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Ans De Vos · Jean-Marie Dujardin
Tim Gielens · Caroline Meyers

Developing
Sustainable Careers
Across the Lifespan
European Social Fund Network on
Career and AGE (Age, Generations,
Experience)
Developing Sustainable Careers Across
the Lifespan
Ans De Vos • Jean-­Marie Dujardin
Tim Gielens • Caroline Meyers

Developing Sustainable
Careers Across the Lifespan
European Social Fund Network on Career
and AGE (Age, Generations, Experience)
Ans De Vos Jean-Marie Dujardin
Antwerp Management School and University of Liège
University of Antwerp HEC-Management School
Antwerp, Belgium Liège, Belgium

Tim Gielens Caroline Meyers

Antwerp Management School ESF Flanders
Antwerp, Belgium Brussels, Belgium

ISBN 978-3-319-47740-4    ISBN 978-3-319-47741-1 (eBook)

DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-47741-1

Library of Congress Control Number: 2016959457

© Springer International Publishing AG 2016

This work is subject to copyright. All rights are reserved by the Publisher, whether the whole or part of
the material is concerned, specifically the rights of translation, reprinting, reuse of illustrations, recitation,
broadcasting, reproduction on microfilms or in any other physical way, and transmission or information
storage and retrieval, electronic adaptation, computer software, or by similar or dissimilar methodology
now known or hereafter developed.
The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, service marks, etc. in this publication
does not imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such names are exempt from the relevant
protective laws and regulations and therefore free for general use.
The publisher, the authors and the editors are safe to assume that the advice and information in this book
are believed to be true and accurate at the date of publication. Neither the publisher nor the authors or the
editors give a warranty, express or implied, with respect to the material contained herein or for any errors
or omissions that may have been made.

Printed on acid-free paper

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The registered company is Springer International Publishing AG
The registered company address is: Gewerbestrasse 11, 6330 Cham, Switzerland
Preface

For many people, a job is more than an income – it’s an important part of who we
are. So a career transition of any sort is one of the most unsettling experiences you
can face in your life.
The “career” concept is very broad, and it is often filled in differently depending
on the type of organisation and the individual involved. While the traditional mean-
ing of a career could be summarised in terms of making a number of (generally)
vertical steps, we now see that a career can refer to much more.
“Career-making” today in many organisations is considered as being much more
than climbing up the hierarchy; it requires skills that enable people to assess what
they need to develop to steer their career in the desired direction. Each one of us is
confronted with a simple question “What am I good at, and what do I want to do or
achieve?” which, however, is not that easy to respond to. During our studies, we
never needed to answer such questions. Our education system is still geared towards
a lifelong career with a single employer. But things have changed and transitions
throughout the life course are now becoming the everyday reality.
Of course, education and work cannot be separated. Yet the type of study and
diploma are not anymore the most decisive factors as regards our career paths. There
is a growing consensus that everyone should be involved with lifelong learning.
Knowledge is passé before you know it, and it’s not because you are older that you
may not have up-to-date knowledge in order to enable you to navigate smoothly in
life.
Ready or not, we all go through numerous transitions in our lives – leaving high
school to go to college or work, changing jobs, getting married, having children.
While it sounds like a cliché, the next step after an end is a new beginning, a new
chapter, and keeping this in mind can give you a sense of a fresh start. And while the
particular circumstances are new, the process itself is familiar. You have, after all,
made transitions before – changing schools, neighbourhoods, relationships, jobs.
You know the territory; you have acquired experience and skills along the way. You
can do this again, and this time even better.
Almost all of us will experience a few of these during our lifetime, so being able
to manage these situations in a healthy manner is crucial.

v
vi Preface

ESF (European Social Fund) Flanders together with ESF of the Autonomous
Province of Trento took up the challenge of addressing this issue through the estab-
lishment of the transnational network “Career and AGE (Age, Generations,
Experience)” in order to explore the life course approach and how it can contribute
to the creation of sustainable careers and longer working lives.
This “life course” framework takes into account the different needs and expecta-
tions of the individuals during their entire working life, especially in times of transi-
tions. During these transition moments, it is extremely important to take into
consideration the specificities of each individual in order to provide them with the
appropriate tools for getting on with their lives.
The innovative model, developed within the scope of this network, can help
human resources departments and intermediate organisations, for example, public
employment services, to adapt their services by incorporating the life course
approach in the way they perform their tasks. The different tools provided along
with the theoretical models, such as methodologies, manuals and examples, will
help companies and intermediate organisations to work on sustainable careers for
the different target groups in order to enable them to provide the support that is
needed.
Finally, I would like to thank all the stakeholders who, in the course of the net-
work’s short lifespan, brought in their valuable expertise and experience in order to
build the knowledge base needed for making transitions throughout life a success
story.

Senior Policy Officer Marie-Anne Paraskevas

European Commission, DG EMPL
Brussels, Belgium
Acknowledgements

This book is the result of the efforts of many people. Our journey started when the
European Social Fund initiated the “Career and AGE (Age, Generation, Experience)”
network, which brought together ten countries around the timely topic of sustain-
able careers.
We would like to express our indebtedness to many people. In the first place, we
are grateful for the opportunity the European Commission has given us, via the ESF
network, to explore a wide variety of examples of good practice across Europe and
to share our experiences with the actors involved and with ESF representatives dur-
ing several learning seminars.
Getting access to the examples of good practice would not have been possible
without the active cooperation of the local ESF authorities from the ten countries
involved: Belgium (Flanders), Belgium (Wallonia), Italy (Trento), Spain (Andalusia),
Czech Republic, Romania, Finland, Hungary, Northern Ireland and Germany). We
would like to thank the whole team for the fruitful collaboration we have experi-
enced throughout the project.
This book contains a selection of examples of good practice that demonstrate
how sustainable career management can be put into practice in diverse contexts.
This would not have been possible without the consent from the organisations
involved and the input and feedback we received from the people concerned with
the project in each organisation. Therefore, our profound thanks to Mieke Smet
(Janssen), Herman Verhoelst (KBC), Bernadette Thomas (Cité des Métiers),
Heikkilä Titi (City of Helsinki), Susan Russam (GEM Northern Ireland), David
Meulemans (VDAB), Philippe Bernier (C.I.F.) and Heidi Brie (Novartis).
We would like to thank Monique Valcour for her contribution to this book. Her
reflection on the examples of good practice from a broader, non-European perspec-
tive underscores the broader relevance of sustainable career management.
We would also like to thank European Commissioner Marianne Thyssen,
Commissioner for Employment, Social Affairs, Skills and Labour Mobility, for
writing an epilogue to this book and Marie-Anne Paraskevas, Senior Policy Officer
European Commission, DG EMPL, for writing the preface.

vii
viii Acknowledgements

We are also indebted to Pat Donnelly for his careful revision of the text. Pat put
in a great deal of time, and his editing abilities added greatly to the clarity of the
book.
We would like to thank our partners at Springer, for their enthusiasm about pub-
lishing this book and their support throughout the publication process, especially
Corina van der Giessen, Stefan Einarson and Stephen O’Reilly.
Contents

1 Introduction: ESF Network Career & AGE

(Age, Generation, Experience).................................................................. 1
1.1 The Challenge of Making Careers More Sustainable......................... 4
1.2 Aims and Scope of This Book............................................................ 5
1.3 ESF Career and AGE Network: Methodology and Approach............ 5
1.4 Structure of This Book........................................................................ 6
1.5 Conclusion.......................................................................................... 7
References.................................................................................................... 7
2 Conceptual Framework for Sustainable Careers.................................... 9
2.1 Careers Within a Changing Career Context........................................ 9
2.2 Sustainable Careers............................................................................. 11
2.3 Career Dynamics: Careers as Learning Cycles.................................. 14
2.4 The Broader Picture: A Lifecourse Perspective on Careers............... 16
2.5 Sustainable Career Management........................................................ 17
2.5.1 Focus on Employability and Workability............................... 19
2.5.2 Anticipating for the Future: A Proactive Approach................ 21
2.5.3 Inclusive Approach: A Broad Scope....................................... 22
2.5.4 Enabling a Tailor-Made and Individualized Approach........... 24
2.5.5 Active Involvement of Employees.......................................... 25
2.5.6 Career Support........................................................................ 26
2.6 Conclusion.......................................................................................... 27
References.................................................................................................... 27
3 Examples of Good Practices at Multiple Levels...................................... 29
3.1 Food for Thought Coming from European Good Practice................. 29
3.1.1 Career Vouchers (Belgium, Flanders)..................................... 30
3.1.2 Cité des Métiers...................................................................... 32
3.1.3 Age Management in the City of Helsinki (Finland)............... 35
3.1.4 C.I.F.: Le Compte Individuel de Formation (France)............. 37
3.1.5 The House of Workability (Johnson & Johnson Belgium)..... 39
3.1.6 Minerva Plan (KBC Bank, Belgium)...................................... 44

ix
x Contents

3.1.7 Kestrel (United Kingdom, Northern Ireland)......................... 45

3.1.8 Navigator Centres (Sweden)................................................... 47
3.1.9 Diversity & Inclusion Program (Novartis).............................. 49
3.2 Reflection by Monique Valcour.......................................................... 54
3.3 Conclusion.......................................................................................... 56
4 Context & Transfer Issues: How Can Good Practices
Be Transferred?.......................................................................................... 57
4.1 Introduction......................................................................................... 57
4.2 From the Original Context to the Target Context. Analysis
of the Literature About Policy Transfer Studies................................. 58
4.2.1 How to Define Policy Transfer and Transferability
of a Good Practice?................................................................. 58
4.2.2 Which Elements to Transfer: Global
or Selective Transfer?............................................................. 59
4.2.3 Which Criteria for Assessing the Transfer Success?.............. 60
4.2.4 Looking for Transfer Is a Lesson-Drawing Process............... 61
4.2.5 How Does Transferability Work in Practice?
The Transfer Process............................................................... 62
4.2.6 Voluntary or Coercive Transfer?............................................. 64
4.2.7 What Are the Key Success Factors Leveraging
a Transfer?.............................................................................. 64
4.2.8 What Are Possible Obstacles or Potential
Factors Generating Failures?.................................................. 64
4.2.9 How to Manage the Change in the Transfer Process?............ 65
4.3 Description of a Socio-economic Context.......................................... 65
4.4 Description of an Organisational Context.......................................... 67
4.5 Examples of Potential Transfers......................................................... 69
4.5.1 Career Vouchers: Transfer from Flanders to Wallonia............ 70
4.5.2 Transferring the House of Workability
from Johnson & Johnson to an SME...................................... 71
4.6 Conclusion.......................................................................................... 72
References.................................................................................................... 73
5 Five Recommendations for Facilitating Sustainable Careers................ 75
5.1 Follow a Lifecourse Approach............................................................ 75
5.2 Bring the Individual in the Driver’s Seat of the Career...................... 78
5.3 Make Career Options More Flexible in a Structured Way.................. 81
5.4 Create a Canvas for an Integrated Approach...................................... 83
5.5 Think Beyond the Borders of One Single Organisation..................... 84
5.6 Discussion........................................................................................... 88
References.................................................................................................... 89
Contents xi

6 Facilitating Sustainable Careers: Getting Started.................................. 91

6.1 For the Policy Maker.......................................................................... 92
6.2 For the Social Partners........................................................................ 92
6.3 For the HR Decision Maker................................................................ 93
6.4 For the Direct Supervisor.................................................................... 95
6.5 For the Individual................................................................................ 96
6.6 Conclusion.......................................................................................... 97
7 Sustainable Competencies and Career Competencies:
How to Put the Individual in the Driver’s Seat?..................................... 99
7.1 Introduction......................................................................................... 99
7.2 Sustainable Competencies and Sustainable Careers
in the New Career Context.................................................................. 100
7.3 The Individual’s Competencies Capital: The “Backpack
of Competencies”................................................................................ 100
7.4 Various Types of Learning.................................................................. 102
7.5 Developing a Sustainable Competencies Capital............................... 103
7.5.1 Complementary Ways for the Individual to Build
and Maintain a Sustainable Competencies Capital................. 104
7.5.2 Developing the Learning Capacity......................................... 105
7.6 Conclusion.......................................................................................... 106
References.................................................................................................... 108
8 Epilogue...................................................................................................... 111
About the Authors

Ans De Vos, PhD, holds the SD Worx chair “Next generation work: Creating sus-
tainable careers” at Antwerp Management School, Antwerp, Belgium and is full
professor at the University of Antwerp, Faculty of Economics and Business
Administration. Her focal areas of interest are career development, sustainable
career management, employability and psychological contracts, which she
approaches both from an individual and organizational perspective. She frequently
cooperates with organizations on challenges related to sustainable career manage-
ment, and is a well-known speaker on this topic. She has published in Journal of
Organizational Behavior, Journal of Vocational Behavior, European Journal of
Work and Organizational Psychology, among others. She is co-editor of the
Handbook of Research on Sustainable Careers (EE Publishing).

Jean-Marie Dujardin, PhD, is Professor at HEC-Management School of

University of Liège, Belgium, where he teaches Human Resource Management,
competency management, leadership and didactic of economics. He is the academic
responsible of the Research Unit on Management of Competencies. The research
conducted within this unit focuses on the assessment of competencies in organisa-
tions, leadership competencies, forecasting of demands for competencies in the
labour market, career management and intergenerational learning. He has published
in Management et Avenir, Distances et Savoirs, Gestion 2000, Personnel et Gestion,
among others. He is author of a book on Sustainable competencies and Employability
(published in French by De Boeck in 2013). He is also an expert for Walloon
Government, expert in lifelong learning for the Rector of University of Liège, expert
and consultant for private firms and public organisations on the topic of competency
management.

xiii
xiv About the Authors

Caroline Meyers has joined the European Social Agency-Flanders as a Deputy

Director in 1997. In her present position of Expert transnational cooperation she is
responsible for the co-ordination of transnational cooperation and contact point
with the European Commission. She is member or coordinator of several European
networks (including the Career and AGE network and the European network on
gender mainstreaming) and is member of the UNDP Roster of Experts in Gender
Equality and Women’s Empowerment in Public Administration (GEPA) since 2014.

Tim Gielens is Senior Researcher at Antwerp Management School, Competence

Center ‘Next Generation Work’. His field of research is situated at the intersection
of people and organization focusing on improving employment opportunities of
disabled people, making careers and career management more sustainable,
­identifying the mechanisms of the new ways of working, fostering talent mobility
and facilitating the social dialogue in organizations by means of co-creation. Prior
to joining Antwerp Management School he worked as a consultant and has built
experience and expertise in strategy design and implementation, leadership and
management development, career management and development, talent manage-
ment, employee engagement and job design and job measurement, in national as
well as international organizations

This book also contains a contribution by Monique Valcour who was involved in
the Career & AGE network as an international expert. Monique Valcour, PhD CPCC
(Certified Professional Co-Active Coach) is a coach and management academic.
She delivers executive education and workshops on sustainable careers, work-life
integration, leadership, and well-being. She coaches leaders who want to engage
and energize their employees as well as individuals and dual-career couples seeking
to craft successful careers and lives. She has worked with clients from over forty
countries. Her research has been published in academic journals as well as in ­several
edited volumes and she is a regular contributor to Harvard Business Review.
Chapter 1
Introduction: ESF Network Career & AGE
(Age, Generation, Experience)

Abstract This chapter outlines the objectives and scope of this book and intro-
duces the Career and AGE (Age, Generation, Experience) learning network set up
by the European Social Fund. It starts with highlighting the challenges of making
careers more sustainable

Keywords European Social Fund • Sustainable Careers • Career and AGE

network

Three Career Stories

The story of Ben
Ben graduated from school 2 years ago, with a vocational qualification as a
plumber. He lives in a remote area and is the oldest son of four children. Ben
is very good with his hands and he was quite a good student at school.
However, he is sitting at home without a job.
Some years ago his mother became ill. She started to forget a lot of things
and the diagnosis was very difficult to deal with: it was the start of Alzheimer.
His mother is becoming more and more dependent and as Ben’s mother is
divorced, a lot of the household work falls on Ben’s shoulders.
Ben is working 24/7 taking care of the family and he has almost no time to
look for a job. Besides, he has no driving licence and public transport is almost
non-existent.
Luckily Ben came in contact with an organisation helping young unem-
ployed people. They are giving him some extra training and they help him to
find day care for his mother. The organisation has also helped financially to
enable him to buy a bike. Finally Ben can start looking for a job again and the
future looks quite bright for him. Thanks to his training he has good work
skills and a lot of businesses are looking for people like him. Thanks to the
day care for his mother he can probably start working part time.

(continued)

© Springer International Publishing AG 2016 1

A. De Vos et al., Developing Sustainable Careers Across the Lifespan,
DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-47741-1_1
2 1 Introduction: ESF Network Career & AGE (Age, Generation, Experience)

The story of Patricia

Patricia studied arts history at University, graduating at the age of 23. She was
engaged as a researcher by her university for 2 years, after which she tried to
find a job in the field of arts. This proved quite difficult for her and she was
unemployed for a year. Thanks to training vouchers she decided to specialise
in a field making use of her passion: book covering, especially very old and
precious books, using gold for the covers.
She worked as a freelancer for 10 years. This was a part time job and this
suited to her aspirations because she had to take care of her young children.
After 10 years she wanted to work full time again and she asked for the
advice of a career counsellor in the Cité des Métiers in her town. After a few
discussions with this counsellor, she realized that her career path needed to
link arts and design. She decided to combine these with IT and to learn info-
graphics. After 2 years of training she became computer graphic designer and
was able to manage the design of global projects in advertising. She is now
working part-time as a freelance in old book covering and part-time on an
employment contract for an advertising and marketing company.
She is satisfied with those two very different activities, as they suit her
aspirations and are compatible with her family activities.
The story of Timothy
Timothy is currently the general manager of an international hotel in the
Gastronomia Group, and looking back at his career of about 30 years length
he highlights the fact that he didn’t finish his secondary school. He felt the
courses were boring, especially the theoretical ones, and he decided to leave
school early at the age of 16. He had been a hobby cook at home and as cook-
ing was his passion he decided to earn his own living by working in the
HORECA sector.
He started as a waiter in a restaurant, where he soon became the assistant
to the cook. He had the opportunity to learn the essentials from the head cook:
how to interpret recipes, how to prepare dishes, etc. He learned quickly on the
job from his boss and colleagues in the cooking team. He then became a chief
cook in several prestigious restaurants in various European countries and
around the world. During this period he learned to speak English and Spanish
on the job. He also learned digital competencies on the job, in short training
programmes, by self-learning and through e-learning.
When working in various hotels in the Gastromania Group, he attended
seminars on team management and leadership and after his training he had the
opportunity to do an internship as a departmental manager in a hotel belong-
ing to the group He liked this job very much and, thanks to this internship, he
became head of the hospitality department in an international hotel.
At that time Timothy would have liked to have become a general manager
in the hotel sector but he knew that he needed to get a master’s degree in

(continued)
1.2 Aims and Scope of This Book 3

h­ ospitality management. He applied for validation of prior learning at univer-

sity and was admitted in a 1 year programme leading to a Master in Tourism
in Hospitality Management. He got training vouchers from the State to facili-
tate his studies.
Timothy developed his portfolio of competencies throughout his profes-
sional career and made many efforts to remain employable. By working in
various hotels around the world he updated and developed his competencies
in cooking, languages, IT and team management. He also acted as a volunteer
in a NGO preparing food for disadvantaged people and he improved his
English and Spanish during private travels.
During his career Timothy learned to analyse his job in a critical way,
whether as a cook or as a manager, and he made efforts to position himself
regularly on the labour market. He took the opportunity of getting a career
voucher from the State and when discussing with a career adviser he explained
that he had had no career plan but had always followed his early passion for
cooking and then a second passion he discovered later for management in the
HORECA sector.
When talking about his career, Timothy remains enthusiastic about his
present job; he is still employable on the labour market and wants to go on
learning.

As these three stories make clear, Ben, Patricia and Timothy are in different
stages of their career and life. They have different family contexts and the sequence
of experiences making up their careers is quite different – and also age related.
What they have in common is that their experiences and how they evaluate their
careers are influenced by a variety of factors, both professional and personal.
Moreover, their career decisions are also influenced by who they are as people, by
their motivations and competencies, as well as by policy measures at a societal
level.
We could all add our own personal story to those of Ben, Patricia and Timothy
and although each career story would be a unique combination of experiences, the
same influencers would come into play. This book is about careers and about how
careers can be made more sustainable. Our focal point is the individual’s career but
although careers are dynamic and unique to each person, the way we deal with
careers within organisations and within society in general does have a significant
impact – positive or negative –on how careers unfold and on the sustainability of
careers over time.
The basic message of this book is that the pattern of individual career experi-
ences and how it is affected by factors at multiple levels (the individual and his or
her broader life context, the organisations within which careers unfold, and policy
measures taken by governments, social partners, industries) needs attention from
all the actors involved. Why? Because over the past decades the career context has
4 1 Introduction: ESF Network Career & AGE (Age, Generation, Experience)

changed substantially, leading to important challenges as regards the sustainability

of careers.
The central question guiding this book is therefore: “How can all actors involved
contribute to the development of careers in a sustainable way, enabling everyone in
the workforce to keep employability and engagement at a high level throughout the
career?”

1.1 The Challenge of Making Careers More Sustainable

Changes in the career context have caused a serious shift in thinking about careers
and in conceiving these careers. The long held model of labour as defined by Henry
Ford, which emphasised job security and tenure within one company, has come
under increasing pressure since the seventies when companies could no longer guar-
antee long term job security. Economic forecasts became less predictable and more
insecure, and careers followed this pattern (Cappelli, 1995). These developments on
the demand side of labour were the prelude to a discontinuity in careers (Howard,
1995). In recent years, labour market conditions and career patterns have evolved
significantly, including a general and ongoing weakening of the employment con-
tract between individuals and the organisations that employ them (Cappelli &
Keller, 2012). In addition, demographic factors such as the greying of the work-
force, dual careers, increased international migration, are driving increased career
complexity (Greenhaus & Kossek, 2014).
Together, these developments have caused a radical change in the nature of what
is understood by a “career”: the linear, predictable and single lifelong employment
within one organisation, a model held for decennia, belongs to the past. The new,
dramatically different nature of a career is non-linear, highly unpredictable, transi-
tional, unique and very personal (Cappelli & Keller, 2012; Greenhaus & Kossek,
2014; Lyons, Schweitzer, & Ng, 2015). Contemporary workers have to work longer,
but yet at the same time the sequence and length of career episodes have become
less predictable (Van der Heijden & De Vos, 2015). Increasingly, career mobility
and employability are being considered a prerequisite for career security (Arthur,
2014) and this has made individuals more ‘in charge’ of their own career (Van der
Heijden & De Vos, 2015). Together these evolutions urge us to further rethink and
reshape the existing ways by which we define, manage and support careers.
Over the past decades, many books and articles have been written about the
changing nature of employment relationships and careers. Ensuring sustainability
of careers in a socio-economic environment where the careers of many individuals
are at risk has become a pertinent challenge (see also the recently published
“Handbook of Research on Sustainable Careers” by Ans De Vos & Beatrice Van der
Heijden, 2015). Today, the question is no longer “should we facilitate individuals in
working longer in a sustainable way” but rather “how can we realize this chal-
lenge?”. Given this complex mix of changes on a macro-, meso- and microeco-
nomic level that have affected the nature of a career in a profound way, governmental
1.3 ESF Career and AGE Network: Methodology and Approach 5

bodies, organisations and individuals can benefit from initiatives which investigate
and spread examples of good practice.

1.2 Aims and Scope of This Book

This book presents ways to facilitate individuals in working longer in a sustain-

able way. It is the result of an international European Social Fund network on
‘Career and AGE’ (Age, Generation, Experience). The aim of this network was
to explore the different ways and possibilities to enhance the sustainability of
careers and to foster intergenerational collaboration. More concretely, it was the
objective of the Career and AGE network to collect examples of good practice
regarding sustainable career management in the countries which were partners
in the network and in the broader European Union. These examples of good practice
can be found at multiple levels (system, organisation, individual) and are meant to
encourage stakeholders in the partner countries who facilitate sustainable careers to
take initiatives. Rather than having stakeholders in each country “reinventing the
wheel” we wanted to use active exchange of information on good practice to facili-
tate sustainable careers.
The purpose of the current book is to bring together the major insights from the
network and to present relevant policies and practices that can facilitate the sustain-
ability of careers.

1.3  SF Career and AGE Network: Methodology

E
and Approach

The examples of good practice, around which this book is built, were collected and
validated as part of an ESF international learning network in which ten countries
participated (Belgium -Flanders & Wallonia-, Italy (Trento), Spain (Andalusia),
Czech Republic, Romania, Finland, Hungary, Northern Ireland and Germany). The
final goal of the network was to develop a website that practitioners can consult to
learn more about the examples of good practice validated during the project (esf-­
vlaanderen.be/en/career-and-age). In order to achieve this, a process of identifying
and validating good practice within European countries (not limited to those coun-
tries which were part of the network) was set up (for more information see De Vos
& Gielens, 2014a, 2014b, 2014c). Three international learning seminars took place
in which these examples were introduced and discussed. During the preparatory
phase prior to each seminar the members of the network and the experts submitted
practices using a structured format. These were subsequently validated by a com-
mittee of four international academic experts in the careers field and by two ESF
representatives.
6 1 Introduction: ESF Network Career & AGE (Age, Generation, Experience)

With “examples of good practice” we refer to career practices, policies, pro-

cesses, programmes, measures and tools that foster sustainable careers. More spe-
cifically we focus on practices that facilitate and support individuals from all
generations, ages, educational levels and backgrounds. We focused on examples
which showed individuals developing career competencies and becoming more
self-aware and self-directed in their career management. The examples of good
practice should stimulate employability, workability and self-awareness, and
increase career length. The range of examples is very broad, including flexible
working methods, measures to facilitate work-life balance, career guidance tools,
validation of prior competencies.
All examples of good practice should have the potential to be transferred to other
contexts. Transferability of good practice is defined as the degree to which the good
practice can easily be transferred and used in other contexts (organisations, firms
and companies in different EU-Member States and EU regions, in different sectors
and diversified markets) by other individuals.
In total, 46 examples were retained after the expert validation. Detailed fiches
have been composed describing the nature of each practice, the cost and coverage
and where possible the outcomes (impact, results) are documented. Throughout this
book, we refer to selected practices to demonstrate concrete ways for facilitating the
sustainability of careers. Nine of them will be introduced and examined more
closely in Chap. 4. Fiches of all the examples can be found on the Career and AGE
website accompanying this book.

1.4 Structure of This Book

This book is structured as follows. In the next chapter (Chap. 2) we describe the
changing nature of careers and the challenges for the sustainability of careers fol-
lowing from this. We introduce the framework for sustainable career management
that was used within the network to validate examples of good practice. In Chap. 3,
we describe in detail nine measures that were retained as examples of good practice.
These examples represent a variety of measures taken by governments or organisa-
tions within Europe, that were developed in response to specific needs but that have
a potential for transfer to other contexts. In Chap. 4 we further elaborate on how this
transfer can be realized, departing from the literature on transfer of policy measures.
Next, in Chap. 5, based upon the 46 good practices validated within the network, we
formulate five recommendations for facilitating sustainable careers. In Chap. 6
these recommendations are translated into more concrete advices for all stakehold-
ers involved. As it is the individual who is considered to be the “owner” of his or her
career, it is important that measures for sustainable careers create opportunities for
all workers to feel motivated and be competent in navigating their own career.
Therefore, in Chap. 7, we elaborate further on the career competencies capital of
workers and how this can be developed through lifelong and lifewide learning.
Finally in the Epilogue of this book, an outlook on how careers and labour markets
References 7

are changing and the measures needed in view of these trends, is provided by the
European Commissioner for Employment, Social Affairs, Skills and Labour
Mobility Mrs. Marianne Thyssen.

1.5 Conclusion

In this chapter we introduced the Career and AGE network and the aims and scope
of this book. In the subsequent chapter, we will elaborate further on the notion of
sustainable careers.

References

Arthur, M. B. (2014). The boundaryless career at 20: Where do we stand, and where can we go?
Career Development International, 19(6), 627–640.
Cappelli, P. (1995). Rethinking employment. British Journal of Industrial Relations, 33(4),
563–602.
Cappelli, P., & Keller, J. R. (2012). Classifying work in the new economy. Academy of Management
Review, 38(4), 575–596.
De Vos, A., & Gielens, T. (2014a, January). System level practices to facilitate sustainable careers.
White paper for the European Network on Career and AGE (Age, Generation, Experience)
learning seminar, Seville. Antwerp, Belgium: Antwerp Management School.
De Vos, A., & Gielens, T. (2014b, July). Organisational level practices to facilitate sustainable
careers. White paper for the European Network on Career and AGE (Age, Generation,
Experience) learning seminar, Belfast. Antwerp, Belgium: Antwerp Management School.
De Vos, A., & Gielens, T. (2014c, November). Good practices to facilitate the sustainability of
individuals’ careers. White paper for the European Network on Career and AGE (Age,
Generation, Experience) learning seminar, Trento, Italy. Antwerp, Belgium: Antwerp
Management School.
De Vos, A., & Van der Heijden, B. (Eds.). (2015). Handbook of research on sustainable careers.
Cheltenham, UK: Edward Elgar Publishing.
Greenhaus, J. H., & Kossek, E. E. (2014). The contemporary career: A work-home perspective.
Annual Review of Organisational Psychology and Organisational Behavior, 1(1), 361–388.
Howard, A. E. (1995). The changing nature of work. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
Lyons, S. T., Schweitzer, L., & Ng, E. S. (2015). How have careers changed? An investigation of
changing career patterns across four generations. Journal of Managerial Psychology, 30(1),
8–21.
Van der Heijden, B., & De Vos, A. (2015). Sustainable careers: Introductory chapter. In A. De Vos
& B. Van der Heijden (Eds.), Handbook of research on sustainable careers (pp. 1–19).
Cheltehnam, UK: Edward Elgar Publishing.
Chapter 2
Conceptual Framework for Sustainable
Careers

Abstract This chapter introduces the most important concepts that will be used
throughout this book. The changing career context brings a need for a fresh perspec-
tive to understand career dynamics and the implications for individuals as well as
stakeholders at different levels. Starting with the changing nature of careers and the
meaning of sustainable careers, we present the framework for facilitating the sus-
tainability of careers that was used by the ESF Career & AGE network to describe
and evaluate good practices. This framework will be used in the next chapter to
introduce and discuss good practices for facilitating sustainable careers.

Keywords Career • Changing career context • Sustainable career • Sustainable

career management • Careers as learning cycles • Organizational level • System
level • Individual level

2.1 Careers Within a Changing Career Context

A career is defined as the sequence of work experiences that evolve over the indi-
vidual’s lifecourse (Arthur, Hall, & Lawrence, 1989). Careers are highly subjective
and complex, unique to each individual and dynamic over time (Khapova & Arthur,
2011). Yet, individuals’ careers do not develop in a vacuum but are affected by the
multiple contexts in which they unfold; the organisational context as well as the
broader labour market, the policy-measures taken by governments, initiatives from
labour market intermediaries but also the private context of individuals’ personal
lives (Arthur et al., 1989; Greenhaus & Kossek, 2014; Van der Heijden & De Vos,
2015). Careers are part of a wide eco-system which operates across internal and
external labor markets (Baruch, 2015) (Fig. 2.1).
To fully understand careers, one has to realize the influences of these multiple
career contexts and the changes occurring within them, the career actors that take
part in the play, and the dynamic nature of the system. The sustainability of indi-
viduals’ careers relies not on their stability but on their ability to adjust, develop and
fit an ever-changing work environment (Baruch, 2015).
There are many changes occurring within the career landscape that affect con-
temporary careers. Greenhaus and Kossek (2014) summarize these as follows: First,

© Springer International Publishing AG 2016 9

A. De Vos et al., Developing Sustainable Careers Across the Lifespan,
DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-47741-1_2
10 2 Conceptual Framework for Sustainable Careers

International context

National context
Political
system
Labour
market
Educational
system
Organisational
context

Individual

Sustainable Career management

Fig 2.1 Multiple career contexts

there are substantial changes in the business environment which have led to
increased job losses, reduced opportunities for internal upward career advancement,
and increased external mobility. Second, advances in information technology have
increased the portability of work leading to blurred boundaries between work and
non-work. Third, family structures have become more diverse, resulting in different
types of earning-structures and in new moves to combine work and care at different
life stages. Fourth, increasing retirement ages imply that individuals will have to
stay in the workforce for a longer period, and hence that careers will extend over a
longer portion of employees’ lives.
Together these changes have many implications for careers but also for the actors
involved in policy making regarding careers, both at the organisational level and the
societal level. Whilst organisations need to reconsider the meaning of an organisa-
tional career and how career development can be managed in order to match indi-
vidual and organisational needs, policy makers are faced with challenges related to
sustainable employment and employability of all individuals in the workforce.
The ultimate challenge this presents is the inherently dynamic, idiosyncratic and
often unpredictable nature of careers: even though it is a given that all individuals
have a career, the complex combination of factors affecting an individual’s career
decisions, behaviors and outcomes over time call for measures that facilitate indi-
2.2 Sustainable Careers 11

viduals in making career choices that are in line with their individual needs, yet also
contribute to organisational (e.g. high performance, loyalty, employability) and
societal (e.g. postponing retirement) needs. Or, differently stated, the highly unique
and dynamic career needs of individuals need to be matched with organisational and
societal needs which are also undergoing substantial changes. Developing adequate
measures is therefore not an easy task.

2.2 Sustainable Careers

The rich variety of possible sequences of experiences making up an individual’s

career implies that we may encounter examples of both ‘positive spirals’ wherein
career episodes over time become enriched, and ‘negative spirals’ wherein career
episodes may be characterized by, for instance, demotivating or unrewarding expe-
riences (Van der Heijden & De Vos, 2015). As noted by Van der Heijden and De Vos
(2015), the complexity of our world today entails many opportunities for individu-
als to make choices in line with their inner drives, but yet there is also an ample list
of factors which endanger the continuity of careers or at least continuity in realising
a personally satisfying sequence of work experiences. Moreover, what might appear
to be a ‘successful’ or ‘satisfying’ career in the short run does not always remain so
in the long run.
This implies that measures to support individuals’ careers should take into con-
sideration not only the short-term impact but also the long-term consequences.
Differently stated, through the ways in which society, organisations and individuals
deal with careers they either facilitate the sustainability of careers, or put careers ‘at
risk’.
This has become a pertinent challenge when we consider the dynamics of con-
temporary careers. As individuals are facing increasingly long and complex careers,
it is crucial that they safeguard their employability in the long-term by creating a
career in which they can remain healthy and successful for a long time. This is not
only important for individuals themselves, but also for organisations which depend
on their human capital to ensure continuity and sustainable performance. Also from
a labour market perspective, sustainability of careers is a critical issue, considering
for instance the sustainable employment of vulnerable groups of workers, the nega-
tive consequences of underemployment, challenges to (re)employing older workers,
dealing with increasing burn out ratios to name just a few.
Building on recent career concepts such as the boundaryless career (Arthur,
1994), the protean career (Hall, 2002), the kaleidoscope career (Mainiero &
Sullivan, 2005), the customized career (Valcour, Bailyn, & Quijada, 2007), and the
post-corporate career (Peiperl & Baruch, 1997), Van der Heijden and De Vos (2015)
recently introduced the notion of a sustainable career, which offers a complemen-
tary but fresh perspective on the conceptualization of careers in today’s economy.
They consider four core dimensions when defining the concept of a sustainable
career: (1) time, (2) social space, (3) agency, and (4) meaning (Table 2.1).
12 2 Conceptual Framework for Sustainable Careers

Table 2.1 Four dimensions for understanding the challenges pertaining to the sustainability of
contemporary careers
Time Increasing retirement age
Shorter and less predictable sequences of jobs
Social space Fading of borders between work and private life
Increasing number of jobs/employers throughout the career
Agency Growing emphasis on individual responsibility and accountability for the
career
Importance of career competencies
Meaning Rising variety of subjective rather than objective career success criteria
Employability as a prerequisite for attaining whichever meaning of career
success

First, the time dimension refers to the fact that every career implies the move-
ment of a person through time, making time an essential ingredient of a career.
Considering such changes as decreasing predictability, having longer careers, and
the shortening of individual career episodes, it is clear that careers have been chang-
ing significantly over the past decades. The essence of sustainability is that there is
continuity over time, i.e. that present needs are being fulfilled without compromis-
ing future needs. In that sense, the cycle of career-related events and decisions mak-
ing up an individual’s career over the course of one’s professional life will determine
sustainability of a career in the long run. However, many different patterns of conti-
nuity are possible: in the sequence of career experiences, periods of employment
can be interchanged by periods of part-time work, volunteering, unemployment,
sabbatical leave, care-giving, and so on.
Second, the social space dimension refers to the fact that careers are situated in
a broad societal context, where various factors (e.g., organisations, family) influ-
ence their trajectories. Because individual careers no longer follow one specific path
or organization, and because the number of choices has become seemingly endless,
careers have become much more complex. Moreover, the blurring of boundaries
between work and non-work has made the ‘career space’ more fluid, and employees
face the challenge of managing the boundaries versus spillover between work and
non-work in a way that fits their personal needs. Careers are enacted within and
across different types of contexts (work, home, friends, leisure…) (Greenhaus &
Kossek, 2014), and they have become more boundaryless (Arthur, 1994, 2014).
Continuity here implies that influences of actors and factors in the social space, as
well as the choices individuals make regarding (the combination of) these different
social spaces, may impact on the sustainability of their careers.
Third, the agency dimension means that individuals are nowadays considered to
be the primary agents of their own career success. How the career develops over
time is the result of many choices made by the individual owner of the career, not
the mere consequence of external influences and constraints stemming from the
social space. Sustainability in careers will stem from alignment between the
­individual and the organisation, from mutual benefits for both parties, as well as
mutual benefits for the individual and his or her broader life context. However, this
2.2 Sustainable Careers 13

is not an easy task as individuals need to adopt a long-term approach, they need to
balance different domains in their lives (e.g., work and family), and they need to
align their individual goals and aspirations with their organisation’s objectives and
norms. This requires the development of career competencies that make individuals
competent in navigating their own careers. Agency is also a timely topic when con-
sidering the sustainability of careers for those groups who are more vulnerable in
the labour market (e.g., young workers without qualifications, unemployed older
workers). The latter often experience a lack of agency due to a lack of required
(career) competencies, or due to the negative experiences they encounter when put-
ting this agency into practice without the desired result of obtaining a job.
Finally, the meaning dimension implies that the meaning of careers is changing
due to the rise of the employability-based psychological contract. Thus, career suc-
cess is no longer only (solely) focused on objective success criteria (e.g., financial
performance or number of promotions) but also on subjective ratings of career suc-
cess (e.g. work-life balance or personal growth) relative to an individual’s internal
career anchors, leading to what Mirvis and Hall (1994) call “psychological success”
as the major indicator of career success. What psychological success entails to an
individual can vary depending on their career stage or broader life phase they are in.
Skills, needs, passion, motivation, purpose, concerns and values change more often
and faster than ever over the span of a career and have become highly idiosyncratic
(Hall, 2002). This implies that individuals need to have a good understanding of
what matters to them. Yet, at the same time, underlying this new view on career suc-
cess is that employability has become a core element and a critical vehicle for
attaining whatever type of subjective success criterion that individuals might strive
for.
In sum, sustainable careers refer to sequences of career experiences reflected
through a variety of patterns of continuity over time, thereby crossing several social
spaces, characterized by individual agency, herewith providing meaning to the indi-
vidual” (Van der Heijden & De Vos, 2015: 7). They imply the continuous develop-
ment, conservation, and renewal of individuals’ career-related resources over time.
There are challenges pertaining to the sustainability of careers for individuals in
all key stages of the career life cycle: career starters, mid-career employees with
carer responsibilities and older adults (Greenhaus & Kossek, 2014). Furthermore, as
workers have moved away from an expectation of life-time employment towards a
need to protect their employability, it is important to increase our knowledge of ele-
ments that contribute to sustainable careers for all workers, and to further our under-
standing of the factors at different levels that affect this sustainability.
This challenge of sustainability encompasses much more than individual career
management. Organisations – and their HR departments – also have a crucial role to
play in safeguarding the well-being and development of their employees (Rodrigues,
Guest, & Budjanovcanin, 2015), which they need to balance with their own needs
and goals (Clarke, 2013). Moreover, sustainability is a societal issue in terms of the
aging workforce and ways to keep both young and older employees active and moti-
vated at work (De Vos & Van der Heijden, 2015).
14 2 Conceptual Framework for Sustainable Careers

2.3 Career Dynamics: Careers as Learning Cycles

Depending on the career and life stage they are in, individuals have different needs
which call for different types of measures. For instance, individuals in their early
career might need opportunities to put into practice what they have learned at
school, young parents might need measures that allow them to combine career and
care without compromising their future career growth. Older workers might need
measures that improve workability or allow them to transfer their experience to the
younger generation through coaching. When searching for measures to facilitate
sustainable careers it is therefore important that this time component is taken into
account.
Traditionally organisations have incorporated this ingredient of ‘time’ in their
career policies by departing from a linear view on career development, with career
progress being interlinked with employees’ age. Think for instance of initiatives
like high potential management where high potentials are typically only young
employees – the underlying assumption being that potential should be turned into
performance in the early career stage. Also, traditional promotion systems tend to –
implicitly – consider age as a factor determining the pace of upward movement or
the opportunities individuals have in a certain age category. With career mobility
often being restricted to upward mobility, and career ladders being limited to a small
number of possible steps, in practice this often led to a majority of employees over
45 having no further prospect of career advancement due to plateauing. Moreover,
this has led many organisations to stop career counselling or annual career conver-
sations for employees having arrived at their career plateau, thereby confirming the
idea that your career potential is mainly determined by your age. It is this linear and
age-based way of dealing with careers that has caused many of the problems we are
facing now that careers are becoming longer and many people are envisioning hav-
ing to continue working without the prospect of opportunities to make their career
more dynamic again.
The age-based thinking of careers is also reflected in the notion of career stages.
Traditionally, a career stage assigns a person’s age in the context of his or her career
or occupation. This measure of age calibrates the person’s acquisition of knowl-
edge, competencies, and experiences against a developmental yardstick. Although
the progression of mastery varies from occupation to occupation, the concept of
career stage acknowledges that most of us progress in our work lives from basic to
advanced skills (Kooij, De Lange, Jansen, & Dikkers, 2008 in Pitt-Catsouphes &
Matz-Costa, 2009; Super, 1990 in Pitt-Catsouphes & Matz-Costa, 2009). Yet, in the
contemporary career context it is generally acknowledged that there is no such thing
as one idealised general career path characterised by a set of predictable transi-
tions all workers go through at specific points in their life.
The changing nature of careers thus provokes the question to what extent it is still
relevant to distinguish career stages. Careers will be increasingly driven by the
changing skill demands of the fields in which a person works, and thus by the need
for the meta-skills of adaptability. Individuals need to be able to self-reflect, to con-
2.3 Career Dynamics: Careers as Learning Cycles 15

tinue assessing and learning about themselves, and to change behaviors and atti-
tudes to adapt to changing circumstances.

This is also what we learn from the career cases introduced in Chap. 1. Patricia
developed her competencies in a direction that allowed her to do a job that is
more in line with her career interests but it took her some time to discover
what her real passion was. Tim seemed to have a passion for cooking from the
beginning of his career, but discovered gradually where his real talents were
and how the development and application of new competencies allowed him
to grow within the HORECA sector and to contribute to the growth of the
companies where he worked.

The longer a career, the more it becomes clear that individuals’ continuously
affect their career potential through the choices they make with regard to mobility,
lifelong learning, and the various ways in which they acquire new competencies.
Each person will fill his or her “backpack” with competencies that generate new
career options in the future and this constant process of development and renewal
will impact the sustainability of one’s career in the long run. In Chap. 7 we will
elaborate further on this continuous process of competency development.
To facilitate sustainable careers throughout the lifecourse it is therefore impor-
tant to move away from this linear, age-based view on careers and focus on lifelong
learning instead. This means that the individual should continue to learn, to develop
his or her competencies and to challenge him or herself throughout the lifecourse
(Mirvis & Hall, 1994). A certain behavioural repertoire, which proved to be effec-
tive in an earlier stage and which resulted in prior psychological success, may
thereby become a pitfall that evolves into an obstacle preventing any further learn-
ing (Hall, 2002). Careers should hence be conceived as learning cycles: A succes-
sion of mini-stages or short-cycle learning stages of exploration-trial-mastery-exit.
The key issue determining a learning stage will not be the chronological age but
career age, where perhaps 5 years in a given specialty may be midlife for one area
or only the early career for another area (Hall, 2002).
The idea of “one-life-one career” (Sarason, 1977 in Hall & Mirvis, 1995) is thus
changing towards a focus on adapting one’s career identity and acquiring new skills,
leading to much more complex career patterns which can be idiosyncratic to each
person, making the individual the central actor and, following from this, the need
for career competencies which allow individuals to navigate their career.
The notion of sustainable careers incorporates this long-term view on the dynam-
ics of careers, the outcomes of career decisions over time and the many factors and
contextual constraints affecting career choices and outcomes (Van der Heijden &
De Vos, 2015). Inherent in this notion of sustainable careers is that individuals
­continuously affect their career potential through the career choices they make, the
learning cycles they go through, the opportunities they encounter, and this career
16 2 Conceptual Framework for Sustainable Careers

potential in turn affects subsequent career opportunities and hence the long-term
sustainability of one’s career. The challenge for organisations and policy makers is
to implement career policies that enable individuals to successfully go through
these learning cycles in view of both individual career success and organizational
performance.

2.4  he Broader Picture: A Lifecourse Perspective

T
on Careers

A second central characteristic of a career is that it crosses several social spaces and
hence that the choices and decisions individuals are making regarding their career
cannot be isolated from their broader life context, which is dynamic and has become
less predictable as well (Arthur et al., 1999). The increased participation of women,
dual-earner partners, and single parents in the workforce juggling their work com-
mitments with caregiving responsibilities, combined with increasingly demanding
jobs that are flexible in time and location of work has blurred the boundaries between
work and private life (Greenhaus & Kossek, 2014). Age is no longer the best predic-
tor to understand and anticipate on the challenges that employees are facing in the
home domain. For instance, whilst some workers over 50 enjoy more freedom and
time to devote to their work because their children have grown up, others are strug-
gling to combine work with care for their own parents, or have started a new family
with young children and thus facing the same work-life balance issues as colleagues
in their twenties.

This was also clear from the cases described in Chap. 1. Although Ben is only
in the early phase of his career, he is already juggling to find a job that he can
combine with caring for his sick mother. Patricia’s choice to work freelance is
also determined by her need to combine her professional role with her mother
role. And although Tim did not seem to have such work-life balance issues,
his personal interest in travelling and exploring new cultures affected his
career choices.

Traditionally, career management has focused on the development of careers

within an organisational context in isolation from other parts of employees’ lives,
thereby assuming that most employees go through the same life stages in a predict-
able way. Contemporary organisations are increasingly being confronted with the
limitation of such a bounded view on careers. Career experiences and home experi-
ences are inextricably intertwined in many contemporary careers, explaining for
instance why an increasing number of employees are opting out of a traditional
corporate career and choose for an independent career (Mainiero & Sullivan, 2006).
2.5 Sustainable Career Management 17

Whilst this reality of a transitional, non-linear career is increasingly being recog-

nised at a societal level, and by labour market policies fostering for instance the
combination of career and care throughout the lifecourse, many organisations are
still struggling with respecting and acknowledging the influence of individuals’
home contexts in the way they manage careers. It is to some degree understandable
that it is difficult to get a grip on home factors affecting people’s careers and it
makes the possible variety of careers endless. Sustainable career management
should recognise that careers are ultimately owned by the individual and affected by
the total person’s life context which is dynamic and not always easy to predict.
This does not imply, however, that organisational career management resulting
in both individual career success and organisational performance is no longer pos-
sible. But it does articulate the need for different measures that are more in concor-
dance with the new reality of both the volatile business context of organisations and
dynamic private context of employees.

2.5 Sustainable Career Management

Building on the notion of sustainable careers, sustainable career management refers

to those career policies that facilitate the workforce in working longer, differently
and with a higher number of employees in view of both individual and organiza-
tional success. It involves processes and practices that manage the development of
individuals along a path of experiences and jobs (Hall, 2002), with respect for
employees, openness towards different stakeholders and in view of continuity.
Sustainability in careers, however, does not automatically equal lifetime employ-
ment in one single organisation (De Prins, De Vos, Van Beirendonck, & Segers,
2015).
Sustainable career management can be considered at multiple levels: system,
organisation and individual.

Sustainable career management at the system level refers to those initiatives

(policies, practices, measures, programs, projects, tools and processes) under-
taken by national, regional or local governments or intermediaries with a sub-
stantial and long-lasting impact on organisations and/or individuals, hence
tackling general work and labour market issues. These system level practices
foster sustainable careers and show potential for transfer to other countries.
At the organisational level sustainable career management refers to those
initiatives initiated by organisations or by third parties like consultants and

(continued)
Another random document with
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 134.2 Rev. P. Dehon, S.J., “Religion and Customs of the Uraons,”
Memoirs of the Asiatic Society of Bengal, vol. i. No. 9 (Calcutta,
1906), pp. 139 sq.
134.3 Lieut.-Colonel H. W. G. Cole, “The Lushais,” in Census of

India, 1911, vol. iii. Assam, Part I. (Shillong, 1912) p. 140.

135.1 Mrs. Leslie Milne, Shans at Home (London, 1910), p. 96. The

custom of carrying the dead out of the house by a special opening,

which is then blocked up to prevent the return of the ghost, has been
observed by many peoples in many parts of the world. For examples
see The Belief in Immortality and the Worship of the Dead, i. 452
sqq.
136.1 Ch. Gilhodes, “Naissance et Enfance chez les Katchins
(Birmanie),” Anthropos, vi. (1911) pp. 872 sq.
136.2 Van Schmidt, “Aanteekeningen nopens de zeden, etc., der
bevolking van de eilanden Saparoea, etc.,” Tijdschrift voor
Neêrlands Indie, v. Tweede Deel (Batavia, 1843), pp. 528 sqq.; G.
Heijmering, “Zeden en gewoonten op het eiland Timor,” Tijdschrift
voor Neerlands Indië, vii. Negende Aflevering (Batavia, 1845), pp.
278 sq., note; B. F. Matthes, Bijdragen tot de Ethnologie van Zuid-
Celebes (The Hague, 1875), p. 97; W. E. Maxwell, “Folk-lore of the
Malays,” Journal of the Straits Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society,
No. 7 (June 1881), p. 28; W. W. Skeat, Malay Magic (London, 1900),
p. 325; J. G. F. Riedel, De sluik- en kroesharige rassen tusschen
Selebes en Papua (The Hague, 1886), p. 81; B. C. A. J. van Dinter,
“Eenige geographische en ethnographische aanteekeningen
betreffende het eiland Siaoe,” Tijdschrift voor Indische Taal- Land-
en Volkenkunde, xli. (1899) p. 381; A. C. Kruijt, “Eenige
ethnografische aanteekeningen omtrent de Toboengkoe en de
Tomori,” Mededeelingen van wege het Nederlandsche
Zendelinggenootschap, xliv. (Rotterdam, 1900) p. 218; id., Het
Animisme in den Indischen Archipel (The Hague, 1906), p. 252; G.
A. Wilken, Handleiding voor de vergelijkende Volkenkunde van
Nederlandsch-Indië (Leyden, 1893), p. 559; J. H. Meerwaldt,
“Gebruiken der Bataks in het maatschappelijk leven,”
Mededeelingen van wege het Nederlandsche
Zendelineggnootschap, xlix. (1905) p. 113. The common name for
these dreaded ghosts is pontianak. For a full account of them see A.
C. Kruijt, Het Animisme in den Indischen Archipel, pp. 245 sqq.
137.1 J. Perham, “Sea Dyak Religion,” Journal of the Straits Branch

of the Royal Asiatic Society, No. 14 (Singapore, 1885), pp. 291 sq.
137.2 W. W. Skeat and C. O. Blagden, Pagan Races of the Malay

Peninsula (London, 1906), ii. 109.

137.3 T. de Pauly, Description ethnographique des peuples de la
Russie (St. Petersburg, 1862), Peuples ouralo-altaïques, p. 71.
137.4 A. W. Howitt, Native Tribes of South-East Australia (London,
1904), p. 474.
137.5 A. W. Howitt, op. cit. p. 473.
137.6 H. Zimmer, Altindisches Leben (Berlin, 1879), p. 402.
138.1 Rev. Father Julius Jetté, “On the Superstitions of the Ten’a

Indians,” Anthropos, vi. (1911) p. 707.

138.2 T. de Pauly, Description ethnographique des peuples de la

Russie (St. Petersburg, 1862), Peuples ouralo-altaïques, p. 71.

138.3 (Sir) H. H. Risley, The Tribes and Castes of Bengal,

Ethnographic Glossary, ii. (Calcutta, 1891) pp. 75 sq. Compare E. T.

Atkinson, The Himalayan Districts of the North-Western Provinces of
India, ii. (Allahabad, 1884) p. 832; W. Crooke, Popular Religion and
Folk-lore of Northern India (Westminster, 1896), ii. 57.
139.1 Rev. G. Whitehead, “Notes on the Chins of Burma,” Indian
Antiquary, xxxvi. (1907) pp. 214 sq.
139.2 Relations des Jésuites, 1639, p. 44 (Canadian reprint,
Quebec, 1858).
140.1 Rev. Peter Jones, History of the Ojebway Indians (London,

N.D.), pp. 99 sq.

141.1 “Sitten und Gebräuche der Lengua-Indianer, nach
Missionsberichten von G. Kurze,” Mitteilungen der geographischen
Gesellschaft zu Jena, xxiii. (1905) pp. 17 sq., 19 sq., 21 sq. The
Cross River natives of Southern Nigeria, like the Lengua Indians, cut
off the diseased members of a corpse, in the belief that if they did
not do so the person would suffer from the same disease at his next
reincarnation. See Charles Partridge, Cross River Natives (London,
1905), pp. 238 sq.
 142.1 Charles A. Sherring, Western Tibet and the British Borderland
(London, 1906), pp. 127-132.
142.2 Lieutenant Herold, “Bericht betreffend religiöse
Anschauungen und Gebräuche der deutschen Ewe-Neger,”
Mitteilungen von Forschungsreisenden und Gelehrten aus den
deutschen Schutzgebieten, v. Heft 4 (Berlin, 1892), p. 155; H. Klose,
Togo unter deutscher Flagge (Berlin, 1899), p. 274.
143.1 Franz Boas, in Sixth Report on the North-Western Tribes of
Canada, p. 92 (Report of the British Association for the
Advancement of Science, Leeds, 1890, separate reprint).
143.2 Franz Boas, in Tenth Report on the North-Western Tribes of
Canada, p. 45 (Report of the British Association for the
Advancement of Science, Ipswich, 1895, separate reprint).
144.1 Franz Boas, in Sixth Report on the North-Western Tribes of
Canada, pp. 23 sq. (Report of the British Association for the
Advancement of Science, Leeds, 1890, separate reprint).
144.2 Franz Boas, in Seventh Report on the North-Western Tribes
of Canada, p. 13 (Report of the British Association for the
Advancement of Science, Cardiff, 1891, separate reprint).
145.1 James Teit, “The Thompson Indians of British Columbia,” pp.

332 sq. (The Jesup North Pacific Expedition, Memoir of the

American Museum of Natural History, April, 1900).
146.1 James Teit, “The Lillooet Indians” (Leyden and New York,

1906), p. 271 (The Jesup North Pacific Expedition, Memoir of the

American Museum of Natural History).
147.1 Franz Boas, in Fifth Report on the North-Western Tribes of

Canada, pp. 43 sq. (Report of the British Association for the

Advancement of Science, Newcastle-upon-Tyne, 1889, separate
reprint).
148.1 Father Guis (de la Congrégation du Sacré-Cœur d’Issoudun,
Missionnaire en Nouvelle-Guinée), “Les Canaques, mort-deuil,” Les
Missions catholiques, xxxiv. (Lyons, 1902) pp. 208 sq.
149.1 Elsewhere I have illustrated the fear of the dead as it is
displayed in funeral customs (“On certain Burial Customs as
illustrative of the Primitive Theory of the Soul,” Journal of the
Anthropological Institute, xv. (1886) pp. 64 sqq.).
 150.1 J. J. M. de Groot, The Religious System of China, iv. (Leyden,
1901) pp. 436 sqq., especially pp. 450, 464.
150.2 J. J. M. de Groot, The Religious System of China, iv. 450 sq.
151.1 J. J. M. de Groot, The Religious System of China, iv. 457-

460.
151.2 The Greek orator Antiphon observes that the presence of a

homicide pollutes the whole city and brings the curse of barrenness
on the land (Antiphon, ed. F. Blass, Leipsic, 1871, pp. 13, 15, 30).
See further L. R. Farnell, The Evolution of Religion (London, 1905),
pp. 139 sqq.
 Chapter VI Notes
156.1 Lucian, Hermotimus, 64, κατὰ τοὺς Ἀρεοπαγίτας αὐτὸ
ποιοῦντα, οἳ ἐν νυκτὶ καὶ σκότῳ δικάζουσιν, ὡς μὴ ἐς τοὺς λέγοντας,
ἀλλ᾽ ἐς τὰ λεγόμενα ἀποβλέποιεν: id., De domo, 18, εἰ μὴ τύχοι τις
παντελῶς τυφλὸς ὢν ἢ ἐν νυκτὶ ὥσπερ ἡ ἐξ Ἀρείου πάγου βουλὴ
ποιοῖτο τὴν ἀκρόασιν.
 The Scope of Social Anthropology Notes
166.1 This happened at Ballyvadlea, in the county of Tipperary, in
March 1895. For details of the evidence given at the trial of the
murderers, see “The ‘Witch-burning’ at Clonmel,” Folk-lore, vi. (1895)
pp. 373-384.
166.2 This happened at Norwich in June 1902. See The People’s

Weekly Journal for Norfolk, July 19, 1902, p. 8.

167.1 I say “an enlightened minority,” because in any large
community there are always many minorities, and some of them are
very far from enlightened. It is possible to be below as well as above
the average level of our fellows.
170.1 E. Renan et M. Berthelot, Correspondance (Paris, 1898), pp.

75 sq.
173.1 J. Boswell, Life of Samuel Johnson9 (London, 1822), iv. 315.
174.1

“In boundless oceans, never to be passed

By navigators uninform’d as they,
Or plough’d perhaps by British bark again.”
The Task, book i. 629 sqq.
 TRANSCRIBER’S NOTES
Page numbers are given in {curly} brackets.
Plain text version only: endnote markers and sidenotes are given
in [square] brackets, with the latter prefixed with “Sidenote:”.
Minor spelling inconsistencies (e.g. blood-covenant/blood
covenant, childbed/child-bed, etc.) are preserved.
Alterations to the text:
Convert footnotes to endnotes, relabel note markers (append the
original note number to the page number), and add a corresponding
entry to the TOC.
[Chapter IV]
Change “The Blu- u Kayans, another tribe in the interior of Borneo”
to Blu-u.
(‘Give me,’ said Cairbre’s druid, that Corc there…) add left single
quotation mark before that.
[Chapter V]
(In China respect for human life in enforced by fear of ghosts.) to
is.
[Endnotes]
Fix a few missing periods.
(p. 46, note 3) “Tijdschrift van het Nederlandsch Aaardrijkskundig”
to Aardrijkskundig.

[End of text]
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