5 Steps to a 5: AP Chemistry 2024 John

T. Moore
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 CONTENTS

Preface
Acknowledgments
About the Authors
Introduction: The Five-Step Program

STEP 1 Set Up Your Study Program

1 What You Need to Know About the AP Chemistry
Exam
Background of the Advanced Placement Program
Who Writes the AP Chemistry Exam?
The AP Grades and Who Receives Them
Reasons for Taking the AP Chemistry Exam
Questions Frequently Asked About the AP Chemistry
Exam
2 How to Plan Your Time
Three Approaches to Preparing for the AP Chemistry
Exam
Calendar for Each Plan

STEP 2 Determine Your Test Readiness

3 Take a Diagnostic Exam
Getting Started: The Diagnostic Exam
AP Chemistry Final Practice Exam, Section I (Multiple
Choice)
Answers and Explanations for Final Practice Exam,
Section I (Multiple Choice)
 AP Chemistry Final Practice Exam, Section II (Free
Response)
Answers and Explanations for Final Practice Exam,
Section II (Free Response)
Scoring and Interpretation

STEP 3 Develop Strategies for Success

4 How to Approach Each Question Type
Multiple-Choice Questions
Free-Response Questions

STEP 4 Review the Knowledge You Need to Score High

5 Basics
Units and Measurements
Dimensional Analysis—the Factor Label Method
The States of Matter
Phase Diagrams
The Structure of the Atom
Oxidation Numbers
Nomenclature Overview
Experiments
Common Mistakes to Avoid
Review Questions
Answers and Explanations
Free-Response Question
Answer and Explanation
Rapid Review
6 Stoichiometry
Moles and Molar Mass
Percent Composition and Empirical Formulas
Introduction to Reactions
Reaction Stoichiometry
 Limiting Reactants
Percent Yield
Molarity and Solution Calculations
Experiments
Common Mistakes to Avoid
Review Questions
Answers and Explanations
Free-Response Question
Answer and Explanation
Rapid Review
7 Spectroscopy, Light, and Electrons
The Nature of Light
Spectroscopy and the Electromagnetic Spectrum
Beer-Lambert Law
Wave Properties of Matter
Atomic Spectra
Atomic Orbitals
Photoelectron (Photoemission) Spectroscopy (PES)
Experiments
Common Mistakes to Avoid
Review Questions
Answers and Explanations
Free-Response Question
Answer and Explanation
Rapid Review
8 Bonding
Lewis Electron-Dot Structures
Ionic and Covalent Bonding
Molecular Geometry—VSEPR
Valence Bond Theory
Molecular Orbital Theory
Resonance
 Bond Length, Strength, and Magnetic Properties
Structure of Metals and Alloys
Experiments
Common Mistakes to Avoid
Review Questions
Answers and Explanations
Free-Response Question
Answer and Explanation
Rapid Review
9 Solids, Liquids, and Intermolecular Forces
Intramolecular and Intermolecular Forces
The Liquid State
The Solid State
Relationship of Intermolecular Forces to Phase Changes
Potential Energy
Experiments
Common Mistakes to Avoid
Review Questions
Answers and Explanations
Free-Response Question
Answer and Explanation
Rapid Review
10 Gases
Kinetic Molecular Theory
Gas Law Relationships
Experiments
Common Mistakes to Avoid
Review Questions
Answers and Explanations
Free-Response Question
Answer and Explanation
Rapid Review
11 Solutions
Concentration Units
Electrolytes and Nonelectrolytes
Colligative Properties
Colloids
Composition of Mixtures
Separation of Solutions and Mixtures Chromatography
Experiments
Common Mistakes to Avoid
Review Questions
Answers and Explanations
Free-Response Questions
Answers and Explanations
Rapid Review
12 Reactions and Periodicity
AP Exam Format
General Aspects of Chemical Reactions and Equations
General Properties of Aqueous Solutions
Precipitation Reactions
Oxidation–Reduction Reactions
Coordination Compounds
Acid–Base Reactions
Experiments
Common Mistakes to Avoid
Review Questions
Answers and Explanations
Free-Response Question
Answer and Explanation
Rapid Review
13 Kinetics
How Reactions Occur—Collision Model
Rates of Reaction
 Integrated Rate Laws
Reaction Energy Profile
Activation Energy
Reaction Mechanisms
Steady-State Approximation
Multistep Reaction Energy Profile
Catalysts
Experiments
Common Mistakes to Avoid
Review Questions
Answers and Explanations
Free-Response Question
Answer and Explanation
Rapid Review
14 Thermodynamics
Energy Diagrams
Heat Transfer and Thermal Equilibrium
Calorimetry
Energy of Phase Changes
Introduction to Enthalpy of Reaction
Bond Enthalpies
Laws of Thermodynamics
Hess’s Law
Enthalpies of Formation
Thermodynamics and Equilibrium
Thermodynamic and Kinetic Control
Coupled Reactions
Experiments
Common Mistakes to Avoid
Review Questions
Answers and Explanations
Free-Response Question
 Answer and Explanation
Rapid Review
15 Equilibrium
Equilibrium Expressions
Magnitude of the Equilibrium Constant
Properties of the Equilibrium Constant
Calculating Equilibrium Concentrations
Representations of Equilibrium
Le Châtelier’s Principle
Solubility Equilibria
Common-Ion Effect
pH and Solubility
Free Energy of Dissolution
Other Equilibria
Experiments
Common Mistakes to Avoid
Review Questions
Answers and Explanations
Free-Response Question
Answer and Explanation
Rapid Review
16 Acids and Bases
Acid-Base Equilibrium
Ka—the Acid Dissociation Constant
Kw—the Water Dissociation Constant
Molecular Structure of Acids and Bases
pH
Kb—the Base Dissociation Constant
Acidic/Basic Properties of Salts
Buffers
Acid–Base Reactions and Buffers
Titration Equilibria
 Experiments
Common Mistakes to Avoid
Review Questions
Answers and Explanations
Free-Response Question
Answer and Explanation
Rapid Review
17 Electrochemistry
Redox Reactions
Electrochemical Cells
Quantitative Aspects of Electrochemistry
Nernst Equation
Electrolysis and Faraday’s Law
Experiments
Common Mistakes to Avoid
Review Questions
Answers and Explanations
Free-Response Question
Answer and Explanation
Rapid Review
Additional Review and Applications
18 Nuclear Chemistry
Nuclear Reactions
Natural Radioactive Decay Modes
Nuclear Stability
Nuclear Decay Calculations
Mass–Energy Relationships
Common Mistakes to Avoid
Review Questions
Answers and Explanations
Free-Response Question
Answer and Explanation
 Rapid Review
19 Organic Chemistry
Hydrocarbons
Structural Isomerism
Common Functional Groups
Acid–Base Chemistry
Experiments
Common Mistakes to Avoid
Review Questions
Answers and Explanations
Free-Response Questions
Answers and Explanations
Rapid Review
20 Experimental Investigations
Experiment 1: Spectroscopy
Experiment 2: Spectrophotometry
Experiment 3: Gravimetric Analysis
Experiment 4: Titration
Experiment 5: Chromatography
Experiment 6: Determination of the Type of Bonding in
Solid Samples
Experiment 7: Stoichiometry
Experiment 8: Redox Titration
Experiment 9: Chemical and Physical Changes
Experiment 10: Kinetics
Experiment 11: Rate Laws
Experiment 12: Calorimetry
Experiment 13: Chemical Equilibrium—Le Châtelier’s
Principle
Experiment 14: Acid–Base Titrations
Experiment 15: Buffer pH
Experiment 16: The Capacity of a Buffer
 Common Mistakes to Avoid
Review Questions
Answers and Explanations
Free-Response Questions
Answers and Explanations
Rapid Review

STEP 5 Build Your Test-Taking Confidence

AP Chemistry Practice Exam 1
AP Chemistry Practice Exam 1, Section I (Multiple
Choice)
Answers and Explanations for Exam 1, Section I
(Multiple Choice)
AP Chemistry Practice Exam 1, Section II (Free
Response)
Answers and Explanations for Exam 1, Section II (Free
Response)
AP Chemistry Practice Exam 2
AP Chemistry Practice Exam 2, Section I (Multiple
Choice)
Answers and Explanations for Exam 2, Section I
(Multiple Choice)
AP Chemistry Practice Exam 2, Section II (Free
Response)
Answers and Explanations for Exam 2, Section II (Free
Response)
Appendixes
Pre-AP Diagnostic Exam
SI Units
Balancing Redox Equations Using the Ion-Electron
Method
Common Ions
Bibliography
Websites
Glossary
Avoiding “Stupid” Mistakes on the Free-Response
Section
Exam Resources
 PREFACE

Welcome to the AP Chemistry Five-Step Program. The fact that you

are reading this preface suggests that you will be taking the AP
Exam in chemistry. The AP Chemistry Exam is constantly evolving
and so this guide has evolved. We have updated the book to match
the current AP Chemistry Exam. The current exam has an emphasis
on sets—a series of questions that refer to the same given
information, along with changes in the free-response portion.
The AP Chemistry Exam and other standardized chemistry exams
certainly aren’t easy, but the rewards are worth it—college credit, a
good preparation for college chemistry, and the satisfaction of a job
well done. You will have to work and study hard to do well, but
throughout this book we will help you master the material and get
ready for the exam.
Both of us have many years of experience in teaching
introductory general chemistry at the university level. John Moore is
the author of Chemistry for Dummies, and he and Richard “Doc”
Langley have also written Chemistry for the Utterly Confused, a
guide for college/high school students. Each of us has certain skills
and experiences that will be of special help in presenting the
material in this book. Richard has also taught high school science,
and John has years of experience teaching chemistry to both public
school teachers and students. Both of us have been graders for the
AP Chemistry Exam free-response questions for years (20+ years for
Richard and a few less for John) and have firsthand knowledge of
how the exam is graded and scored. We have tried not only to make
the material understandable but also to present the problems in the
format of the AP Chemistry Exam. We will let you know about
common student errors along the way. By faithfully working the
problems you will increase your familiarity with the exam format, so
that when the time comes to take the exam there will be no
surprises.
Use this book in addition to your regular chemistry text. We have
outlined three different study programs to prepare you for the exam.
If you choose the yearlong program, use it as you are taking your AP
Chemistry course. It will provide additional problems in the AP
format. If you choose one of the other two programs, use it with
your chemistry textbook also; but you may need to lean a little more
on this review book. Either way, if you put in the time and effort, you
will do well.
Now it’s time to start. Read the Introduction: The Five-Step
Program; Chapter 1, What You Need to Know About the AP
Chemistry Exam; and Chapter 2, How to Plan Your Time. Then take
the Pre-AP Diagnostic Exam in the appendixes. Your score will show
how well you understand the material right now and point out weak
areas that may need a little extra attention. Use the review exams at
the end of the chapters to check your comprehension. Also, pay
attention to the free-response questions. That is where you can
really shine, and they are worth almost as much as the multiple-
choice part. Use the Rapid Reviews to brush up on the important
points in the chapters. Just before taking the exam, review the
section on avoiding “stupid” mistakes at the back of this book. Then
take the AP Chemistry Final Practice Exam in Chapter 3. Keep this
book handy—it is going to be your friend for the next few weeks or
months.
Good luck—but remember that luck favors the prepared mind.
 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

The authors thank Grace Freedson, who believed in our abilities and
gave us this project. Many thanks also to Anya Kozorez, whose
production talents moved this project along. A really big thanks to
Mindy Wurtz for her insights and suggestions. Many thanks to our
colleagues at the AP Chemistry readings for their helpful
suggestions.
 ABOUT THE AUTHORS

John T. Moore grew up in the foothills of western North Carolina. He

attended the University of North Carolina–Asheville, where he
received his bachelor’s degree in chemistry. He earned his master’s
degree in chemistry from Furman University in Greenville, South
Carolina. After a stint in the US Army he decided to try his hand at
teaching. In 1971, he joined the faculty of Stephen F. Austin State
University in Nacogdoches, Texas. In 1985 he started back to school
part time, and in 1991 he received his doctorate in science education
from Texas A&M University. In 2003 his first book, Chemistry for
Dummies, was published.

Richard H. Langley grew up in southwestern Ohio. He attended Miami

University in Oxford, Ohio, where he earned bachelor’s degrees in
chemistry and mineralogy and a master’s degree in chemistry. He
next went to the University of Nebraska in Lincoln, where he
received his doctorate in chemistry. He took a postdoctoral position
at Arizona State University in Tempe, Arizona, then became a visiting
assistant professor at the University of Wisconsin–River Falls. He first
joined Stephen F. Austin State University in Nacogdoches, Texas, in
1982.

The authors are coauthors of Chemistry for the Utterly Confused,

Must Know Chemistry for High School, Biochemistry for Dummies,
and Organic Chemistry II for Dummies.

Both authors are graders for the free-response portion of the AP

Chemistry Exam. In fact, between them, they have almost forty
years of AP grading experience and estimate that together they have
graded more than 150,000 exams.
 INTRODUCTION:
THE FIVE-STEP PROGRAM

The Basics
Not too long ago, you enrolled in AP Chemistry. A curiosity about
chemistry, encouragement from a respected teacher, or the simple
fact that it was a requirement may have been your motivation. No
matter what the reason, you find yourself flipping through a book
that promises to help you culminate this experience with the highest
of honors, a 5 in AP Chemistry. Yes, it is possible to achieve this
honor without this book. There are many excellent teachers of AP
Chemistry out there who teach, coax, and otherwise prepare their
students into getting a 5 every year. However, for most students
preparing for the exam, the benefits of buying this book far
outweigh its cost.
The key to doing well on the Advanced Placement (AP) Chemistry
Exam is to outline a method of attack and not to deviate from this
method. We will work with you to make sure you take the best path
toward the test. You will need to focus on each step, and this book
will serve as a tool to guide your steps. But do not forget—no tool is
useful if you do not use it.

Organization of the Book

This book conducts you through the five steps necessary to prepare
yourself for success on the exam. These steps will provide you with
the skills and strategies vital to the exam, and the practice that will
lead you toward the perfect 5.
 First, we start by introducing the basic five-step plan used in this
book. Then in Chapter 1, we will give you some background
information about the AP Chemistry Exam. Next, in Chapter 2, we
present three different approaches to preparing for the exam. In the
appendixes you will find the Pre-AP Diagnostic Exam and in Chapter
3, we give you an opportunity to evaluate your knowledge with
diagnostic exam. The results of these exams will allow you to
customize your study. In Chapter 4, we offer you a multitude of tips
and suggestions about the different types of questions on the AP
Chemistry Exam. Many times good test-taking practices can help
raise your score.
Since the volume of the material to be mastered can be
intimidating, Chapters 5 to 20 present a comprehensive review of
the material that you will cover in an AP Chemistry course. This is
review material, but since not all this material appears in every AP
Chemistry class, it will also help to fill in the gaps in your chemistry
knowledge. You can use it in conjunction with your textbook if you
are currently taking AP Chemistry, or you can use it as a review of
the concepts you covered. At the end of each chapter, you will find
both a multiple-choice and free-response exam for you to test
yourself. The answers and explanations are included. This will also
help you identify any topics that might require additional study.
After these content chapters, there are two complete chemistry
practice exams, including multiple-choice and free-response
questions. The answers and explanations are included. These exams
will allow you to test your skills. The multiple-choice questions will
provide you with practice on questions similar to those asked on past
AP Exams. These are not the exact questions, but ones that will
focus you on the key AP Chemistry topics. There are also examples
of free-response questions; there are fewer of these since they take
much longer to answer. After you take an exam, you should review
each question. Ask yourself, why was this question present? Why do
I need to know this? Make sure you check your answers against the
explanations. If necessary, use the index to locate a particular topic
and reread the review material. In Step 5 we suggest that you take
the Final Practice Exam in Chapter 3, identify those areas that need
additional study, and review the appropriate material. Then take the
second exam and use the results to guide your additional study.
Finally, in the appendixes you will find additional resources to aid
your preparation. These include:
• The Pre-AP Diagnostic Exam
• A tip sheet on how to avoid “stupid” mistakes and careless errors
• Common conversions
• How to balance redox equations
• A list of common ions
• A bibliography
• Several useful websites
• A glossary of terms related to AP Chemistry
• A table of half-reactions for use while answering free-response
questions
• A table of equations and abbreviations for use while answering
free-response questions
• A periodic table for use when answering any exam questions

The Five-Step Program

Step 1: Set Up Your Study Program
In Step 1, you will read a brief overview of the AP Chemistry Exams,
including an outline of the topics. You will also follow a process to
help determine which of the following preparation programs is right
for you:
• Full school year: September through May
• One semester: January through May
• Six weeks: Basic training for the exam

Step 2: Determine Your Test Readiness

Step 2 and the Pre-AP Diagnostic Exam will provide you with ways to
assess your current level of understanding. These exams will let you
know about your current level of preparedness and on which areas
you should focus your study. Much of this material is considered to
be “prior knowledge,” which is material you should know before
taking an AP Chemistry course. This will not appear directly on the
AP Exam; however, you will need to know this material to
understand many of the questions.
• Take the diagnostic exams slowly and analyze each question. Do
not worry about how many questions you get right. Hopefully, this
exam will boost your confidence.
• Review the answers and explanations following each exam, so
that you see what you do and do not yet fully understand.

Step 3: Develop Strategies for Success

Step 3 provides strategies that will help you do your best on the
exam. These strategies cover both the multiple-choice and free-
response sections of the exam. Some of these tips are based upon
experience in writing questions, and others have been gleaned from
our years of experience reading (grading) the AP Chemistry Exams.
• Learn how to read and analyze multiple-choice questions.
• Learn how to answer multiple-choice questions.
• Learn how to plan and write answers to the free-response
questions.

Step 4: Review the Knowledge You Need to

Score High
Step 4 encompasses most of this book. In this step, you will learn or
review the material you need to know for the test. Your results on
the diagnostic exam will let you know on which material you should
concentrate your study. Concentrating on some material does not
mean you can ignore the other material. You should review all the
material, even what you already know.
 There is a lot of material here, enough to summarize a yearlong
experience in AP Chemistry and highlight the, well, highlights. Some
AP courses will have covered more material than yours; some will
have covered less. But the bottom line is that if you thoroughly
review this material, you will have studied all that is on this exam
and what appears on other standardized chemistry exams and you
will have significantly increased your chances of scoring well. This
edition gives new emphasis to some areas of chemistry to bring your
review more in line with the revised AP Chemistry Exam format. For
example, there is more discussion of reactions and the laboratory
experience. Each chapter contains a short exam to monitor your
understanding of the current chapter.

Step 5: Build Your Test-Taking Confidence

In Step 5, you will complete your preparation by testing yourself on
practice exams. This section contains two complete chemistry
exams, solutions, and sometimes more important, advice on how to
avoid the common mistakes. Be aware that these practice exams are
not reproduced questions from actual AP Chemistry Exams, but they
mirror both the material tested by AP and the way in which it is
tested.

The Graphics Used in This Book

To emphasize particular skills and strategies, we use several icons
throughout this book. An icon in the margin will alert you to pay
particular attention to the accompanying text. We use these four
icons:
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CHARACTER SPECIFICUS.

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campanulatis; floribus terminalibus, sub-umbellatis; foliis quaternis, lineari-
trigonis, glabris, erectis.

DESCRIPTIO.

Caulis erectus, ramosus; ramuli frequentissimi, erecti, glabri.

Folia quaterna, lineari-trigona, erecta, subtus sulcata, glabra; petiolis
brevissimis, adpressis.
Flores terminales, nutantes, sub-umbellati; pedunculi filiformes, bracteis
tribus, linearibus instructi.
Calyx. Perianthium tetraphyllum, foliolis subulatis, carinatis, sulcatis,
lævibus, adpressis.
Corolla urceolata, alba, calyce paulo longior; laciniæ limbi obtusæ,
erecto-patulæ.
Stamina. Filamenta octo capillaria, apice inflexa. Antheræ ovatæ,
brunneæ, cristatæ, inclusæ.
Pistillum. Germen globosum, sulcatum. Stylus filiformis, exsertus.
Stigma tetragonum.
Habitat ad Caput Bonæ Spei.
Floret a mensi Junii, in Septembrem.

REFERENTIA.

1. Calyx, et Corolla.
2. Calyx, lente auctus.
3. Stamina, et Pistillum.
 4. Stamen unum, lente auctum.
5. Pistillum, lente auctum.

SPECIFIC CHARACTER.

Heath, with crested tips, within the blossom; shaft without; blossoms
globularly bell-shaped; flowers terminate the branches in small bunches;
leaves grow by fours, linearly three-sided, smooth and upright.

DESCRIPTION.

Stem upright, and branching; the small branches are numerous, upright,
and smooth.
Leaves grow by fours, linearly three-sided, upright, furrowed on the
under part and smooth; with very short foot-stalks, pressed to the branches.
Flowers terminate the branches, are a little bent downwards, and grow in
small bunches; the foot-stalks are thread-shaped, with three linear floral
leaves on them.
Empalement. Cup four-leaved, the little leaves are awl-shaped, keeled,
furrowed, smooth, and pressed to the blossom.
Blossom pitcher-shaped, white, and a little longer than the cup; the
segments of the border are blunt, upright and spreading.
Chives. Eight hair-like threads, bent inwards at the ends. Tips egg-
shaped, brown, crested and within the blossom.
Pointal. Seed-bud globular, and furrowed. Shaft thread-shaped and
without the blossom. Summit four-cornered.
Native of the Cape of Good Hope.
Flowers from June, till September.

REFERENCE.

1. The Empalement, and Blossom.

2. The Empalement, magnified.
3. The Chives, and Pointal.
4. A Chive, magnified.
5. The Pointal, magnified.
 ERICA Massonia.

CHARACTER SPECIFICUS.

Erica, antheris muticis, inclusis; corollis sub-cylindricis, viscosis,

speciosissimis, tricoloratis; foliis subquaternis, pilis longis vestitis.

DESCRIPTIO.

Caulis fruticosus, erectus, bipedalis, basi simplicissimus, dein ramosus,

rami suberecti, foliis toti tecti.
Folia subquaterna, oblonga, serrata, pilis longis vestita, supra plana,
subtus sulcata, petiolis brevissimis adpressis.
Flores subterminales, plures, simplice verticillati, cernuo-patenti,
pedunculi pilosi, foliolis tribus subtus instructi.
Calyx. Perianthium tetraphyllum, foliolis lanciolatis, hirsutis, adpressis,
apicibus revolutis.
Corolla subcylindracea, micans, viscosa, rubra, lutea et viridia
speciosissime colorata, ore arctato, quadrisido.
Stamina. Filamenta octo capillaria, longitudine tubi, receptaculo inserta.
Antheræ muticæ.
Pistillum. Germen clavatum, sulcatum. Stylus filiformis, subexsertus.
Stigma tetragonum.
Habitat ad Caput Bonæ Spei.
Floret a mensi Augusti ad Decembrem.

REFERENTIA.

1. Calyx et Corolla.
2. Calyx lente auctus.
3. Stamina et Pistillum.
 4. Stamina a Pistillo diducta, anthera una lente aucta.
5. Stylus et Stigma lente aucta.

SPECIFIC CHARACTER.

Heath, with beardless tips, within the blossom, which are nearly cylindrical,
clammy, most beautiful, and three-coloured; the leaves grow mostly by
fours, and are entirely covered with long hairs.

DESCRIPTION.

Stem shrubby, upright, grows two feet high, simple at the base, then
branching, the branches nearly upright, and quite covered by the leaves.
Leaves grow mostly by fours, oblong, sawed, clothed with long hairs,
smooth on the upper, and furrowed on the under part, having very short leaf-
stems pressed to the branches.
Flowers are numerous, in single whorls, near the summit of the
branches, bending downward, and spreading, the foot-stalks hairy, with three
small leaves fixed on their under part.
Empalement. Cup four-leaved, which are lance-shaped, hairy, pressed to
the blossom, and rolled back at the point.
Blossom nearly cylindrical, shining, clammy, and most beautifully
coloured with red, yellow, and green, narrow at the mouth, which is divided
into four segments.
Chives. Eight hair-like threads, the length of the blossom, fixed into the
receptacle. Tips beardless.
Pointal. Seed-vessel club-shaped, and furrowed. Shaft thread-shaped,
rather without the blossom. Summit four-cornered.
Native of the Cape of Good Hope.
Flowers from August till December.

REFERENCE.
1. The Empalement and Blossom.
2. The Empalement magnified.
3. The Chives and Pointal.
4. The Chives detached from the Pointal; one tip magnified.
5. The Shaft and its Summit magnified.
 ERICA melastoma.

CHARACTER SPECIFICUS.

Erica, antheræ muticæ, exsertæ, attenuata in filamenta plana; corollis

sessilibus, solitariis, luteis, terminalibus; oris laciniis nigris; calyx
duplicatus, heptaphyllus, imbricatus; foliis subulatis, quaternis.

DESCRIPTIO.

Caulis laxus, erectus, bipedalis; rami pauci, simplices; ramuli sparsi,

brevissimi, frequentissimi, foliosi.
Folia quaterna, subulata, apice, recurvata, sub-scabrida, rigida; petiolis
brevissimis, adpressis.
Flores sessiles in apicibus ramulorum, solitarii, dependenti; pedunculi
brevissimi.
Calyx. Perianthium duplex; interius tetraphyllum, foliolis concavis,
ovatis, glabris, imbricatis, integris, luteis; exterius triphyllum, priori
brevioribus, consimilibus.
Corolla conica, lutea, parum curvata, basi quadrifariam sulcata, apice
attenuata; laciniis erectis, obtusis, longissimis, adpressis, nigris.
Stamina. Filamenta octo, plana, linearia. Antheræ muticæ, lineares,
exsertæ, longitudine corollæ, attenuata in filamenta.
Pistillum. Germen ovatum, glabrum, integrum. Stylus exsertus,
filiformis, staminibus paulo longior. Stigma marginatum, virescens.
Habitat ad Caput Bonæ Spei.
Floret a Mensi Februarii, in Julium.

REFERENTIA.

1. Calyx.
2. Corolla, et Stamina.
 3. Stamina, et Pistillum.
4. Stamina a Pistillo diducta.
5. Stamen unum, lente auctum.
6. Pistillum, lente auctum.

SPECIFIC CHARACTER.

Heath, with beardless tips, without the blossom, tapering into the threads
which are flat; blossoms sitting close to the branches singly, are yellow, and
terminate them; the segments of the mouth are black; the cup is doubled, of
seven leaves and tiled; leaves awl-shaped, growing by fours.

DESCRIPTION.

Stem weak, upright, grows two feet high; the branches are few, and
simple; the small branches are scattered, very short, numerous, and covered
with leaves.
Leaves grow by fours, awl-shaped, bent back at the point, roughish and
stiff; foot-stalks very short, and pressed to the stem.
Flowers sitting on the ends of the smaller branches are solitary, and hang
down; the foot-stalks are very short.
Empalement. Cup double; the inner one has four leaves, which are
concave, egg-shaped, smooth, tiled, entire, and yellow; the outer three-
leaved, shorter than the former, and like them.
Blossom conical, yellow, slightly curved, having four furrows at the base,
and tapering at the point; the segments of the border grow upright, are blunt,
very long, pressed to the chives, and black.
Chives. Eight flat, linear, threads. Tips beardless, linear, without the
blossom, and of its length, tapering into the threads.
Pointal. Seed-bud egg-shaped, smooth and entire. Shaft without the
blossom, thread-shaped, a little longer than the chives. Summit bordered,
and greenish.
Native of the Cape of Good Hope.
Flowers from February, till July.
 REFERENCE.

1. The Empalement.
2. The Blossom, and Chives.
3. The Chives, and Pointal.
4. The Chives detached from the Pointal.
5. A Chive magnified.
6. The Pointal magnified.
 ERICA monadelphia.

CHARACTER SPECIFICUS.

Erica, antheris muticis, exsertis, attenuatis in filamenta plana. Corolla

conica, sanguinea, oris laciniis erectis, adpressis. Folia terna.

DESCRIPTIO.

Caulis erectus, sesquipedalis, scaber, ad basin parum ramosus. Ramuli

sparsi.
Folia terna, obtusa, sub-tomentosa, subtus sulcata, petiolis brevissimis
adpressis.
Flores in ramulis, bini vel terni, terminales, cernui, in medio ramorum
racemum formantes speciosissimum; pedunculis brevibus, bracteis nullis.
Calyx. Perianthium duplex, coloratum; exterius triphyllum, foliolis lato-
ovatis, apicibus virescentibus; interius tetraphyllum, foliolis latioribus
majoribus.
Corolla conica, sub-pollicaris, glabra, sanguinea; oris laciniis erectis.
Stamina. Filamenta octo plana, corolla multoties longiora, receptaculo
inserta; antheris muticis, exsertis, attenuatis in filamenta.
Pistillum. Germen ovatum, tenuissime sulcatum. Stylus filiformis.
Stigma tetragonum.
Habitat ad Caput Bonæ Spei.
Floret a mense Augusti in Decembrem.

REFERENTIA.

1. Calyx et Corolla.
2. Calyx lente auctus.
3. Stamina et Pistillum.
 4. Stamina a Pistillo diducta; antherâ unâ lente auctâ.
5. Stylus et Stigma lente aucta.

SPECIFIC CHARACTER.

Heath, with beardless tips without the blossoms, and tapering into filaments,
which are flat. The blossom is conical, of a blood colour, having the
segments of the mouth upright, and pressed to the threads. The leaves grow
by threes.

DESCRIPTION.

Stem upright, a foot and a half high, rough, branching but little at the
base. The smaller branches are scattered.
Leaves grow by threes, blunt-ended, rather downy, channelled
underneath, having very short foot-stalks pressed to the branches.
Flowers grow by twos and threes at the end of the smaller branches,
hanging down, forming a beautiful spike near the middle of the larger
branches. The foot-stalks are short, without floral leaves.
Empalement. Cup double, and coloured; the outer three-leaved, the
leaves of a broad oval-shape, the ends greenish: the inner is four-leaved,
broader and larger than the former.
Blossom cone-shaped, near an inch long, smooth, deep red; the segments
of the mouth upright.
Chives. Eight flat threads, much longer than the blossom, fixed into the
receptacle; the tips beardless, without the blossom, and tapering into the
filaments.
Pointal. Seed-vessel egg-shaped, and slightly furrowed. Shaft thread-
shaped. Summit four-cornered.
Native of the Cape of Good Hope.
Flowers from August till December.

REFERENCE.
1. The Empalement and Blossom.
2. The Empalement magnified.
3. The Chives and Pointal.
4. The Chives detached from the Pointal; one tip magnified.
5. The Shaft and Summit magnified.