cathodic reactions in typical cooling water applications.
9. How are secondary reactions important to the corrosion process?
10. What is a passive film on an iron containing metal, like steel, and how does it form?
11. What can the electrochemical or galvanic series tell us about metals in an aqueous environment?
12. How does oxygen impact corrosion in water systems?
13. Explain polarization. How do pH changes and velocity changes increase or decrease corrosion
rates?
14.Describe the three states of a metal in relation to corrosion in an aqueous environment.
15.How does self-passivation occur on metals like titanium and stainless steel?
16. What does a passive film need to be effective, and what can cause passivity breakdown?
17. What does the area of the anode and cathode have to do with the type of corrosion that occurs?
18. Why is an oxidizing anodic inhibitor sometimes called a “dangerous inhibitor”?
19. What are common forms of localized corrosion and what is their common mechanism of
operation?
20. How do pits become self-sustaining, or autocatalytic?
21. What do the two types of concentration cell corrosion mechanisms suggest is important in a
cooling water treatment program?
22. What can be done to minimize crevice corrosion?
23. What characterizes a tubercle and what can be done to prevent tuberculation?
24. How is under-deposit corrosion different from tuberculation?
25. How does manganese participate or aggravate underdeposit corrosion and what practice can
increase this problem?
26. What organisms can actively participate in microbiologically influenced corrosion?
27.What are the critical factors for stress corrosion cracking (SCC) of stainless steel to occur?
28. What is most important for preventing SCC?
29. How is erosion-corrosion different than plain erosion?
30. How can dezincification in brass be prevented or minimized?
31. Suppose galvanic corrosion is occurring in a heat exchanger with brass tubes and a mild steel
tube sheet.
32.What type of corrosion inhibitor can you put into the recirculating water to minimize the attack?
33. What are typical mechanical methods of controlling corrosion?
34. What are common advantages and disadvantages of organic coatings?
35. How does a sacrificial anode prevent corrosion?
36. How does pH affect corrosion control?
37. How does conductivity impact a corrosion control program?
38. How do bicarbonate and carbonate benefit a corrosion control program?
39. What are the four basic classifications of chemical inhibitors for corrosion control in cooling
water systems?
40. What is the basic way that anodic inhibitors reduce corrosion?
41. How do oxidizing anodic inhibitors work?
42. How do non-oxidizing anodic inhibitors work and what is one requirement for them to function?
43. How do cathodic inhibitors function?
44. Why do bipolar corrosion inhibitor films generally provide better inhibition? What key problem
of anodic inhibitors can this combination prevent?
45. Currently, there is one oxidizing anodic inhibitor in use. What is it and where is it commonly
used? Why?
46. What are some of the non-oxidizing anodic corrosion inhibitors?
47. How does molybdate function as an inhibitor and what are some of the benefits of molybdate?
48. How does orthophosphate function as a corrosion inhibitor?
49. How does silicate function as a corrosion inhibitor and where is it most commonly used?
50. How do phosphonates function as corrosion inhibitors?
51. Of the phosphonates discussed as corrosion inhibitors, which phosphonates provide the best
calcium tolerance and resistance to chlorine?
52. What are the common cathodic corrosion inhibitors?
53. How does zinc function as a corrosion inhibitor and what are some advantages and
disadvantages?
54.What is one factor that makes the combination of zinc and orthophosphate a good combination
for alkaline cooling water treatment?
55. How does PSO function as a cathodic inhibitor?
56. List all of the azoles for copper corrosion control, and their main application.
57. What are commonly used anodic/cathodic inhibitor combinations?
58. What are the functions of each component of a zinc/phosphate/phosphonate program?
59. What are advantages of a zinc/phosphate/phosphonate program?
60. What are some advantages of using PSO in an alkaline phosphate program?
61. How does an all-organic program function to provide corrosion protection on steel or iron
surfaces?
LESSON 50: OVERVIEW OF RECIRCULATING COOLING WATER INHIBITOR
PROGRAMS
1. Why is pretreatment of metal surfaces that are new, or after cleaning, essential for effective
corrosion control?
2. What inhibitors provide the initial passivation of metal in a pretreatment program?
3. How are pretreatment programs applied?
4. If a passivation program cannot be used, what pretreatment option remains?
5. What is unique about methods of pretreating a galvanized system and why?
6. Where could a basic scale control program be successful for controlling corrosion in a cooling
water system?
7. Which programs can best handle high cooling water temperature, and which are the least
capable of handling high bulk water temperature?
8. What provides corrosion inhibition for steel in all organic programs?
9. What are the important elements of system control for an all-organic program and why?
10. What are typical components of modern alkaline zinc programs?
11. What are advantages and disadvantages of alkaline zinc programs?
12. What are key aspects of zinc dosage control for alkaline zinc programs?
13. What are the components of a PSO/orthophosphate program and how do they function?
14. What are advantages and disadvantages of the PSO/orthophosphate program?
15. What are advantages and disadvantages of a molybdate program as a corrosion inhibitor?
16. What is one example of a non-phosphorous program and why would it be used?
17. How can you counteract the claims of gadget vendors that the devices can provide total
treatment of a cooling system?
18. What are the first steps to proper program selection for a cooling tower system?
19. Give examples of one or two key items to survey in each of the MOC categories.
20. How can you address the desire of a customer to operate the concentration ratio as high as
possible?
21. Why are system mechanical characteristics like the cooling tower design, system capacity, and
the temperature drop (ΔT) across the tower needed?
22. Why is it valuable to know the types of exchangers in a cooling system?
23. Why is historical data about program dosage and system water chemistry valuable?
LESSON 51: CONTINGENCY ACTION PLANS
Reading Assignment:
Cooling Water Application and Best Practice Guide (Book 313), Section 3.10 pages 419-425
1. Why is a plan necessary in advance of an upset?

2. What is a key first step in any upset recovery plan?
3. How can the example upsets in this section be used to develop a customized recovery plan for
any plant?
4. Why is it necessary to divide acid upsets into different categories based on the amount of pH
depression?
5. Why is liquid caustic not recommended for all acid upset recovery?
6. What are the problems that may occur when continuing to operate a system with an organic
substance process leak?
LESSON 52: DIAGNOSTIC TRASAR TECHNOLOGY
Reading Assignment: Cooling Water Best Practice Guide (Book 313), Section 3.11
1. Why is TRASAR technology a good technique for diagnostic studies?

2. What is background fluorescence?
3. What basic information is required for planning any diagnostic study?
4. What fluorometers can be used for Diagnostic TRASAR technology studies?
5. What is the definition of interference to a TRASAR technology measurement?
6. What types of materials will interfere with TRASAR technology measurements?
7. Give a general description of the TRASAR-Controlled Test Procedure.
8. For a system volume study, how much TRASAR #2 should be added for an estimated system
volume of 1,140 m3? What is the maximum concentration that could be added? Why should the
concentration used be so much lower than the maximum?
9. Given the following data and the amount of TRASAR #2 added to the system from
question 8, calculate the system volume, blowdown rate, and HTI.
Fluorometer
Step Description Date Time Reading (mg/L)
1 Sample #1 11/20 8:00 0.05
2 System Cycle Time 45 min
3 Shut off blowdown valve 11/20 8:15
Add entire amount of TRASAR
reagent calculated in Question
4 8 11/20 8:15
5 Sample #2 11/20 9:00 7.23
6 Open blowdown valve 11/20 9:00
7 Sample #3 11/21 12:00 4.90
8 Sample #4 11/22 15:00 3.32
9 Sample #5 11/23 18:00 2.25
LESSON 53: ANALYTICAL AND RESEARCH SUPPORT
Reading Assignment: Cooling Water Best Practice Guide (Book 313), Section 3.12
1. Why is proper sampling important for any analytical test that will be run on the water sample?
2. What information does a deposit analysis provide about a solid sample?
3. Describe some common errors that can occur when performing a titration on-site?
4. Why should some water chemistry parameters be measured more often than others in routine,
on-site monitoring programs for a cooling system?
5. What testing would you recommend for routine monitoring for a closed system program?
6. List the goals and methodology of a complete analytical program for a cooling system.
LESSON 54: MICROBIAL BIOLOGY & APPLICATION TECHNOLOGY
Reading Assignment: PAC-3 Technical Manual (Book 3), Section 3.13, Section 3.14
Cooling Water Best Practices Guide (Book 313), Section 3.13
1. What molecules are the basic monomers from which enzymes are built? Discuss the role
enzymes play in a cells life? Give an example of enzyme catalysis.
2. What cooling water problems are caused by:
a. Aerobic slime formers
b. Anaerobic corrosive bacteria
c. Iron depositing bacteria
d. Nitrifiers/denitrifiers
3. Why are Legionella bacteria a concern in man-made water systems? What role do protozoa and
biofilms play in the survival of Legionella?
4. How is Legionnaire’s disease contracted, diagnosed and treated?
5. What problems do biofilms present in cooling water systems?
6. Why are biofilms more difficult to control than planktonic microorganisms?
7. How do green algae differ from cyanobacteria? Why does blocking sunlight control growth?
8. What are the most common macro-foulants found in cooling water systems? What problems do
they create?
9. Describe the dip slide test and how it works.
10. If the most troublesome microorganisms in cooling water systems are on surfaces, why make dip
slide measurements?
11. Briefly discuss the four essential principles in the use of chemical agents for microbial control.
12. List four oxidizing and four non-oxidizing biocides. Describe how glutaraldehyde and
isothiazoline disrupt cellular activity.
13. Compare and contrast the major chemical difference between chlorine and bromine. How does
this impact biocidal activity?
14. What advantages do stabilized halogen chemistries provide in biomanagement of cooling water
systems?
15. How can algae be controlled in cooling water systems?
16. Describe two mechanical/physical and two chemical methods for mollusk control. Relate the
effectiveness of molluscicides to the life cycle of the blue mussel.
17. What factors should be considered in the selection of oxidizer chemistry?
18. What factors should be considered in the selection of non-oxidizer chemistry?
19. What mechanical and operational factors have an important impact on microbial growth and
control applications?
20. What are common methods for monitoring oxidizing biocides and how do they differ?
21. What is the estimated amount of industrial bleach (12.5% active) that would be required to
provide a 0.3 mg/l free chlorine residual for a system with a recirculating rate of 9,100 m3/h?
22. Describe the concept of the minimum kill concentration and how can it be determined.
23. How will visual inspections of a cooling system aid in monitoring microbial contamination?
24. Why are trends of results from dip slides (or DMA) more valuable than the individual results?
25. What are possible reasons for a difference between dip slides and DMA?
26. Why is the presence of even a small amount of anaerobic bacteria in a water sample indicative
of problems in the cooling system?
27. If protozoa are found by microscopic observation of a water sample, what does this indicate?
28. Describe the main approaches to controlling algae in cooling towers.
29. If microbial growth is out-of-control, what methods can be used to regain control?
30. How is SELECTICIDE® valuable for troubleshooting microbial problems?
LESSON 55: MONITORING AND CONTROL
Reading Assignment: 3D TRASAR NexGen Operating Manual OM-0270C
Cooling Water Application and Best Practices Guide (Book 313), Section 3.14, pages 565-
591 and 596-625
1. What are key aspects of, and reasons for, the Operational component of an MOC survey?
2. List 8-10 key aspects of proper corrosion coupon installation.
3. If the mild steel corrosion rate in a cooling system is expected to be 0.04 mm/y, what is the
minimum exposure period required for accurate corrosion rate determination?
4. How can galvanized coupons be properly used for monitoring corrosion on galvanized metal and
what should not be done with galvanized coupons?
5. When and why should pretreated coupons be used as part of a corrosion monitoring program?
6. If a coupon has localized or pitting corrosion, the coupon report may not give a calculated
average corrosion rate. Why not?
7. List 8-9 key aspects of proper LINEAR POLARIZATION RESISTANCE (LPR) probe installation.
8. Describe when an LPR monitor might be used by itself, without the use of corrosion coupons to
give complementary results. What is the difference between corrosion rates obtained with
coupons and those obtained with an on-line meter?
9. Describe the benefits and precautions for using analysis of iron and copper ions as a measure of
corrosion rate in a cooling system.
10. Describe the elements of a complete corrosion monitoring program for a cooling system.
11. How does fluorescence work and how is it different than typical absorbance analysis methods?
12. What is 3D TRASAR® technology?
13. Describe the general steps for using the 3D TRASAR Optimizer
14. What will 3D TRASAR Corrosion Control NOT do?
15. How does polymer consumption indicate scale formation and how sensitive is it as a
measure of scale formation? What types of deposition can be controlled?
LESSON 56: ADDING VALUE
Reading Assignment:
Cooling Water Best Practices Guide (Book 313), Section 3.15 pages 627 / 630 / 641-643 / 650
/ 656-659 / 660-661
TCO APP: with your Primary Trainer carry out 2 examples using the TCO APP (1 for a cooling water
application and 1 for a Boiler application)

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New Sales Engineers Training Water

 Use the indexes to help find specific topics of additional interest

 Check the answers with your Primary Trainer or District Manager

LESSON 2: BASIC WATER CHEMISTRY

1. What ions make up hardness? Why is hard water “hard”?

LESSON 4: COAGULATION AND FLOCCULATION

1. What is clarification? Why might coagulation and flocculation be used in clarification?

1. What is Pretreatment, as it relates to Raw Water/Wastewater treatment processes?

LESSON 7: RAW WATER CLARIFICATION EQUIPMENT

LESSON 9: PRIMARY WASTEWATER TREATMENT

LESSON 11: TERTIARY WASTEWATER TREATMENT

LESSON 13: ADVANCED WASTEWATER TREATMENT

LESSON 14: SLUDGE STABILIZATION

LESSON 16: SLUDGE DEWATERING

LESSON 18: FOAM CONTROL

1. What causes the stability of foam?

LESSON 19: ODOR CONTROL

1. What is the significance of lost production?

6. Describe the MOC (mechanical-operational-chemical) survey model.

1. Why is water used for heat transfer?

9. What is the difference between the terms ‘ppm’ and ‘mg/l?

Given that the atomic weights of:

1. What major impurities are removed by clarification?

1. List all of the types of ion exchange processes.

1. What are the purposes of condensate polishing?

1. What is the purpose of a deaerator?

1. What is a firetube boiler?

11. What is meant by the term “Boiler Circulation Ratio”?

1. What is superheated steam?

1. What are the two basic types of surface condensers?

LESSON 33: BLOWDOWN CONTROL & HEAT RECOVERY

1. What is the purpose of boiler blowdown?

LESSON 34: WASTE HEAT BOILERS (not for Light)

1. What is the economical benefit of a waste heat boiler?

1. What is the difference between steam quality and steam purity?

1. What are the sources of condensate corrosion?

1. Above what temperature does boiler steel’s microstructure begin to change?

1. What properties make water a good choice as a cooling medium?

1. What is the difference between a cross-flow and a counter-flow cooling tower?

Process in 82oC Water in 27oC

Process flow = 36,000 kg/h

a. What is the heat load on the exchanger?

Follow the Industry Focused Training (IFT 200 Refrigeration)

LESSON 48: DEPOSITION – SCALING/FOULING PROBLEMS AND

1. What are the common types of deposition problems in cooling systems?

1. Why does corrosion occur?

1. Why is a plan necessary in advance of an upset?

1. Why is TRASAR technology a good technique for diagnostic studies?

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