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OX F OR D MONO G R A PH S I N I N T E R N AT ION A L
H U M A N I TA R I A N A N D C R I M I N A L L AW
General Editors
PAOL A GA ETA
Director of the Geneva Academy of International Humanitarian Law and Human Rights
SA LVATOR E Z A PPA L À
Professor of International Law, University of Catania

Detention in Non-​International
Armed Conflict
 OX F OR D MO N O G R A PH S I N I N T E R N AT IO N A L
H U M A N I TA R I A N A N D C R I M I N A L L AW
The aim of this series is to publish original and innovative books on funda-
mental, topical, or cutting-​edge issues in international humanitarian law and
international criminal justice. The primary purpose of the series is to publish
books which, in addition to critically surveying existing law, also suggest
new avenues for improving the law.
Special attention will be given to works by young scholars.
 Detention in
Non-​International
Armed Conflict
L AW R E NC E H I L L- ​C AW T HOR N E

1
 1
Great Clarendon Street, Oxford, OX2 6DP,
United Kingdom
Oxford University Press is a department of the University of Oxford.
It furthers the University’s objective of excellence in research, scholarship,
and education by publishing worldwide. Oxford is a registered trade mark of
Oxford University Press in the UK and in certain other countries
© Lawrence Hill-​Cawthorne 2016
The moral rights of the author‌have been asserted
First Edition published in 2016
Impression: 1
All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in
a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, without the
prior permission in writing of Oxford University Press, or as expressly permitted
by law, by licence or under terms agreed with the appropriate reprographics
rights organization. Enquiries concerning reproduction outside the scope of the
above should be sent to the Rights Department, Oxford University Press, at the
address above
You must not circulate this work in any other form
and you must impose this same condition on any acquirer
Crown copyright material is reproduced under Class Licence
Number C01P0000148 with the permission of OPSI
and the Queen’s Printer for Scotland
Published in the United States of America by Oxford University Press
198 Madison Avenue, New York, NY 10016, United States of America
British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data
Data available
Library of Congress Control Number: 2015956634
ISBN 978– ​0 –​19– ​874992–​9
Printed and bound by
CPI Group (UK) Ltd, Croydon, CR0 4YY
Links to third party websites are provided by Oxford in good faith and
for information only. Oxford disclaims any responsibility for the materials
contained in any third party website referenced in this work.
 Series Editors’ Preface

This book, Detention in Non-╉International Armed Conflict by Lawrence Hill-╉

Cawthorne, is the second step in 2016 of the ‘cultural project’ that is the estab-
lishment of the Series of Oxford Monographs in International Humanitarian and
Criminal Law. The main goal of the series is to broaden and deepen the analysis
in these two areas of law through the publication of thought provoking publi-
cations. Even in an area of law as well researched and studied as international
humanitarian law (IHL), it is nevertheless necessary to continually confront new
challenges linked to the changing realities of armed conflicts, with a particu-
lar focus on the renewed relevance of this body of law in a world increasingly
torn apart by armed violence (with issues revolving around asymmetric warfare,
drone wars, detentions, and so forth). On the other hand, as far as international
criminal law is concerned, there is a need for further studies in an area of law
which has boomed after the establishment of the UN ad hoc tribunals in the
1990s and the International Criminal Court (ICC) in 1998; this has become a
“new” area of law which has now entered a stage of maturity that requires schol-
ars today, more than ever, to follow the operation of international institutions
with a critical eye.
The main idea underlying this series has always been to support publica-
tions from younger scholars that address topical issues in a critical and origi-
nal manner.
Detention in Non-╉International Armed Conflict is paradigmatic in this respect.
It is an excellent book that tackles a topical issue. We agreed with enthusiasm to
publish it in this series because it is a solid and in-╉depth analysis of a topic of great
relevance in current international affairs, which poses unresolved challenges; and
it is the result of the research work of a promising scholar, which makes it even
more coherent with the overall project of the series.
The author offers his approach in a constructive manner based on solid legal
work. We are sure it will contribute to the debate in this area. The book empha-
sizes the status of traditional international law in assessing detention in the course
of armed conflict, pointing out the traditional differences between the law of
international and non-╉international armed conflict. It tackles the gaps in regula-
tion and analyzes the problems in the light of recent practice, including notably
the conflicts in Iraq and Afghanistan, as well as those in Colombia, Sri Lanka,
and Nepal.
The book examines the procedural guarantees for detainees in armed conflicts,
examining both IHL and international human rights law, in search of a construc-
tive way to analyze the relationship between the two bodies of law. It is confirmed
that certain (minimal) guarantees must be applied in any case, confirming that
vi Series Editors’ Preface
detention in non-​international armed conflict is not unregulated by international
law. The book is additionally to be praised for offering concrete ideas on how to
develop the law in this area, an aspect that we found particularly in the spirit of
the initiator of this series.
The editors
Paola Gaeta and Salvatore Zappala
 Acknowledgements

As is so often the case, this book began life as a doctoral thesis, which was submit-
ted to the Law Faculty at the University of Oxford in February 2014. The process
of writing a doctorate is a journey marked with hugely diverging emotions, rang-
ing from great satisfaction and enjoyment to extraordinary stress and anxiety.
The final thesis is, in a way, just a small part of this process, a roadmap of one’s
personal and academic development. Support is essential if one is to get through
this process. I was extremely fortunate during my DPhil to have as my supervisor
and mentor Professor Dapo Akande, who provided excellent support and advice,
reading not only lengthy, and no doubt often rambling, early drafts of chapters
of the thesis, but also drafts of articles and conference abstracts. It was Dapo who
first introduced me to the topic of this book, and it is through discussing these
issues with him that the ideas found here developed. It is only really now, when
I appreciate the great pressures on an academic’s time, that I realize just how gen-
erous Dapo was in giving his, and for that I am truly grateful.
I was also very fortunate to have Professors Guy Goodwin-╉Gill and Sandesh
Sivakumaran as my DPhil examiners. The viva, though tough and challenging,
was a considerably rewarding experience as a result of their deep engagement with
the thesis. Their questions and comments forced me to build upon the thesis for
the book and have, as a result, strengthened it.
The journey of writing a doctoral thesis can, if one is not careful, quite easily
become an isolating and lonely experience. I have a lot of people to thank, for
ensuring that this was not the case for me. First are my closest friends from home,
David, Matthew, and Ric, who throughout my life have provided the kind of
nourishment of the soul that only close friends can. Next are the friends I made in
Oxford. Particular mention should be made of Eirik Bjorge, Seth Estrin, Monic
Gupta, Kubo Mačák, Greg Messenger, Martins Paparinskis, and Ruvi Ziegler.
Moreover, the Oxford public international law community provided a wonderful
setting for research students. Weekly research seminars led by Professors Vaughan
Lowe and Guy Goodwin-╉Gill offered a great place not just for intellectual devel-
opment but also for meeting other research students who would quickly become
close friends. Vaughan and Sally Lowe added to this with their great BBQs for
students and staff in public international law. It is these things that made this
journey so fulfilling and enjoyable. Finally, at Merton College, Professor Jennifer
Payne and Mindy Chen-╉Wishart offered extraordinary support and guidance
throughout my postgraduate studies, and I am extremely grateful to them.
I had the enormous privilege of funding throughout the DPhil from the Arts
and Humanities Research Council (AHRC). Needless to say, it simply would not
have been possible to work on this project for four years without this generous sup-
port. The AHRC also kindly granted me further funding to take up a four-╉month
viii Acknowledgements
fellowship at the Kluge Center in the Library of Congress, Washington, DC,
where I was able to build upon my research and discuss the project with policy-
makers. It was in Washington that I met a number of fellow researchers that have
become close friends of mine, in particular Patrick Andelic, Kevin Crosby, Pete
Mills, Iain Rowley, and Peter West-​Oram.
Of course, the final product of the research that is captured in these pages is a
result of the brilliant support I have had from OUP, and I must especially thank
Emma Endean and Merel Alstein for their help and guidance along the way. The
reviewers of my original manuscript must also be thanked for their thoughtful
and constructive comments.
The final words of thanks must, of course, go to my family, for it is they that
have throughout my life offered me comfort and unwavering support. My parents,
Tina and Tony, and my step-​parents, Peter and Sue, have always encouraged me
to find my own path in life and pursue it without fear, whilst always remembering
to value the truly important things. I must not fail to mention my grandparents,
June, David, Bill, Daphne, and James, and my two brothers, Josh and Grant, for
each has helped and influenced me in significant ways. Teresa, for proof-​reading
the entirety of my doctoral thesis, and Averil, for being such a welcoming and
kind host when I was in India writing part of the thesis, have also helped me
more than they could imagine in completing this research. Finally, I must thank
my wife and best friend, Anne-​Marie. If completing a doctoral thesis is challeng-
ing, being the person on whom you rely when doing so is far more challenging.
Writing a doctoral thesis is about as far from a 9 to 5 job as one can get, and the
book then extended this for a further nine months. Yet at every point along the
way, Anne-​Marie has supported me without reservation and, just as importantly,
kept me grounded and reminded me that there is far more to life than work alone.
It is to her, and my whole family, that this book is dedicated.
 Table of Contents

Tables of Cases xv
Tables of Legislation xxiii

Introduction 1

PA R T I . ╇ C O N T E X T
1.╇ The Distinction between International and Non-╉International
Armed Conflicts  11

PA R T I I . ╇ I N T E R N AT IO N A L
H U M A N I TA R I A N L AW
2. Internment in International Armed Conflict under IHL  33

3. Internment in Non-╉International Armed Conflict under IHL  66

PA R T I I I .╇ I N T E R N AT IO N A L
H U M A N R IG H T S L AW
4. Detention under IHRL€ 111

5. Detention and the Relationship between IHL and IHRL  144

6. The Practical Application of IHRL to Detention

in Non-╉International Armed Conflict  192

PA R T I V. ╇ DE V E L OPI N G T H E L AW
7. Conclusion: Developing an Internment Regime
for Non-╉International Armed Conflicts  225

Select Bibliography 245

Index 269
 Detailed Table of Contents

Tables of Cases xv
Tables of Legislation xxiii

Introduction€ 1
I.1 Aims and Scope of Enquiry 4
I.2 Methodology 6

PA R T I . ╇ C O N T E X T
1. The Distinction between International and Non-╉International
Armed Conflicts€ 11
1.1 Overview and Historical Basis 11
1.2 Criticisms of the Distinction 19
1.2.1 IHL’s claim to pragmatism 19
1.2.2 IHL’s claim to humanitarianism 21
1.3 Reasons for Preserving the Distinction 22
1.3.1 Sovereignty concerns 23
1.3.2 Humanitarian concerns 27
1.4 Conclusions 30

PA R T I I . ╇ I N T E R N AT IO N A L
H U M A N I TA R I A N L AW
2. Internment in International Armed Conflict under IHL€ 33
2.1 Status 34
2.1.1 Combatants/╉POWs 34
2.1.2 Civilians 37
2.1.3 A third category?—╉‘unlawful combatants’ 37
2.2 Standard for Internment 39
2.2.1 Civilians 39
2.2.2 Combatants 47
2.3 Review of Internment 51
2.3.1 Civilians 51
2.3.1.1 Initial review 51
2.3.1.2 Periodic review 56
2.3.2 Combatants 56
2.4 Release 59
2.4.1 Civilians 59
2.4.2 Combatants 60
2.5 Article 5 GCIV 62
2.6 Conclusions 65
xii Detailed Table of Contents
3. Internment in Non-​International Armed Conflict under IHL  66
3.1 The Legal Basis to Intern in Non-​International Armed Conflicts 66
3.2 Procedural Rules under Conventional IHL 76
3.2.1 Common Article 3 76
3.2.2 Additional Protocol II 83
3.3 Procedural Rules under Customary IHL 85
3.3.1 Prohibition of arbitrary deprivation of liberty 91
3.3.2 The end-​point of internment 95
3.3.3 Conclusions on customary IHL 98
3.4 The Binding Nature of IHL for Non-​State Armed Groups 99
3.4.1 Do common Article 3 and APII bind non-​state groups? 100
3.4.2 On what basis do common Article 3 and APII bind non-​state groups? 101
3.4.3 On what basis does customary IHL bind non-​state groups? 104
3.4.4 Conclusion on the binding nature of IHL 105
3.5 Conclusions 107

PA R T I I I . I N T E R N AT IO N A L
H U M A N R IG H T S L AW
4. Detention under IHRL  111
4.1 Applicability of IHRL in Armed Conflict 111
4.2 The Procedural Rules Applicable to Detention under Human
Rights Treaties 116
4.2.1 Standard for detention 117
4.2.1.1 The conformity of internment with the IHRL standard 120
4.2.2 Reasons for detention 122
4.2.3 Initial review (habeas corpus) 124
4.2.3.1 ‘Without delay’ 124
4.2.3.2 The nature and procedures of the review body 125
4.2.3.3 Scope of review and the meaning of ‘lawfulness’ 127
4.2.3.4 Comparing habeas corpus and the IHL review procedures 128
4.2.4 Periodic review 130
4.2.5 Release from detention 131
4.2.6 Conclusions on the rules under IHRL 132
4.3 The Procedural Rules Applicable to Detention under Customary
International Law 132
4.3.1 The prohibition of arbitrary deprivation of liberty 133
4.3.2 Release where the justifications cease 139
4.3.3 Reasons for detention and habeas corpus 139
4.4 Conclusions 142

5. Detention and the Relationship between IHL and IHRL  144

5.1 The Relationship between IHL and IHRL 144
5.1.1 The ICJ’s case law 147
5.1.2 Detention in international armed conflict 152
5.1.3 Detention in non-​international armed conflict 159
5.2 State Practice in Specific Non-​International Armed Conflicts 164
 Detailed Table of Contents xiii

5.2.1 Traditional non-╉international armed conflicts 165

5.2.1.1 Colombia 165
5.2.1.2 Sri Lanka 167
5.2.1.3 Nepal 168
5.2.1.4 Democratic Republic of the Congo 170
5.2.1.5 Conclusions on traditional non-╉international
armed conflicts 172
5.2.2 Extraterritorial non-╉international armed conflicts 174
5.2.2.1 Iraq (from 2003) 174
5.2.2.2 Afghanistan (post-╉2001) 179
5.2.2.3 Conclusions on extraterritorial non-╉international
armed conflicts 183
5.2.3 Transnational armed conflicts 185
5.2.3.1 US conflict with al-╉Qaeda 185
5.3 Conclusions on State Practice 189

6. The Practical Application of IHRL to Detention

in Non-╉International Armed Conflict€ 192
6.1 The Practice of Human Rights Treaty Bodies 192
6.1.1 Human Rights Committee (HRC) 194
6.1.2 European Court of Human Rights (ECtHR) 196
6.1.3 Inter-╉A merican institutions 201
6.1.4 African Commission on Human and Peoples’ Rights (ACiHPR) 205
6.1.5 Conclusions on treaty body practice: a proposal for reconciling
their approaches 207
6.2 Extraterritorial Application of IHRL 212
6.2.1 Extraterritorial derogation from human rights treaties 216
6.3 Human Rights Obligations of Non-╉State Armed Groups 217
6.3.1 Concluding remarks: the inadequacy of IHRL 221

PA R T I V. ╇ DE V E L OPI N G T H E L AW
7. Conclusion:€Developing an Internment Regime for
Non-╉International Armed Conflicts€ 225
7.1 Building on the Current Law 226
7.1.1 Eliminate the distinction between categories of armed conflict? 227
7.1.2 Developing an internment regime for non-╉international
armed conflicts 228
7.2 Analogizing to GCIII 230
7.3 Analogizing to GCIV 234
7.3.1 Standard for internment 234
7.3.2 Reasons for internment 238
7.3.3 Review of internment 239
7.3.4 Release 241
7.4 Concluding Remarks 242

Select Bibliography 245

Index 269
 Tables of Cases
I N T E R N AT ION A L C OU RTS A N D T R I BU N A L S
Permanent Court of International Justice€(PCIJ)
Jurisdiction of the Courts of Danzig (1928) PCIJ Series B, No 15. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .å°“ . . . . . 26, 103
‘Lotus’ Judgment No 9 (1927) PCIJ Series A, No 10 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .å°“ . . . . . . . . . . . . 67, 70, 77
The Mavrommatis Palestine Concessions, PCIJ Ser A, No 2 (1924). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .å°“ . . . . . . . 150
The Oscar Chinn Case, PCIJ Series A/╉B, No 63, 1934. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .尓 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 164

International Court of Justice€(ICJ)

Application of the Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide
(Bosnia and Herzegovina v Yugoslavia), Preliminary Objections, Judgment [1996]
ICJ Rep 595. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .å°“ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .å°“ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .å°“ . . . . . . . 163
Case Concerning Ahmadou Sadio Diallo (Republic of Guinea v Democratic Republic of Congo),
Merits Judgment [2010] ICJ Rep 639 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .å°“ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .å°“ . . . 7, 193
Case Concerning Armed Activities on the Territory of the Congo (DRC v Uganda)
[2005] ICJ Rep 116. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .å°“ . . . 28, 69, 113, 147, 148, 149, 190, 205, 214–╉215
Case Concerning Military and Paramilitary Activities in and Against Nicaragua
(Nicaragua v United States) [1986] ICJ Rep 14. . . . . . . . 6, 8, 41–╉42, 55, 76, 91, 104, 135, 137
Case Concerning Oil Platforms (Islamic Republic of Iran v United States of America),
Preliminary Objections [1996] ICJ Rep 803 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .å°“ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79, 83
Case Concerning the Arrest Warrant of 11 April 2000 (Democratic Republic of the
Congo v Belgium), Judgment [2002] ICJ Rep 3. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .å°“ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .å°“ . 8
Case Concerning The Barcelona Traction, Light and Power Company, Limited
(Belgium v Spain), Second Phase, Judgment [1970] ICJ Rep 3. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .å°“ . . . . . 163
Case Concerning the Continental Shelf (Tunisia/╉Libyan Arab Jamahiriya) [1982] ICJ Rep 38. . . . . 150
Case Concerning the Gabčikovo-╉Nagymaros Project (Hungary v Slovakia), Judgment [1997]
ICJ Rep 7. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .å°“ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .å°“ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .å°“ . . . . . . 83, 150
Case Concerning United States Diplomatic and Consular Staff in Tehran (United States of
America v Iran) [1980] ICJ Rep 3. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .å°“ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .å°“ . . . . . . . . . 137
Dispute Regarding Navigational and Related Rights (Costa Rica v Nicaragua) (Judgment)
[2009] ICJ Rep 213. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .å°“ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .å°“ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .å°“ . . 79
Kasikili/╉Sedudu Island (Botswana/╉Namibia) (Judgment) [1999] ICJ Rep 1045. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150
Legal Consequences of the Construction of a Wall in the Occupied Palestinian Territory,
Advisory Opinion [2004] ICJ Rep 136 . . . . . . . . . . 8, 113, 148, 149, 152, 153, 162, 190, 213
Legality of the Threat or Use of Nuclear Weapons, Advisory Opinion [1996] ICJ Rep 226. . . . 8, 28, 79,
113, 135, 146, 148–╉150, 153–╉154, 155, 156, 194, 201
North Sea Continental Shelf Cases (Federal Republic of Germany/╉Denmark; Federal Republic
of Germany/╉Netherlands) [1969] ICJ Rep 3. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .尓 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .尓 . 8, 73
Nuclear Tests (Australia v France) [1974] ICJ Rep 253. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .å°“ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106
Questions Relating to the Obligation to Prosecute or Extradite (Belgium v Senegal), Judgment
[2012] ICJ Rep 422. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .å°“ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .å°“ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .å°“ . 163
Reparation for Injuries Suffered in the Service of the United Nations (Reparations),
Advisory Opinion, [1949] ICJ Rep 174. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .å°“ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .å°“ 104, 219
Reservations to the Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide,
Advisory Opinion [1951] ICJ Rep 15. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .å°“ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .å°“ . . . 14, 150
xvi Tables of Cases
UN Human Rights Committee
A v Australia, CCPR/╉C/╉59/╉D/╉560/╉93, 3 April 1997 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .尓 119, 126, 127, 130, 235
Baban et al v Australia, CCPR/╉C/╉78/╉D/╉1014/╉2001, 18 September 2003. . . . . . . 127, 131, 139, 241
Berry v Jamaica, CCPR/╉C/╉50/╉D/╉330/╉1988, 26 April 1994 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .尓 . . . . . . . . . . . 127
C v Australia, CCPR/╉C/╉76/╉D/╉900/╉1999, 28 October 2002. . . . . . . . . . . . . 127, 128, 130, 131, 241
Celiberti de Casariego v Uruguay, CCPR/╉C/╉OP/╉1, 29 July 1981. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .尓 . . . . 214, 215
Drescher Caldas v Uruguay, CCPR/╉C/╉OP/╉2, 21 July 1983 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .尓 . . . . . . . . . . . . 123
Lopez Burgos v Uruguay, CCPR/╉C/╉13/╉D/╉52/╉1979, 29 July 1981. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 213, 214, 215
Macado de Cámpora v Uruguay, CCPR/╉C/╉OP/╉2, 12 October 1982 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .å°“ . . . . . 121
Maharjan v Nepal, CCPR/╉C/╉105/╉D/╉1863/╉2009, 2 August 2012. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .尓 . . . . . . . 195
Mansour Ahani v Canada, CCPR/╉C/╉80/╉D/╉1051/╉2002, 15 June 2004. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122, 125
Sarma v Sri Lanka, CCPR/╉C/╉78/╉D/╉950/╉2000, 31 July 2003. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .尓 . . . . . . 115, 195
Suarez de Guerrero v Colombia, UN Doc Supp No 40 (A/╉37/╉40), 9 April 1981 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
Torres v Finland, CCPR/╉C/╉38/╉D/╉291/╉1988, 5 April 1990. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .尓 . . . . . . . . 124, 125
Traoré v Côte d’Ivoire, CCPR/╉C/╉103/╉D/╉1759/╉2008, 17 January 2011 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .å°“ . . . 195
Van Alphen v The Netherlands, CCPR/╉C/╉39/╉D/╉305/╉1988, 15 August 1990. . . . . . . . . . . . . 119, 120
Vuolanne v Finland, CCPR/╉C/╉35/╉D/╉265/╉1987, 2 May 1989. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .尓 . . . . . . . . . . 125

UN Working Group on Arbitrary Detention

Obaidullah v United States, A/╉HRC/╉WGAD/╉2013/╉10, 12 June 2013. . . . . . . . . . 131, 140, 195, 242

World Trade Organization (WTO) Dispute Settlement€Body

EC—╉Computer Equipment, Appellate Body Report, WT/╉DS62/╉AB/╉R, WT/╉DS67/╉AB/╉R,
WT/╉DS68/╉AB/╉R, 5 June 1998. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .尓 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .尓 . . . . . . . . . . . 150

Arbitrations
Arbitral Award Rendered pursuant to the Compromis signed at London, March 4, 1930,
between France and the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, In the
Matter of the Claim of Madame Chevreau Against the United Kingdom (1933) 27 AJIL 153. . . 68
Civilians Claims, Ethiopia’s Claim 5 (Ethiopia/╉Eritrea), Partial Award, 17 December 2004,
135 ILR 427. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .å°“ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .å°“ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46, 55, 236
Civilians Claims, Ethiopia’s Claim 15, 16, 23 and 27-╉32 (Ethiopia/╉Eritrea), Partial Award,
17 December 2004, 135 ILR 374 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .å°“ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .å°“ . . . . . . . . . 46
CMS Gas Transmission Co v Argentine Republic, ICSID Case No ARB/╉01/╉08, Award,
12 May 2005. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .å°“ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .å°“ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .å°“ . . . . . . . 83
Interpretation of the Air Transport Services Agreement between the United States of America
and France (1963) 16 RIAA 5. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .å°“ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .å°“ . . . . . . . . . . . . 150
Southern Bluefin Tuna case (Australia and New Zealand/╉Japan) (Jurisdiction and
Admissibility) UNRIAA vol XXIII (2004). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .å°“ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .å°“ . . 157

R E GION A L€C OU RTS A N D T R I BU N A L S

European Commission on Human€Rights
Greek case (1969) 12 YB 1. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .å°“ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .å°“ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .å°“ 193

European Court of Human Rights (ECtHR)

A and others v United Kingdom, App No 3455/╉05, Judgment (Grand Chamber),
19 February 2009. . . . . . . 118, 119, 121, 126, 127, 141, 199, 200, 201, 207, 208, 210, 229, 238
Aksoy v Turkey, App No 21987/╉93, Judgment (Merits), 18 December 1996. . . . . . . . . . . . . 127, 141
Al-╉Jedda v United Kingdom, App No 27021/╉08, Judgment (Grand Chamber),
7 July 2011. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .71, 115, 121, 145, 177, 178, 179, 198–╉199, 215, 217
Al-╉Saadoon and Mufdhi v United Kingdom, App No 61498/╉08, Admissibility Decision,
30 June 2009. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .å°“ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .å°“ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .å°“ . . 214, 215
 Tables of Cases xvii
Al-​Skeini v United Kingdom, App No 55721/​07, Judgment (Grand Chamber),
7 July 2011. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .114, 214–​215
Assenov and others v Bulgaria, App No 24760/​94, Judgment, 28 October 1998 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130
Bankovic v United Kingdom, App No 52207/​99, Admissibility Decision,
12 December 2001. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 214, 215
Behrami and Behrami v France, Saramati v France, Germany and Norway, App Nos 71412/​0
and 78166/​01, Admissibility Decision (Grand Chamber), 2 May 2007. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
Bezicheri v Italy, App No 11400/​85, Judgment, 25 October 1989 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130
Brannigan and McBride v United Kingdom, App Nos 14553/​89 and 14554/​89, Judgment,
25 May 1993. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126, 141
Brogan and others v United Kingdom, App Nos 11209/​84, 11234/​84, 11266/​84 and
11386/​85, Judgment, 29 November 1988. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127
Case of Ilascu and others v Moldova and Russia, App No 48787/​99, Judgment
(Grand Chamber), 8 July 2004 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 220
Çetinkaya and Çağlayan v Turkey, App Nos 3921/​02, 35003/​02, and 17261/​03, Judgment,
23 January 2007. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124
Chahal v United Kingdom, App No 22414/​93, Judgment (Grand Chamber),
15 November 1996 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126, 127, 200, 208
Ergi v Turkey, App No 23818/​94, Judgment (Merits), 28 July 1998. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 197
Fox, Campbell and Hartley v United Kingdom, App Nos 12244/​86 and 12245/​86,
Judgment, 30 August 1990. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123, 124
Hassan v United Kingdom, App No 29750/​09, Judgment (Grand Chamber),
16 September 2014 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114, 149, 155, 156, 158–​159, 196, 199, 201
Ireland v United Kingdom, App No 5310/​71, Judgment, 18 January 1978. . . . . . . . . . 121, 199–​201,
207, 208, 210, 211, 229, 239
Isayeva, Yusupova and Bazayeva v Russia, App Nos 57947/​00, 57948/​00, and 57949/​00,
Judgment (Merits), 24 February 2005 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 197
Isayeva v Russia, App No 57950/​00, Judgment (Merits), 24 February 2005 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 197
Issa v Turkey, App No 31821/​96, Judgment, 16 November 2004. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 214
Kadem v Malta, App No 55263/​00, Judgment, 9 January 2003. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125
Kerr v United Kingdom, App No 40451/​98, Admissibility Decision, 7 December 1999. . . . 123, 210
Khudyakova v Russia, App No 13476/​04, Judgment, 8 January 2009. . . . . . . . . . 124, 125, 126, 211
Lawless v Ireland (No 3), App No 332/​57, Judgment (Plenary), 1 July 1961. . . . . . . . . . . . . 121, 141
Lebedev v Russia, App No 4493/​04, Judgment, 25 October 2007. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130
Loizidou v Turkey, App No 15318/​89, Judgment (Grand Chamber), 18 December 1996. . . 114, 215
Luberti v Italy, App No 9019/​80, Judgment, 23 February 1984. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130
Mamedova v Russia, App No 7064/​05, Judgment, 1 June 2006 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125
McCann and others v United Kingdom, App No 18984/​91, 27 September 1995. . . . . . . . . . . 29, 197
Medvedyev and others v France, App No 3394/​03, Judgment (Grand Chamber),
29 March 2010 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119, 121, 169, 215, 235
Nada v Switzerland, App No 10593/​08, Judgment (Grand Chamber), 12 September 2012. . . . . 157
Neumeister v Austria, App No 1936/​63, Judgment, 27 June 1968. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126
Öcalan v Turkey, App No 46221/​99, Judgment, 12 May 2005. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127, 214, 215
Othman v United Kingdom, App No 8139/​09, Judgment, 17 January 2012. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
Saadi v United Kingdom, App No 13229/​03, Judgment, 29 January 2008. . . . . . . . . . 119–​120, 123,
132, 235, 242
Sakik and others v Turkey, App Nos 23878/​94, 23879/​94, 23880/​94, 23881/​94, 23882/​94,
23883/​94, Judgment, 26 November 1997. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 193
Sanchez-​Reisse v Switzerland, App No 9862/​82, Judgment, 21 October 1986. . . . . . . . . . . . 125, 127
Singh v United Kingdom, App No 23389/​94, Judgment, 21 February 1996. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126
Smith & Grady v United Kingdom, App Nos 33985/​96 and 33986/​96, Judgment,
27 September 1999 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
Steel and others v United Kingdom, App No 24838/​94, Judgment,
23 September 1998 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119, 122, 236
xviii Tables of Cases
Stephens v Malta (No 1), App No 11956/╉07, Judgment, 21 April 2009. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .126
Storck v Germany, App No 62603/╉00, Judgment, 16 June 2005. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .尓 . . . . . . . . 118
Toth v Austria, App No 11894/╉85, Judgment, 12 December 1991. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .尓 . . . . . . 127
Van der Leer v Netherlands, App No 11509/╉85, Judgment, 21 February 1990. . . . 123, 124, 210, 238
Weeks v United Kingdom, App No 9787/╉82, Judgment, 2 March 1987. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .尓 . . . 126
Włoch v Poland, App No 27785/╉95, Judgment, 19 October 2000 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .å°“ . . . . . . 127
X v United Kingdom, App No 7215/╉75, Judgment, 5 November 1981. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .尓 . . . 127

European Court of Justice€(ECJ)

Commission v Spain [1999] ECR I-╉5585 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .尓 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .尓 . . . . . . . . 45

Inter-╉American Commission on Human Rights (IACiHR)

Abella v Argentina, Report No 55/╉97, 18 November 1997. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .尓 . . . . . . . . 115, 201
Alejandre v Cuba, Report No 86/╉99, 29 September 1999. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .尓 . . . . . . . . . 114, 214
Ameziane v United States, Report No 17/╉12, Admissibility Decision, 20 March 2012. . . . . . . . . . 202
Caizales Dogenesama (Luis and Leonardo) v Colombia, Report No 152/╉11, 2 November 2011 . . . 203
Coard et al v United States, Report No 109/╉99, 22 September 1999. . . . . . . . 53, 114, 121, 156, 202,
203, 208, 214, 215, 239
Extrajudicial Executions and Forced Disappearances of Persons (Peru), Report No 101/╉01,
11 October 2001. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .å°“ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .å°“ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .å°“ . . . 203
Ferrer-╉Mazorra v United States, Report No 51/╉01, 4 April 2001. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .尓 . . . . . . . . 127
Franklin Guillermo Aisalla Molina (Ecuador v Colombia), Inter-╉State Petition IP-╉02
(Admissibility), Report No 112/╉10, 21 October 2010. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .尓 . . . . . . . 202, 214
Levoyer Jiménez v Ecuador, Report No 66/╉01, 14 June 2001. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .å°“ . . . . . . . 119, 235
Nativi & Martinez v Honduras, Report No 4/╉87, 28 March 1987. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .125
Request for Precautionary Measures Concerning the Detainees at Guantanamo Bay, Cuba,
Decision of 12 March 2002. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .å°“ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .å°“ . . . . . . . . . 114, 202

Inter-╉American Court of Human Rights (IACtHR)

Alvarez and Iniguez v Ecuador, Judgment, IACtHR (Series C) No 170 (2007). . . 118, 120, 125, 235
Case of Ituango Massacres v Colombia, Judgment, IACtHR (Series C) No 148 (2006). . . . . . . . . . 203
Case of Osorio Rivera and Family Members v Peru, Judgment, IACtHR (Series C)
No 274 (2013). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .å°“ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .å°“ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .å°“ . . . . . 205
Case of Rodríguez Vera et al (The Disappeared from the Palace of Justice) v Colombia,
Judgment (Series C) No 287 (2014). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .å°“ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .å°“ . . . 202, 203
Case of the Santo Domingo Massacre v Colombia, Judgment, IACtHR (Series C)
No 259 (2012). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .å°“ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .å°“ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .å°“ . . . . . 202
Durand and Ugarte v Peru, Judgment, IACtHR (Series C) No 68 (2000). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .å°“ . 204
Habeas Corpus in Emergency Situations (Arts.╉27(2) and 7(6) of the American Convention
on Human Rights), Advisory Opinion OC-╉8/╉87, IACtHR (Series A) No 8 (1987). . . . 125, 126,
127, 204, 205, 208
Judicial Guarantees in States of Emergency (Arts.╉27(2), 25 and 8 of the American Convention
on Human Rights), Advisory Opinion OC-╉9/╉87, IACtHR (Series A) No 9 (1987). . . . . . . . 205
Las Palmeras v Colombia, Judgment (Preliminary Objections), IACtHR (Ser C) No 67 (2000). . . . 202
Sanchez v Honduras, Judgment, IACtHR (Series C) No 99 (2003). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .å°“ . . 124, 238
Serrano-╉Cruz Sisters v El Salvador, Judgment (Preliminary Objections), IACtHR
(Series C) No 118 (2004). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .å°“ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .å°“ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 202
Tibi v Ecuador, Judgment, IACtHR (Series C) No 114, (2004) . . . . . . . . . . 119, 126, 127, 208, 211
Velasquez v Guatemala, Judgment, IACtHR (Series C) No 70 (2000). . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114, 115, 203

African Commission on Human and Peoples’ Rights (ACiHPR)

Amnesty International and others v Sudan, Communication Nos 48/╉90, 50/╉91, 52/╉91,
and 89/╉93 (2003). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .å°“ . . . . . . . 115, 119, 125, 205, 206, 208, 209, 235–╉236
 Tables of Cases xix
Commission nationale des droits de l’Homme et des libertés v Chad, Communication
No 74/╉92 (1995). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .尓 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .尓 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 205, 206
Constitutional Rights Project, Civil Liberties Organisation and Media Rights Agenda v Nigeria,
Communication Nos 140/╉94, 141/╉94, and 145/╉95 (1999) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 205, 206, 211
DRC v Burundi, Uganda and Rwanda, Communication No 227/╉99 (2003). . . . . . . . . . . . . 162, 190,
205, 206, 214
Huri-╉Laws v Nigeria, Communication No 225/╉98 (2000). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .尓 . . . . 205, 206, 208
Kazeem Aminu v Nigeria, Communication No 205/╉97 (2000). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .尓 . . . . . . . . . 205
Sudan Human Rights Organisation & Centre on Housing Rights and Evictions (COHRE) v
Sudan, Communication Nos 279/╉03 and 296/╉05 (2009). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .尓 . . . . . . . . . 205

I NT ER NAT IONA L A ND H Y BR ID CR IMI NA L T R IBU NA L S

International Criminal Tribunal for the Former Yugoslavia€(ICTY)
Prosecutor v Aleksovski (Trial Judgment) ICTY-╉95-╉14/╉1 (25 June 1999) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .尓 . . . 78
Prosecutor v Delalić et al (Trial Judgment) ICTY-╉96-╉21 (16 November 1998). . . . . . . . 41, 42, 44, 46,
52, 64, 98, 129, 130, 208, 236, 237
Prosecutor v Delalić et al (Appeals Judgment) ICTY-╉96-╉21-╉A (20 February 2001). . . . . 41, 44, 46, 53,
54–╉55, 98, 168, 177, 182, 204, 236, 240
Prosecutor v Furundzija (Trial Judgment) IT-╉95-╉17/╉1-╉T (10 December 1998) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 163
Prosecutor v Galić (Appeals Judgment) IT-╉98-╉29-╉A (30 November 2006). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .å°“ . 103
Prosecutor v Kordić and Čerkez (Trial Judgment) ICTY-╉95-╉14/╉2-╉T
(26 February 2001) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .å°“ . . . . . . . . . 41, 42, 44, 46, 52, 63, 64, 81, 236, 237
Prosecutor v Kordić and Čerkez (Appeals Judgment) ICTY-╉95-╉14/╉2 (17 December 2004). . . . 39, 103
Prosecutor v Krnojelac (Trial Judgment) ICTY-╉97-╉25 (15 March 2002). . . . . . . . 42, 59, 92, 138, 237
Prosecutor v Kunarac et al (Appeals Judgment) IT-╉96-╉23&23/╉1 (12 June 2002) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
Prosecutor v Kunarac et al (Trial Judgment) IT-╉96-╉23-╉T and IT-╉96-╉23/╉1-╉T
(22 February 2001) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .å°“ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .å°“ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .å°“ . 217
Prosecutor v Kupreškić et al (Trial Judgment) ICTY-╉95-╉16 (14 January 2000). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .å°“ 7
Prosecutor v Limaj et al (Prosecution’s Final Brief (Redacted Public Version)) ICTY-╉03-╉66
(26 July 2005) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .å°“ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .å°“ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .å°“ . . . 77–╉78
Prosecutor v Simić, Tadić and Zarić (Trial Judgment) ICTY-╉95-╉9-╉T (17 October 2003) . . . . . . . . . 59
Prosecutor v Tadić (Decision on the Defence Motion Motion for Interlocutory Appeal
on Jurisdiction) ICTY-╉94-╉1 (2 October 1995). . . . . . . . . 5, 17, 18, 20, 22, 27, 37, 91, 96, 228

International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda€(ICTR)

Prosecutor v Akayesu (Trial Judgment) ICTR-╉96-╉4 (2 September 1998) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91, 106
Prosecutor v Ntagerura et al (Trial Judgment) ICTR-╉99-╉46T (25 February 2004). . . . . . . . . . 67, 138

Extraordinary Chambers in the Courts of Cambodia

KAING Guek Eav alias Duch, Case File 001/╉18-╉07-╉2007/╉ECCC/╉TC (Trial Judgment)
(26 July 2010) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .å°“ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .å°“ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67, 94, 138

Special Court for Sierra€Leone

Prosecutor v Kallon and Kamara (Decision on Challenge to Jurisdiction, Lomé
Accord Amnesty) SCSL-╉2004-╉15-╉AR72(E) (13 March 2004) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91, 104, 106

N AT ION A L€ C OU RTS

Bosnia and Herzegovina
Lučić case, Court of Bosnia and Herzegovina, Judgment, 19 September 2007, 67–╉8,
cited in ICRC, Customary IHL Database . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .å°“ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .å°“ 84, 94
xx Tables of Cases
Canada
Canada (Justice) v Khadr [2008] 2 SCR 125 (Canadian Supreme Court). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .å°“ . 188

Chile
Contreras Sepúlveda, Case No 2182-╉98, Judgment, 17 November 2004
(Chilean Supreme Court). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .å°“ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .å°“ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94

Colombia
Constitutional Case No C-╉291/╉07, Constitutional Court Judgment, 25 April 2007, 112, cited in
ICRC, Customary IHL Database. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .å°“ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .å°“ . . . . . . . . . . 93

Israel
A and B v State of Israel, CrimA 3261/╉08 (11 June 2008) (Israel Supreme Court). . . . . . . . . . . 38, 41,
42, 43, 44, 45, 232, 237
Abu Bakr v Judge of the Military Court in Schechem, HCJ 466/╉86, 40(3) PD 649. . . . . . . . . . 55, 240
Ajuri and others v IDF Commander in the West Bank, IDF Commander in the Gaza Strip
and others, HCJ 7015/╉02 and 7019/╉02 [2002] 125 ILR 537
(Israeli Supreme Court) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .å°“ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .å°“ . . . . . 41, 120, 122, 208
Al-╉Ahmar case, Israel High Court of Justice, Judgment, 26 February 2004, cited in ICRC,
Customary IHL Database. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .å°“ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .å°“ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
Anonymous v Minister of Defence, ADA 10/╉94, 53(1) PD 97. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .尓 . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
Anonymous v Minister of Defence, CFH 7048/╉97, 54(1) PD 721. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .尓 . . 46, 56, 242
Issawi case, Jerusalem District Court, Judgment, 21 April 2010, cited in ICRC,
Customary IHL Database. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .å°“ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .å°“ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
Jamal Mustafa Yusef ‘Abdullah (Hussin) v Commander of IDF Forces in the West Bank,
HCJ 7607/╉05, (2005) 8 YIHL 443 (Israel Supreme Court). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .尓 . . . . . . . 140
Mar’ab et al v IDF Commander of Judea and Samaria et al, HCJ 3239/╉02, 57(2) PD 349
(Israel Supreme Court). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .å°“ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .å°“ . . . . . . . . 42, 53, 94, 154
Public Committee Against Torture in Israel et al v The Government of Israel et al, HCJ 769/╉02,
57(6) PD 285 (Israel Supreme Court) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .å°“ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .å°“ . . . . . . 38
Salame et al v IDF Commander of Judea and Samaria et al,HCJ 5784/╉03,
57(6) PD 721. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .å°“ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .å°“ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .å°“ . . . . . . 122

Malaysia
Malek case, Judgment, High Court (Kuala Lumpur)18 October 2007, cited in ICRC,
Customary IHL Database. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .å°“ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .å°“ . . . . . . . . . . . 135, 140

Nepal
Bajracharya case, Supreme Court, Division Bench, Order, 31 August 2007, cited in ICRC,
Customary IHL Database. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .å°“ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .å°“ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92
Rabindra Prasad Dhakal on Behalf of Rajendra Prasad Dhakal v Government of Nepal,
Ministry of Home Affairs and others (Divisional Bench of the Supreme Court of Nepal),
1 June 2002 (2008) 14 Asian YBIL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .å°“ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .å°“ . . . . . . . 170

Russia
Re Khodorkovskiy, Case No KAS06-╉129, Russian Supreme Court (Cassation Chamber),
133 ILR 365 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .å°“ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .å°“ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .å°“ . . . . . . 140

Sweden
Public Prosecutor (On Behalf of Behrem (Hussein) and ors) v Arklöf (Jackie), Judgment, Case
No B 4084–╉04, ILDC 633 (SE 2006), 18 December 2006 (Stockholm District Court). . . . .89
 Tables of Cases xxi
United Kingdom
A and others v Secretary of State for the Home Department [2002] EWCA Civ 1502. . . . . . . . . . . . 136
Abbasi v Secretary of State for Foreign and Commonwealth Affairs et al [2002]
EWCA Civ 1598. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .å°“ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .å°“ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .å°“ . . . . . 188
Al-╉Jedda v Secretary of State for Defence [2005] EWHC 1809 (Admin). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52, 53, 174
GS (Existence of Internal Armed Conflict) Afghanistan v Secretary of State for the
Home Department, CG [2009] UKAIT 00010. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .å°“ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 179
HM, RM, HF v the Secretary of State for the Home Department [2012] UKUT 409 (IAC). . . . . . . 174
Liversidge v Anderson [1942] AC 206. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .å°“ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .å°“ . . . . . . . . . . . 40
Netz v Chuter Ede [1946] 1 All ER 628 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .å°“ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .å°“ . . . . . . . . . 40
R (Abbasi) v Secretary of State for Foreign and Commonwealth Affairs & Secretary of State for
the Home Department [2002] EWCA Civ 1598. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .å°“ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140
R (Al-╉Jedda) v Secretary of State for Defence [2007] UKHL 58. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .尓 . . . . . . 175, 216
R (Al-╉Skeini and others) v Secretary of State for Defence (The Redress Trust and others intervening)
[2005] EWCA Civ 1609 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .å°“ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .å°“ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 214
R (Al-╉Skeini and others) v Secretary of State for Defence (The Redress Trust and others intervening)
[2007] UKHL 26. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .å°“ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .å°“ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .å°“ . . . 214
R (Evans) v Secretary of State for Defence [2010] EWHC 1445 (Admin). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .å°“ . . . 74
R (Smith and others) v The Ministry of Defence [2013] UKSC 41. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .å°“ . . . . . . . . 216
R (Smith) v Secretary of State for Defence [2010] UKSC 29. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .å°“ . . . . . . . . . . . . 216
R v Bottrill, ex p Kuechenmeister [1946] 2 All ER 434. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .å°“ . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40, 155
R v Gul [2012] EWCA Crim 280. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .å°“ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .å°“ . . . . . . . . . 174, 179
R v Halliday ex p Zadig [1917] AC 260 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .å°“ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .å°“ . . . . . . . . . 40
R v Superintendent of Vine Street Police Station, ex p Liebmann [1916] 1 KB 268. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155
Rahmatullah and the Iraqi Civilian Claimants v Ministry of Defence and Foreign and
Commonwealth Office [2015] EWCA Civ 843 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .å°“ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71, 160
Secretary of State for Foreign and Commonwealth Affairs and another (Appellants) v
Rahmatullah [2012] UKSC 48. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .å°“ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .å°“ . . . . . . . 155, 157
Serdar Mohammed v Ministry of Defence [2014] EWHC 1369 (QB). . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71, 74, 75, 145,
179, 180, 182, 216
Serdar Mohammed et al v Secretary of State for Defence [2015] EWCA Civ 843. . . . . . . . . . 71, 74, 75,
87, 89, 160, 177, 179, 180, 182

United€States
Al-╉Bihani v Obama and others, 590 F.╉3d 866 (2010) (DC Cir Ct). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .尓 . . 189, 233
Aldana v Del Monte Fresh Produce NA Inc (2005) 416 F.╉3d 1242. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .尓 . . . . . . . . 93
Ali Saleh Kahlah Al-╉Marri and Mark A Berman v Commander John Pucciarelli,
534 F.╉3d 213 (2008) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .尓 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .尓 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .尓 . 74
Awad v Obama, 608 F 3d 1 (DC Cir 2010). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .å°“ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .å°“ . . . . . 233
Basardh v Obama, 612 F Supp 2d 30 (DDC 2009). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .å°“ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 233
Boumediene et al v Bush et al, 553 US 723 (2008). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .å°“ . . . . . . . . . . . 189, 212, 243
Fadi Al Maqaleh et al v Robert Gates et al (21 May 2010) (DC Cir Ct)╉. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .尓 . . . 182
Gherebi v Obama, 609 F Supp 2d 43 (DDC 2009) 57. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .å°“ . . . . . . 2, 70, 185, 232
In re Guantanamo Bay Detainee Litigation, Misc No 08-╉442 (TFH)
(DDC 13 March 2009). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .å°“ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .å°“ . . . . . . . . . . . . 159, 232
In re Guantanamo Detainee Cases, 355 F Supp 2d 443 (DDC 2005) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .å°“ 122, 233
Hamdan v Rumsfeld et al, 548 US 557 (2006), 521 (US Supreme Court). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55, 189
Hamdi et al v Rumsfeld et al, 542 US 507 (2004), 521 (US Supreme Court) . . . . . . . . . . 46, 97, 186
Hamlily v Obama, 616 F Supp 2d 63 (DDC 2009) 73. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .å°“ . . 2, 70, 185, 232, 233
Medellin v Texas, 552 US 491 (2008) (US Supreme Court) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .å°“ . . . . . . . 128, 133
xxii Tables of Cases
Mehinovic et al v Vuckovic (2002) 198 F Supp 2d 1322 (US District Ct for the
Northern District of Georgia) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93, 136
Minotto v Bradley (1918) 252 Fed 600. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
Padilla v CT Hanft, 423 F.3d 386 (2005). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122
Rasul v Bush, 542 US 466 (2004). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 186, 189, 237
Sexual Minorities Uganda v Lively (2013) 960 F.​Supp.2d 304. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93
Sosa v Alvarez-​Machain, 542 US 692 (2004) 2769. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93, 137
 Tables of Legislation

I NT ER NAT IONA L T R E AT I E S into force 21 October 1950,

75 UNTS 85)����������������������������������尓������ 11
Charter of the United Nations Arts 1-╉3 see Geneva Conventions:
(26 June 1945, entered into force Common Articles
24 October 1945) Art 37 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .å°“ . . . . . . . . . . 11
Art 1(3). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .å°“ . . . . . . . . . 14 Geneva Convention III Relative to the
Art 51 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .å°“ . . . . . . 75, 180 Treatment of Prisoners of War
Art 103 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .å°“ . . . . . . . . 179 (12 August 1949, entered into force
Convention on the Prevention and 21 October 1950, 75 UNTS 135)������� 11,
Punishment of the Crime of 228, 230–╉234
Genocide (9 December 1948, entered Arts 1-╉3 see Geneva Conventions:
into force 12 January 1951, Common Articles
78 UNTS 277)����������������������������������尓���� 14 Art 4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .尓 . . 35, 48, 50, 58
Convention on the Prohibition of the Art 4A(1). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .å°“ . . 35, 41, 49
Development, Production, Stockpiling Art 4A(2). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .å°“ . . 35, 36, 49
and Use of Chemical Weapons and on Art 4A(3). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .å°“ . . . . . 35, 49
their Destruction (13 January 1993, Art 4A(4). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .å°“ . . 35, 49–╉50
entered into force 29 April 1997 Art 4A(5). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .å°“ . . 35, 50, 51
[1997] ATS 3) ����������������������������������尓���� 17 Art 4A(6). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .尓 . . . . . 35, 49
Convention on the Prohibition of the Art 4B(1). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .å°“ . . 35, 50–╉51
Development, Production and Art 4B(2). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .å°“ . . 35, 50–╉51
Stockpiling of Bacteriological Art 5 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .å°“ 57, 58, 176, 188
(Biological) and Toxin Weapons and Art 5(2). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .å°“ . . . . . . 56–╉57
on their Destruction (10 April 1972, Art 21 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .å°“ . . 67, 117, 230
entered into force 26 March 1975 Art 21(1). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .å°“ . . . . . 48, 49
1015 UNTS 163)����������������������������������尓 17 Art 109 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .尓 . . . . . . . . . 60
Convention on the Prohibition of the Art 109(1). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .å°“ . . . . . . . 61
Use, Stockpiling, Production and Art 118 61-╉. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .尓 . . 62, 230
Transfer of Anti-╉Personnel Mines and Art 118(1). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .尓 . . . . . . . 60
on their Destruction (18 September Geneva Convention IV Relative to the
1997, entered into force 1 March Protection of Civilian Persons in
1999 [1999] ATS 3)������������������������������ 17 Time of War (12 August 1949,
General Agreement on Tariffs and entered into force 21 October 1950,
Trade (GATT) 75 UNTS 287)�������������� 11, 228, 234, 242
Art XXI . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .å°“ . . . . . . 41–╉42 Arts 1-╉3 see Geneva Conventions:
Geneva Convention I for the Amelioration Common Articles
of the Condition of the Wounded Art 4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .å°“ . . . . . 37, 38, 84
and Sick in Armed Forces in the Field Art 4(1). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .å°“ . . . . . . . . . 37
(12 August 1949, entered into force Art 4(2). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .å°“ . . . . . . 37, 84
21 October 1950, 75 UNTS 31)���������� 11 Art 4(2)(b). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .尓 . . . . . . . 84
Arts 1-╉3 see Geneva Conventions: Art 5 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .尓 . . . . . 38, 62, 84
Common Articles Art 5(1). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .å°“ . . . . . . . . . 62
Art 28 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .å°“ . . . . . . . . . . 34 Art 5(2). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .å°“ . . . . . . . . . 62
Geneva Convention II for the Amelioration Art 5(3). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .å°“ . . . . . . . . . 62
of the Condition of the Wounded, Sick Art 6 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .å°“ . . . . . . . . 84–╉85
and Shipwrecked Members of the Armed Art 27 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .å°“ . . . . . . . 80–╉81
Forces at Sea (12 August 1949, entered Art 27(1). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .å°“ . . . . . 80–╉81
xxiv Tables of Legislation
Geneva Convention IV Relative to the
Protection of Civilian Persons in
Time of War (12 August 1949,
entered into force 21 October 1950,
75 UNTS 287) (cont.):
Art 27(2). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
Art 27(3). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
Art 27(4). . . . 41, 43, 46, 49, 67, 81, 83, 235
Art 41 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40–​41
Art 42 . . . 1, 40–​41, 42, 46, 47, 49, 63, 68,
74, 83, 108, 117, 172
Art 42(1). . . . . . . . 41, 44, 44–​45, 234, 240
Art 43 . . . . . . . . 1, 40–​41, 58, 63, 68, 108,
129, 130, 172, 204, 232
Art 43(1). . . . . . . . . . . 51, 56, 56, 234, 239
Art 78 . . . . . . . . 41, 42, 45, 46, 47, 49, 58,
63, 83, 108, 117, 129, 130, 154,
155, 158, 172, 203–​204, 232, 239
Art 78(1). . . . . . . . . . . 41, 44–​45, 234, 236
Art 78(2). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51, 56, 234
Art 118(1). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97
Art 1321,. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56, 108
Art 132(1). . . . . . 59–​60, 97, 131, 234, 242
Art 132(2). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
Art 13397. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108
Art 133(1). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60, 131, 242
Art 14739
Part II. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84
Part III, Section II . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
Part III, Section III. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
Geneva Conventions: Common Articles
Art 2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13–​14
Art 3 . . . . . . . . . 1, 6, 13–​14,15–​16, 23, 47,
68–​69, 76–​83, 84, 85, 91, 95,
100–​105, 106, 107, 231
Art 3(1). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78
Art 3(1)(d). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84
Hague Convention II with Respect to the
Laws and Customs of War on Land
with Annex: Regulations respecting
the laws and customs of war on land
(29 July 1899, entered into force
September 1900, 187 CTS)
Art 2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
Hague Convention IV Respecting the
Laws and Customs of War on Land
(18 October 1907, entered into
force 26 January 2010) 205 CTS
Art 13 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
Hague Convention V respecting the
Rights and Duties of Neutral Powers
and Persons in Case of War on Land,
18 October 1907
Art 11 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
International Covenant on Civil and Political
Rights (ICCPR) (16 December 1966,
entered into force 23 March 1976,
99 UNTS 171)������������������������������������� 134
Art 2(1). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 213, 219
Art 4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10–​11, 115, 173, 209
Art 4(1). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 193, 216, 243
Art 4(2). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 193
Art 6 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149, 194
Art 6(1). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3, 73, 149
Art 9 . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3, 89, 119, 121, 122,
187, 160, 166, 168, 169, 172,
173, 178, 184, 194–​196, 200
Art 9(1). . . . . . 67, 78, 177, 119, 127–​128,
154, 173, 196
Art 9(2). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123, 168, 195
Art 9(3). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 168, 172, 173
Art 9(4). . . . . . . . . . 3, 124, 125, 127–​128,
130, 155, 189, 195, 210
Protocol I to the Geneva Conventions
of 12 August 1949, and Relating to
the Protection of Victims of
International Armed Conflicts
(12 December 1977, entered into
force 7 December 1978, 1125
UNTS 3)������������������������������� 16–​17, 113
Art 1(2). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
Art 1(4). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
Art 43 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48, 49, 58
Art 43(1). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
Art 43(2). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18, 36
Art 44 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36–​37, 58
Art 44(1). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
Art 44(3). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
Art 44(4). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
Art 44(7). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
Art 45(1). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57–​58
Art 50(1). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
Art 51 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149
Art 51(3). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46–​47, 74
Art 72 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113
Art 75 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
Art 75(1). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
Art 75(3). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 238
Part III. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
Part IV. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
Protocol II to the Geneva Conventions of
12 August 1949, and Relating to the
Protection of Victims of
Non-​International Armed Conflicts
(12 December 1977, entered into
force 7 December 1978, 1125 UNTS
609)������������������1, 16–​17, 22, 23–​24, 69,
83–​85, 100–​105, 113
 Tables of Legislation
Preamble . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85, 113
Art 1(1). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17, 85
Art 2(2). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97
Art 3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
Art 3(1). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23–​24
Art 3(2). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
Art 3(4). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25, 26
Art 5 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70, 77, 97
Art 5(1). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69, 111
Art 6 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70, 97
Art 6(1). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84
Art 6(5). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
Art 13(3). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46–​47
‘Martens Clause’. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
St Petersburg Declaration Renouncing
the Use, in Time of War, of Explosive
Projectiles under 400 Grammes in
Weight (11 December 1868,
138 CTS)��������������������������������������������� 12
Vienna Convention on Succession of
States in Respect of Treaties, 1946
UNTS 3 (23 August 1978, entered
into force 6 November 1996)
Art 11 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 219
Art 12 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 219
Vienna Convention on the Law of
Treaties (23 May 1969, entered into
force 28 January 1980, 1155
UNTS 331)����������������������������������� 7, 102
Art 3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107
Art 26 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99
Art 31(1). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7, 149, 208
Art 31(3)(b). . . . . . . . . 7, 82, 158, 158, 162
Art 31(3)(c). . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149, 152, 158
Art 31(4). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149
Art 32 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
Art 34 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102
Art 35 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102
Art 41(1)(b)(i). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 164
Vienna Convention on the Law of
Treaties between States and
International Organizations
(21 March 1986), UN Doc
A/​CONF.​129/​15������������������������������� 107
OT H E R I N T E R N AT ION A L
I NS T RU M E N TS
Body of Principles for the Protection of
All Persons under Any Form of
Detention or Imprisonment, UNGA
Res 43/​173, 9 December 1988����������� 140
Principle 10. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 238
xxv
Principle 17. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 241
Principle 32(1). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 239
Hague Regulations 1899
Art 20 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
Rome Statute of the International
Criminal Court (17 July 1998,
entered into force 1 July 2002,
2187 UNTS 3)
Art 8(2). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
Art 12(2). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103
Statute of the International Court of
Justice (26 June 1945, entered into
force 24 October 1945)
Art 1(3). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
Art 38(1). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68
Art 38(1)(c). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140
UN Commission on Human
Rights Resolution 2004/​39,
19 April 2004������������������������������������� 140
UN General Assembly Resolution 804
(VIII) (1953) (Korea)������������������������� 113
UN General Assembly Resolution
1312 (XIII) (1958) (Hungary)����������� 113
UN General Assembly Resolution
2444 (XXIII) (1968) ������������������������� 113
UN General Assembly Resolution
2546 (XXIV) (1969) ������������������������� 113
UN General Assembly Resolution
2675 (XXV) (1970)��������������������������� 113
UN General Assembly Resolution
3525 A (XXX) (1975) (territories
occupied by Israel)����������������������������� 113
UN General Assembly Resolution
40/​161 A (1985) (Israel)������������ 136, 137
UN General Assembly Resolution
46/​135 (1991) (Kuwait under
Iraqi occupation)������������������������������� 113
UN General Assembly Resolution
48/​153 (1993) (former Yugoslavia)������218
UN General Assembly Resolution 50/​193
(1995) (the former Yugoslavia)����������� 113
UN General Assembly Resolution 52/​145
(1997) (Afghanistan)������������������������� 113
UN General Assembly Resolution
53/​160 (1998)����������������������������������� 218
UN General Assembly Resolution 54/​182
(1999) (Sudan)����������������������������������� 218
UN General Assembly Resolution
55/​112 (2000) (Myanmar)����������������� 136
UN General Assembly Resolution
55/​116 (2000) (Sudan) ����������������������� 77
UN General Assembly Resolution
57/​230 (2002)����������������������������������� 218
xxvi Tables of Legislation
UN General Assembly Resolution UN Security Council Resolution
59/╉199 (2004)����������������������������������尓� 136 1707 (2006)����������������������������������尓����� 180
UN General Assembly Resolution UN Security Council Resolution
60/╉166 (2005)����������������������������������尓� 120 1723 (2006)����������������������������������尓����� 174
UN General Assembly Resolution UN Security Council Resolution
61/╉161 (2006)��������������������������� 136, 139 1790 (2007)����������������������������������尓����� 174
UN General Assembly Resolution UN Security Council Resolution 1814
61/╉171 (2006)����������������������������������尓� 136 (2008) (Somalia) ������������������������������� 218
UN General Assembly Resolution UN Security Council Resolution 1834
62/╉159 (2007)����������������������������������尓� 136 (2008) (Chad)����������������������������������尓� 218
UN General Assembly Resolution UN Security Council Resolution 1877
66/╉230 (2011) (Myanmar)��������� 136, 139 (2009) ����������������������������������尓������������� 138
UN General Assembly Resolution UN Security Council Resolution 2093
67/╉233 (2012) (Myanmar)����������������� 136 (2013) (Somalia) ����������������������� 115–╉116
UN General Assembly Resolution UN Security Council Resolution 2095
67/╉262 (2013) (Syria) ������� 113, 116, 218 (2013) (Libya)����������������������������������尓� 113
UN Human Rights Council UN Security Council Resolution 2100
Resolution 6/╉4, 28 September 2007����� 140 (2013) (Mali)����������������������������������尓�����77
UN Security Council Resolution UN Security Council Resolution 2111
237 (1967)����������������������������������尓������� 113 (2013) (Somalia) ������������������������������� 113
UN Security Council Resolution UN Security Council Resolution 2139
417 (1977) (South Africa) ����������������� 136 (2014) (Syria)����������������������������������尓����� 77
UN Security Council Resolution UN Security Council Resolution 2227
473 (1980) (South Africa) ����������������� 136 (2015) (Mali)����������������������������������尓��� 113
UN Security Council Resolution UN Security Council Resolution 4569
569 (1985)����������������������������������尓������� 137 (1985) (South Africa)������������������������� 136
UN Security Council Universal Declaration of Human
Resolution 827 (1993)����������������������� 138 Rights, UN General Assembly
UN Security Council Resolution Resolution 217 A(III), UN
1034 (1995)����������������������������������尓����� 113 Doc A/╉810 (1948) ����������������������14, 112
UN Security Council Resolution Art 3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .å°“ . . . . . . . . . 117
1127 (1997) (UNITA)����������������������� 107 Art 9 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .尓 . . 78, 117, 119
UN Security Council Resolution
1213 (1998) (Angola)������������������������ 218
UN Security Council Resolution R E GION A L AGR E E M E N TS
1417 (2002)����������������������������������尓����� 218 African Charter on Human and Peoples’
UN Security Council Resolution Rights (27 June 1981, entered
1464 (2003) (Côte d’Ivoire)��������������� 218 into force 21 October 1986) 21
UN Security Council Resolution ILM 58 (ACHPR)����� 117, 134, 193, 214
1468 (2003)����������������������������������尓����� 218 Art 6 . . . . . . . . . 67, 78, 117, 154, 205–╉206
UN Security Council Resolution Part I, ch II. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .å°“ . . . . . 219
1546 (2004)��������������� 174, 175, 180, 198 American Convention on Human
UN Security Council Resolution Rights (ACHR) (22 Nov1969,
1574 (2004) (Sudan)������������������������� 115 entry into force 11 July 1978) ������113–╉114,
UN Security Council Resolution 116–╉117, 134, 201–╉202, 202–╉203
1635 (2005) (DRC)��������������������������� 113 Art 1(1). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .尓 . . . 213, 219
UN Security Council Resolution Art 7 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .å°“ . . . . . 121, 203
1637 (2005)����������������������������������尓����� 174 Art 7(1). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .尓 . . . . . . . 117
UN Security Council Resolution 1653 Art 7(2). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .å°“ . . . 117, 118
(2006) (Great Lakes region)��������������� 113 Art 7(3). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .尓 . . . 117, 154
 Tables of Legislation xxvii
Art 7(4). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .å°“ . . . . . . . 123 Armenia
Art 7(6). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124–╉125, 204 Penal Code 2003
Art 27(1). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .尓 . . 115, 193 Art 390.╉2(4). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .尓 . . . . . 91
Art 27(2). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .å°“ . . . . . . 193
American Declaration on the Rights Azerbaijan
and Duties of Man (ADRDM) Criminal Code 1999
1948������������������ 114, 116, 201, 203, 214 Art 112 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .尓 . . . . . . . . 92
Art I . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117 Art 116 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .å°“ . . . . . . . . 92
Art XXV. . . . . . . . . 117, 124, 203, 203–╉204
Arab Charter on Human and Peoples’ Belgium
Rights (ArCHR) (22 May 2004, Law concerning the Repression of
entry into force 2008) ������� 116–╉117, 134 Grave Breaches of the Geneva
Art 3(1). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .å°“ . . . . . . . 213 Conventions and their Additional
Art 4(1). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .å°“ . . . . . . . 193 Protocols as amended (1993)
Art 4(2). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .å°“ . . . . . . . 193 Art 1(1)(6). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .å°“ . . . . . . 91
Art 14(1). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .å°“ . . 117, 154 Art 1(2)(5). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .å°“ . . . . . . 91
Art 14(2). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .å°“ . . . . . . 117
Art 14(3). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .å°“ . . . . . . 123 Bosnia and Herzegovina
European Convention for the Protection Criminal Code 1998
of Human Rights and Fundamental Art 154(1). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .å°“ . . . . . . 92
Freedoms 1950 (ECHR)������117–╉118, 134
Art 1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .å°“ . 162, 213, 219 China
Art 2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .å°“ . . . . . . . . . . 73 Constitution 1982 (amended 2004)
Art 2(2)(a). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .å°“ . 197–╉198 Art 37 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .å°“ . . . . . . . . 135
Art 5 . . . . . . 118, 121, 122, 158, 166, 179,
182, 188, 196–╉197, 198–╉201, 207 Ethiopia
Art 5(1). . . . . . 67, 78, 117, 121, 155, 162, Penal Code 1957
198, 199, 200, 201, Art 282(c) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .å°“ . . . . . . 92
207, 210, 229
Art 5(2). . . . . . . . . 123, 198, 199, 200, 201 Georgia
Art 5(4). . . . 124, 125–╉126, 126, 130, 158, Criminal Code 1999
198, 199, 200, 200, 201, 210 Art 411(2). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .å°“ . . . . . . 91
Art 15 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .å°“ . . . . 201, 209
Art 15(1). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114, 193, 243 Moldova
Art 15(2). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .尓 . . . . . . 193 Penal Code 2002����������������������������������尓������� 91

Myanmar
BI L AT E R A L T R E AT I E S Defence Services Act 1959
s 49(a) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .å°“ . . . . 135, 140
Friendship, Commerce and Navigation
Treaty between the United States Nepal
and Nicaragua Communist Party of Nepal-╉Maoist, Public
Art XXI . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .尓 . . . . . . . . 42 Legal Code 2060 (2003/╉04) �������������������237
Treaty of Amity and Commerce between Public Security (2nd Amendment)
the United States and Prussia 1785�������12 Act 1991 ����������������������������������尓��� 89, 169
Terrorist and Disruptive Activities
N AT ION A L L E GISL AT ION (Control and Punishment)
Act 2002 ����������������������������������尓��� 70, 169
Angola Terrorist and Disruptive Activities
Peace Accords between the Government (Control and Punishment)
of Angola and UNITA 1991 ��������������� 95 Ordinance 2004���������������������������89, 169
xxviii Tables of Legislation
Nicaragua United Kingdom
Draft Penal Code 1999 Anti-╉Terrorism, Crime and Security
Art 461 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .尓 . . . . . . . . 91 Act 2001 ����������������������������������尓��������� 188

Portugal United€States
Penal Code 1996 Act on Restitution for World War II
Art 241(1)(g). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .尓 . 91, 92 Internment of Japanese-╉Americans
and Aleuts 1988
Sierra€Leone s 1989a. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .尓 . . . . . . . . . 46
Abidjan Peace Agreement between the Authorization for Use of Military Force
Government of Sierra Leone and the (AUMF), Pub. L. 107–40,
Revolutionary United Front, 115 Stat 224 (18 September 2001)
30 November 1996 s 2(a) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .å°“ . . . . . . . . . 185
Art 2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .尓 . . . . . . . . . 106 Detainee Treatment Act 2005��������������������� 189
Executive Order 13,567 (7 March 2011),
Sri€Lanka ‘Periodic Review of Individuals
Prevention of Terrorism Act Detained at Guantanamo Bay Naval
1979����������������������������������尓���������� 71, 167 Station Pursuant to the Authorization
s 9(1). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .å°“ . . . . . . . . . 167 for Use of Military Force’
s 13(2). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .å°“ . . . . . . . . 167 s 3(c) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .å°“ . . . . . . . . . 240
s 13(3). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .尓 . . . . . . . . 167 Military Commissions Act 2006����������������� 189
Tamil Eelam Child Protection Act National Defense Authorization Act 2012
(Act No 3 of 2006)����������������������������� 237 s 1023(b)(1). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .尓 . . . . 187
s 1023(b)(2). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .å°“ . . . . 187
Slovenia s 1024 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .å°“ . . . . . . . . 182
Penal Code 1994
Art 374(1). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .å°“ . . . . . . 92 Uruguay
Law on Cooperation with the ICC 2006
Sudan Art 26.╉2. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .尓 . . . . . . . . 92
Darfur Peace Agreement between the Art 26.╉3.╉7 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .尓 . . . . . . 92
Government of the Sudan, the
Sudan Liberation Movement/╉Army Yugoslavia, Federal Republic€of
and the Justice and Equality Penal Code 1994
Movement 2006����������������������������� 95–╉96 Art 142(1). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .å°“ . . . . . . 92
Another random document with
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a good day, and we landed easily, though it is a very bad beach.
Fancy the scene—a long, very narrow strip of land, at the foot of a
great rock, covered with the thick tussac grass, far higher than my
head; the whole place swarming with these penguins—pretty to look
at, but the most ungainly creatures in their movements that I ever
saw? They stand almost upright. The breast is glossy white, the rest
is gray. A couple of tufts of those pretty yellow feathers, of which I
sent home a few, adorn each side of the head and give them a very
lively appearance. They have no wings, but instead, a couple of
flippers, as they call them, like arms, which they use about as
gracefully as Punch does his. And then the way in which they hop
along! Talk of the motion of a frog! it is elegance itself compared with
them. Altogether, they are the most interesting, curious things in
Tristan. They are about as big, and twice as noisy, as a duck. Fancy
going into the midst of thick grass higher than your head, with
thousands of them round you, all croaking out in a harsh, loud, quick
note, ‘Cover up! cover up!’ and then kicking them right and left,
quickly, taking care they do not get hold of you,—seizing their great
eggs, till you have got some hundreds of them in your bosom. The
men wear a large shirt, tied round their waist, so as to form a large
loose bag in front, and so pop them in as fast as they can pick them
up. The men will gather two or three hundred in this way, and the
boys from one to two; and from the other rookery carry them the
whole way home—no little load. The eggs vary much in size, from a
large hen’s egg to a goose’s. They mostly lay two at once. Their
nests are sometimes close together, so you can soon pick up a lot.
They stand in pairs, each couple at their nest to defend it, and some
will not give up till they have been kicked away two or three times.
They can give a good sharp bite, if they get hold of you. The men
found me a spot where the eggs were very thick, and very little
tussac, and though I was a new hand at the work, and therefore
obliged to look sharp to escape a bite, I managed to collect more
than a hundred of them in a short time. Fancy what work, to stand
amid hundreds of the birds, all screaming round you, so as almost to
deafen you, tumbling them here and there, and picking up their eggs
as fast as you can gather them! It is really amusing sport. I must
remind you the kicking them over with our soft moccasins (shoes)
does not hurt them in the least, and the next day they will have just
as many eggs.
‘Six of the men went round in the boat. We were there about four
hours, and gathered about four thousand—pretty near a boat’s load;
and could have got more if we had chosen. It was a pleasant day,
and we had a good row back.’
An interesting account which recently appeared in a Jamaica paper,
respecting egg gathering, is also worth quoting.
The annual egg gathering visit, which the boatmen of Port Royal
make to the Pedro Keys, we may set down as a remnant of Indian
life. In the work entitled The Discovery of America by Christopher
Columbus, compiled from his papers by his son Don Ferdinand, we
are informed, that on the 13th of November, 1492, the discovery
squadron weighing from the Rio de Mares, Cuba, stood to the
eastward, to search for the island called Bohio by the Indians, and
coming to an anchor among some high raised islets on the coast,
found them to be places visited by the Indians at certain seasons of
the year, for supplies of fish and birds. ‘The islands,’ Columbus says,
‘were not inhabited, but there were seen the remains of many fires
which had been made by the fishermen; for it afterwards appeared
that the people were in use to go over in great numbers in their
canoes to these islands, and to a great number of other uninhabited
islets in these seas, to live upon fish, which they catch in great
abundance, and upon birds and crabs, and other things which they
find on the land. The Indians follow this employment of fishing and
bird-catching according to the seasons, sometimes in one island
sometimes in another, as a person changes his diet, when weary of
living on one kind of food.’[17]
‘From the lighthouse on the Port Royal palisades to Portland in Vere,
a line encloses a system of coast islands, reefs, banks, and shoals
colonized by numerous birds and fishes. Each kind has its own
locality. Pelican Key and Pigeon Island never interchange
inhabitants, and the bank that gives the king-fish furnishes neither
the snapper nor the grouper. Southward from Portland, at a distance
of some few leagues, the great Pedro bank is reached, stretching
near 100 miles. There are islets at each extremity, but the group that
attracts the egg gatherers every year, are the Keys, distinguished as
the Pedros, at its eastern end. We shall loiter a little to describe a
living world there that must have been a great attraction to the
aboriginal Indians, in those periodical junketings that came under the
notice of Columbus.
‘The Port Royal boats bound for the egg harvest, bring to, at the
outermost of the Portland Keys, and start at midnight from there, to
gain with a favourable breeze in 14 or 15 hours the shelter of the
Pedros, and to be snug at anchor long before sundown. The vessels
in their voyage steer for a single rock in fathomless water, the Isla
Sola of the Spanish maps. It rises about 30 or 40 feet out of the sea
like a castle in ruins, over which the surf breaks fiercely; and in about
five or six hours after making it, they anchor within what are properly
called the Keys.
‘There are numerous outlying rocks just above and beneath the
water, between the Pedro shoal and the open sea, on which the
winds and the currents roll a heavy surf. The spots properly called
the islands are seven in number, and vary from forty to some three
or four acres in size. They are upthrown masses of broken coral and
shell cemented by calcareous sand, washed upon rocky ledges
above the sea. The breakers shift with the shifting winds, rolling
these fragmentary deposits on before them. By the regularity of their
change of action, they have done the work of accumulation pretty
equally on all sides: they have raised a wall all round the islands,
and left the centres hollow.
‘From time to time storms of unusual violence have carried the
heaped-up coral and sand suddenly, and in thick layers, over
portions of the islands where the dung of the sea birds had
accumulated for years, and these irruptions have made intermediate
deposits of animal matter and cemented rock. It is evident from the
prevalence of this succession of deposits within the hollow centres of
the islets, that the sea has washed in the fragmentary materials of
the outer margins, by a more than ordinary rise of the waters, and
laid them in pretty equal strata at distant intervals of time, so that the
centres have risen in height as the sea walls have been built and
cemented up. The animal deposits, which may be characterized as
loosely cohering urate of lime, are sometimes found two feet
beneath the strata of cemented coral and shells, and run about an
inch or an inch and a half thick.
‘Immediately within the islands, the waters shoal, and make a bank
called the Vibora by the Spaniards. It runs to the Cascabel rock, 90
odd miles westward, bristled with reefs and sunken rocks, having a
depth of from 7 to 17 fathoms. Easterly winds, that is, the trade
winds, veering southward and northward, for determinate portions of
the year, roll constant billows over it. Westerly breezes, varying
northerly and southerly, bring tremendous gales and heavy swells.
The rough agency of all these movements has heaped up the sands,
and the corals, and shells, cementing them into rock, and giving the
island an elevation of from 15 to 20 feet.
‘The vegetation on these islands is stunted surianas, among whose
tough and twisted branches the birds find nestling places. To these
lonely islets resort thousands and tens of thousands of sea-fowl. As
soon as visitors land, myriads of birds are upon the wing in all
directions. Some flocks rise in circling flight high up into the air, and
descending again in the same dense numbers as they rose, settle in
more remote places; others break away hurriedly, and fly in a wide
sweep far around, but return again hastily to the rocks they had
quitted, reconciled to bear with the disturbance. The turmoil and
hubbub of the thousands of birds thus suddenly put upon the wing,
overpower for a moment the roar of the breakers, and darken the air
like the sudden passing of a cloud.
‘The constant inhabitants of the rocks are several species of the
booby, gannets, terns, gulls, and petrels—and the frigate pelican.
The frigate-birds preserve their predilection for rapine amid the
teeming plenty of the waters, and subsist by pillaging the gulls and
gannets. The migratory visitors are ducks, herons, plovers, snipes,
sandpipers, curlews, and ibises, with the several falcons that follow
them. In the autumnal movement of these birds towards the
equatorial regions, they would be found steering from north to south,
but at the time when the egg gatherers visit the islets, they are seen
coming from the south, just resting and departing north. The
successive months of March, April, and May, are those of the egg
harvest.
‘The Keys are open to all adventurers, but the egg gathering is
regulated by a custom which recognises the first coming vessel as
commanding for the season. The second vessel in seniority is called
the Commodore, the first being styled the Admiral. They have a code
of laws, to which, in a spirit of honourable compliance, all are
expected to show obedience; and in case of any infraction of the
obligations thus voluntarily imposed upon themselves, a jury
selected from the several vessels tries complaints, and with due
formality inflicts punishment for offences.
‘The south-west is the principal of the Pedro Keys. The stay of the
birds that resort there to breed is prolonged by the successive loss of
the eggs they lay. Each loss is a stimulus to a fresh act of pairing; a
new lot of eggs being the result, possibly in number equal to the
former lot, but probably less, as the latter deposits are a forced
production, at the expense of the vigour of the bird, without any
additional strength to the constitution by the increased nourishment
of food, the process by which domesticated birds, in changing their
habits, are led to lay a continuance of eggs for a long season. The
egg gatherers are careful observers of the progress of incubation,
and take only the eggs they know to be fresh laid. These are a part
of the regulations they require to be observed, or the constant
depredations committed on the birds would fatally thin their numbers.
‘Without going into the discussion of naturalists, who see in the
different colours of eggs a certain relation to circumstances
favourable to concealment, it may be observed that the blotched
egg, laid by the Hydrochelidon fuliginosa, properly distinguished as
the egg-bird, is found among sticks and dried leaves of the suriana,
whilst the white eggs of the boobies and petrels are deposited in
hollows of the coral rocks, amid sand and chalky dung. There is one
curious coincidence between the eggs of the noddy, Sterna stolida,
and the peculiarities of the nest, that must not, however, be
unremarked. The elaborate pile of sticks slightly hollowed, in which
they deposit their eggs, is always embellished with broken sea
shells, speckled and spotted like the eggs. Audubon records the
same occurrence in the nests of the noddy terns he inspected in the
Florida Keys. The obvious suggestion for this curious prevalence of
instinct is deceptiveness, arising from similarity between the egg
shell and the sea shell. The nests are pillaged by what is called the
laughing gull (the Larus atricilla, not the ridibundus); the numerous
empty shells lying among the rocks being always set down to the
predatory visits of the laughing gull.
‘South-west Key, and the other sandy islets around it, are beside,
annually resorted to by the fishermen in the turtling season for a
different harvest of eggs. The turtles (Chelone midas) visit these
shoals to deposit their eggs in the dry sand, and leave them to the
fostering influence of the sun. They repeat their layings thrice, at the
interval of two or three weeks, laying a hundred at a time. Some
experience is necessary to trace the place of deposit, for the eggs
are always laid in the night; but few of them escape the detection of
the turtler.’
Geese are reared in large numbers in Alsace, the livers of which are
used in making the famous Strasburg pies. In Denmark, geese and
ducks are salted down for winter use.
In Greenland, the snow goose affords great subsistence to the
natives, and the feathers are an article of commerce. Each family will
kill thousands in a season; these, after being plucked and gutted, are
flung in heaps into holes dug for that purpose, and are covered only
with earth. The mould presses, and forms over them an arch; and
whenever the family have occasion to open one of these magazines,
they find their provisions perfectly sweet and good.
In Captain Sir John Ross’s Arctic Voyage to Regent Inlet, it is
recorded, that when they discovered that the wild geese had begun
to lay on the margin of the lakes, their eggs formed a dainty and
wholesome repast. ‘The eggs on being weighed were found on an
average to be 4½ ounces—of a dingy white, faintly speckled. The
discovery of a goose’s nest, where the process of incubation had not
begun, was regarded by them in the light of a treasure. To the
natives, however, it appeared to be a matter of very trifling import
whether the egg were freshly laid, or whether it were within a few
days of being hatched. Half-a-dozen eggs beaten up with the young
ones, in all stages of their growth, from the first development of the
form to the complete formation of the fœtus, proved to the natives
what a dish of callipash and callipee is to the gourmandizing
alderman; nor were they very particular as to the embryos being
wholly divested of the shells, for the latter appeared to be nearly of
the same use as beans to the food of a horse, to force him to
masticate the oats more thoroughly.’
The cygnet, or young of the swan, was formerly much esteemed; at
Norwich they were fattened for the corporation. The flesh of the old
birds is hard and ill tasted.
The pintail (Anas acuta) is a very choice bird—the very ‘ring tail’ of
the duck tribe. They are undoubtedly a recherché morceau, for,
being essentially grain feeders, they have no fishy flavour.
Widgeon and teal are in great favour when in good condition.
 REPTILIA.
We find various reptiles, Chelonian, Saurian, and Ophidian, still
forming articles of food in many quarters of the world, and some so
repulsive in their appearance, that it seems difficult to conceive how
they could first have been tasted.
In the class Reptilia, we have in the first order Chelonia or tortoises,
comprising the following which are used as food:—1, several of the
terrestrial tortoises, genus Testudo; 2, some of the marsh tortoises or
Emydes, the chelodina, matamata, &c.; 3, the cryptopus or river
tortoise; and 4, the marine tortoises or turtles.
In the second order Sauria or lizards, we find—1, crocodiles and
alligators contributing to the sustenance of man; 2, several of the
iguarians.
In the third order, Ophidia or serpents, the rattlesnake, boas and
pythons, and several other snakes.
In the fourth order, Amphibia, some of the edible and tree frogs.
We know not, observes a recent writer, why the flesh of the
vegetable-feeding tortoises should not be adopted, as well as that of
the green turtle, among the various articles which are in request for
the table. There is much in habit and association of ideas; and
though persons who would not refuse turtle might turn from tortoise
with disgust, they may rest assured that in Sicily and Italy these land
tortoises are sold in the markets, principally for being made into
soup, which dish is more esteemed than the flesh prepared in any
other way.
The flesh of a tortoise, called the matamata by the aborigines of
Cayenne (Chelys matamata, Dumeril, C. fimbriata, Spix), is said to
be highly esteemed in various parts of Guiana.
There is a great variety of land tortoises in Trinidad and some of the
other West Indian Islands, which in general are as delicious as the
best green turtle.
The eggs of the close tortoise (Testudo clausa) of North America, are
reckoned a delicacy, and are about the size of pigeons’ eggs.
The gopher tortoise (Testudo Carolina, of Leconte) occasionally
makes considerable depredations in the potato fields of the farmer,
and in gardens and other cultivated grounds, but its flesh is
excellent, and hence it is sought after for the table.
The flesh of the Carolina terrapin or box tortoise (Cistudo Carolina) is
occasionally eaten, but it is held in low estimation; the eggs,
however, which are about as large as those of a pigeon, are
accounted excellent, and are much sought after.
The flesh of the European box tortoise (Cistudo Europæa), though
not very delicate, is nevertheless eaten on the Continent; it is said,
however, to be greatly improved by feeding the animals for some
time on grains, bran, and other vegetable aliment. The salt water
terrapin (Emys concentrica), which is found both in North and South
America, is in great request, its flesh being highly esteemed as a
delicacy for the table, especially at the close of the summer, when
the animals have returned to their winter dormitory. They are then
fat, and considered as a luxury.
The eggs of the terrapin are not provided with a hard shell, but a skin
like that purest of all parchments, parchment just before it receives
the ink of law upon it.
The general method of killing these animals is a most barbarous
one. They are laid upon their backs, either close to the fire, or upon
the red wood-ashes, until the thick shell becomes so hot to the
animal within that he desperately stretches out both legs and neck,
in the vainest of endeavours to extricate himself from the walls of his
burning house. The tender-hearted cook watches his opportunity,
and when it is evident that, in ordinary phrase, the poor terrapin
‘cannot contain itself,’ or in other words, will no longer draw back his
head into such a living furnace—the knife descends, and the head is
cut away. The late Mr. Charles Hooton told me, that he had seen
such heads at least half-an-hour after being cut off, attempt, on
being touched, to bite with sufficient force to take the piece out of the
finger. During this time the eyes will occasionally open, though
generally they remain shut.
The flesh of the Indian Cryptopus, a river or fluviatile tortoise
(Cryptopus granosus, Bibr., Testudo scabra, Latr.) is eaten in
Pondicherry and Coromandel, where it lives in large sheets of fresh
water or lagoons.
The flesh of the soft tortoise of America (Trionyx ferox, Cuvier),
which inhabit the rivers of Carolina and Georgia, is eaten.
The curious New Holland tortoise (Chelodina longicollis), first
described by Shaw, which, as far as the head and neck is
concerned, reminds one rather of a snake than a tortoise, is
abundant in some of the lakes of Western Australia, and is
considered by the natives a great treat, as are also the snakes and
lizards.
Chief Justice Temple, of Honduras, from whose lively and interesting
letters to the Society of Arts I have already quoted, says—‘Another
article which might be preserved and exported, and which would, I
have little doubt, be highly prized by epicures in England, is the liver
of the hiccatee. The hiccatee is the fresh water turtle or tortoise, and
is, I believe, altogether unknown in Europe. It never approaches
anything like the size of the large turtles. The weight of the hiccatee
seldom exceeds 20 lbs. It has not got fins like a turtle, or to be more
correct, the sea tortoise, but round, webbed-feet, each having five
claws, like those of a duck. It is made for the land, therefore, as well
as the water. It does not, however, make the former its home, and its
feet are evidently intended merely to enable it, when one pool
becomes dry, to travel in search of another. The hiccatee is generally
caught in the dry season, when going across the country in pursuit of
water. The feet when dressed are gelatinous, but the flesh is dry and
fibrous. It is, however, the liver which renders this species of tortoise
so highly estimable. It is a dark olive colour, and immensely large. If
this were preserved in oil with truffles, it would be considered far
superior to the goose’s liver of which the pâté de foie gras is made.’
The following way of effectually shooting a turtle may be interesting
to the sporting world generally, and aldermen in particular. ‘The soft-
shell turtle is found throughout the south, and abounds in the rivers
and bayous of Louisiana, where they are esteemed a delicacy. They
are so shy as to elude the various inventions which are adopted to
capture them; the rifle has, therefore, been resorted to; and, though
easily killed by a fair marksman, when he finds them sunning
themselves on the floating or projecting trunk of some old tree, he
still often fails to secure his prize, since they drop into the bayous,
are swept down into the current, and scarcely, if ever, secured. To
remedy this, a gentleman of Louisiana adopted the following method
successfully. He cut a piece of wood, one inch long, and rounded it
so as to fit easily in his rifle; around the middle, crosswise, he cut a
small groove, so as to secure to it a twine some six or seven inches
long; at the other end of this string he attached the ball, by passing
the string through a bore in the ball, and then knotting the end of the
string. The ball is first inserted in the rifle; the string and wood follow,
and all are rammed down. The turtle is now shot, and as the ball
passes through the turtle, it enters the tree or log some one or two
inches; the piece of wood, being too light to enter the shell of the
turtle, is left suspended. So that, at a single shot, the game is killed,
strung, and hung up.’ Of course, this is from an American paper.
The flesh of the land tortoise is largely used for food, both fresh and
when salted, in the Gallipagos Archipelago and other islands of the
Pacific; and a beautifully clear oil is prepared from their fat. They are
eaten in Australia by the aborigines; and in Russia, on the shores of
the Mediterranean, and some parts of Germany, are fattened for the
table, and are esteemed a great delicacy. Wallace, in his journeys up
the Amazon, says he found the land tortoise for dinner as good as
turtle.
Captain Dampier, when he visited the Gallipagos, in 1684, records
‘That there is no place in the world so much stored with guanoes and
land tortoises as these isles. The first are fat and of an extraordinary
size, and exceeding tame; and the land tortoises so numerous, that
some hundred men may subsist on them for a considerable time,
being very fat, and as pleasant food as a pullet, and of such bigness
that one of them weighs 150 or 200 lbs.; and are from two feet to two
feet six inches over the belly; whereas, in any other places, I never
met with any above 30 lbs. weight, though I have heard them say
that at St. Lawrence or Madagascar there are also very large ones.’
Wafer, another old voyager, when at these islands, salted the flesh of
the land tortoise for use on shipboard, and fried the fat and
converted it into lard or oil, of which they secured 60 large jars.
Tortoises of an immense size are found on many of the islands of the
Pacific. Mr. Lawson, a vice-governor of the Gallipagos Archipelago,
states that he has seen several so large that it required six or eight
men to lift them from the ground; and that some had afforded as
much as 200 lbs. of meat. Dr. Darwin remarks: ‘I was always
amused when overtaking one of these great monsters, as it was
quietly pacing along, to see how suddenly, the instant I passed, it
would draw in its head and legs, and, uttering a deep hiss, fall to the
ground with a heavy sound, as if struck dead. I frequently got on
their backs, and then giving a few raps on the hinder part of their
shells, they would rise up and walk away; but I found it very difficult
to keep my balance. The flesh of this animal is largely employed,
both fresh and salted; and a beautifully clear oil is prepared from the
fat. When a tortoise is caught, the man makes a slit in the skin near
its tail, so as to see inside its body, whether the fat under the dorsal
plate is thick. If it is not, the animal is liberated; and it is said to
recover soon from this strange operation.
In chasing the turtle, a man standing ready in the bow of the boat
dashes through the water upon the turtle’s back; then clinging with
both hands by the shell of its neck, he is carried away till the animal
becomes exhausted and is secured. In the Chagos Archipelago, the
natives, by a horrible process, take the shell from the back of the
living turtle. It is covered with burning charcoal, which causes the
outer shell to curl upwards; it is then forced off with a knife, and
before it becomes cold flattened between two boards. After this
barbarous process, the animal is suffered to regain its native
element, where, after a certain time, a new shell is formed; it is,
however, too thin to be of any service, and the animal always
appears languishing and sickly.
Dampier, in 1684, speaks of three or four kinds of land tortoises
being eaten in the West Indies. ‘One,’ he says, ‘is called by the
Spaniards Hackatee, which keep most in fresh-water ponds; they
have small legs and long necks, and flat feet, and commonly weigh
betwixt ten and fifteen pounds. The second sort they call Tenopen
(terrapin?), much less than the former, and something rounder; but
for the rest not unlike them, except that the shell on their backs is
naturally coloured with a curious carved work. Both sorts afford very
good meat, and these last delight in low marshy places, and are in
vast numbers at the Isle of Pines, near Cuba, among the woods.’
Turtle would seem to have been first introduced in England, as an
article of food, about the middle of the 17th century, for a record in
the Gentleman’s Magazine, under date August 31, 1753, shows that
it was then a rarity. ‘A turtle, weighing 350 lbs., was ate at the King’s
Arms tavern, Pall Mall; the mouth of an oven was taken down to
admit the part to be baked.’ The locality for eating them now has
been transferred principally to the city; and the Ship and Turtle, the
London Tavern, Birch’s (in Cornhill), and the Guildhall or Mansion-
house, are perhaps the largest depôts of consumption. Steam
communication has greatly increased the imports, which amount to
about 15,000 in the year, weighing from one quarter to three hundred
weight, and valued at, probably, £8,000. Not that all these shielded
animals can be called ‘lively’ turtle, for the voyage has very often a
damaging effect upon them.
Turtling is much resorted to by the inhabitants of Grand Cayman,
160 miles north-west from Jamaica. The turtle are now chiefly caught
on the Mosquito coast, or on the South Keys of Cuba, and sold
either in Jamaica or to homeward-bound vessels. Formerly, these
valuable animals were abundant at Grand Cayman itself, but the
very reprehensible practice which has prevailed there, for some
years past of making use of large quantities of their eggs deposited
on the shore, has almost frightened them entirely away.
In an account of Jamaica, published in 1683, we find the following
statement respecting turtle hunting and other articles of food:—
‘Tortoise are taken much on this coast, but chiefly at the island of
Caymanos, thirty leagues to the west of this island, whither the
vessels go May, June, and July, to load of their flesh, that they pickle
in bulk, and take them in that season when they come on shore to
lay their eggs, which they do, and cover them with sand, that
hatches them; and then by instinct they crawl to the sea, where they
live, and feed on weed that grows in the bottom or floats. In many
rivers and ponds of Jamaica, there is vast numbers of crocodiles or
allegators, that is an amphibious creature, and breeds an egg,
hatch’d by the sun in the sand. A tortoise egg is just like the yolk of a
hen egg, of which she lays near a peck at a time; but the allegator
but a few, and are like a turkey’s. Their flesh is not good; they are
voracious, and live on fowls and beasts that they catch by surprise,
but seldom or never hurt any man.
‘Here’s an Indian coney, called racoon, that is good meat; but of a
distasteful shape, being something like an overgrown rat. The
snakes in this island are not at all hurtful, but were eaten by the
Indians as regular as the guanaes are by the Spaniards; it is but
small, and of the shape of an allegator, and the flesh is sweet and
tender.’
I was told a story not long ago of a distinguished American politician
from the rural districts, who came to New York, and resolved to give
a splendid dinner to some of his party friends. In order to make sure
that everything should be of the very best quality, he went to the
market himself, and bought first a turtle. After taking great pains to
select one of the finest specimens in the lot, and ordering it to be
sent home, he said to the tradesman, by way of making it quite right,
‘This is a right down genuine turtle, aint it?’
‘Oh, certainly,’ was the reply, ‘one of the very best.’
‘Because,’ he added, ‘although I ain’t been in the city long, I ain’t to
be humbugged: it won’t do for you to try to put off any of your
confounded mock turtles on me!’
The turtle dealer stood astounded at his customer’s sharpness.
Sir James E. Alexander calls Ascension ‘the headquarters of the
finest turtle in the world,’ and his account of the operations
connected with turtling in that locality is so interesting that I must
copy it.
‘We walked down to the turtle ponds, two large enclosures near the
sea, which flowed in and out through a breakwater of large stones. A
gallows was erected between the two ponds, where the turtle are
slaughtered for shipping, by suspending them by the hind flippers
and then cutting their throats. About 300 turtle of four and five
hundred pounds each lay on the sand or swam about in the ponds—
a sight to set an alderman mad with delight!
‘In the hot weather of January, February, March, and April, the
females land at night, and waddling over the sands in the various
bays of the island, far above high-water mark,—for by a pole in the
ponds, the tide only rises here four feet,—they scrape up, by
alternate scoops of their flippers, a hole deep enough to cover their
bodies. Into this they get, sighing heavily, and deposit from 150 to
200 eggs, cover them up, leaving them to the sun to hatch; and then
waddle again towards the sea. Two stout hands are, meanwhile, on
the look out, watching the movements of the unfortunate turtle; and,
running up to her after the completion of her task, one seizes a fore
flipper and dexterously shoves it under her belly to serve as a
purchase; whilst the other, avoiding a stroke which might lame him,
cants the turtle over on her back, where she lies helpless. From
fifteen to thirty are thus turned in a night; and 600 had been so
captured in the season of 1834.
‘In the bays, when the surf of heavy rollers prevents the boats being
beached to take on board the turtle when caught, they are hauled
out to them by ropes.
‘No ships’ crews are now allowed to turn turtle, which is converted
into a government monopoly; and £2 10s. is the fixed price for each.
Strange to say, from the time that the young turtle, the size of a
dollar, are observed scuttling down to the water, they are never seen
again here until they are four or five hundred pounds weight; and
how long they take to attain this great size, and where they spend
the intermediate time, is as yet a mystery. I was surprised to hear
that turtle are kept in the ponds for a year and upwards without a
morsel of food of any kind. They sometimes deposit their eggs in the
sand, on the sides of the ponds; and in due time the little animals are
allowed to make their escape to the sea.
‘One old female called ‘Nelson,’ because one of her flippers had
been carried off by a shark, was kept, out of respect, for two or three
years in the ponds. She contrived, however, one night to crawl round
the enclosure and make her escape; but she was turned next year in
Clarence Bay. Another turtle was also turned there a short time
since, on the back of which was carved the name of a mate of a
British vessel, who had bought it and sailed with it three weeks
before; it is probable that, imagining it to be dead, he had thrown it
overboard.
‘The best way to send home turtle from Ascension is, to head them
up in a sealed cask, and have the water changed daily by the bung
hole and a cork. Turtle, though the extremes of heat and cold are
equally injurious to them, should always arrive in hot weather in
England. Thus, an unfortunate captain, on one occasion, took from
Ascension 200 turtle, and timing his arrival badly, brought only four
alive to Bristol!’
Humboldt, in his Personal Narrative, speaks of the expertness of the
jaguars of South America, who turn the turtle on the beach and
devour them at their ease, emptying the double armour of the arraus,
by the introduction of their supple paws, with greater ingenuity than
the most skilful naturalist could do. They also eat the eggs.
The eggs are of a globular shape, with a soft semi-transparent
calcareous shell. These are much prized whenever they can be
procured as articles of food, both by natives and Europeans. A
native will consume in Brazil as many as twenty or thirty eggs at one
meal, and an European sometimes eats a dozen for breakfast.
Scarcely a thirtieth of the number of young turtles, even if the eggs
are all hatched, reach the sea, or live after they have gained that
element. Birds, and beasts, and alligators, and rapacious fishes, all
prey upon them.
The flesh of the female is held in the greatest estimation, and it is
considered to be in perfection at the time she is about depositing her
eggs. The flesh, the eggs, and certain portions of the intestines, are
often salted and barrelled for shipment to a distance. The eggs of the
turtle, although oily, are very savory, and make an excellent omelet.
The shell does not harden, but is leathery; and the white never
coagulates, but is thrown away and the yolk only eaten. The Indians
of Brazil frequently eat the eggs raw, mixed with their cassava
farinha.
Captain William Dampier, in his voyages, tells us, the flesh of the
hawk’s-bill turtle is eaten. ‘The flesh’ (he remarks) ‘is but indifferent,
yet somewhat better than that of the loggerhead. Those taken
betwixt the Sambellas and Portobello, make those that eat their flesh
vomit and purge vehemently. The flesh however differs according to
their food, for those that feed upon moss among the rocks have a
much yellower fat and flesh, and are not so well tasted as those that
feed upon grass.’
Soon after the fall of the waters of the Orinoco, which begins in
February, millions of turtle deposit their eggs among the sand, and
the Indians obtain a rich harvest of food. From the eggs they procure
a rich oil termed ‘mantega,’ which is preserved in pots. A good deal
is sent down the Amazon, fully to the value of £2,000, and several
thousand persons are occupied in its preparation.
The eggs are not very large, but about the size of a bantam’s egg.
The stratum of eggs in the sand is ascertained by a pole thrust in,
the mean depth being about three feet, and the harvest of eggs is
estimated like the produce of a well cultivated acre; an acre,
accurately measured, of 120 feet long, and 30 wide, having been
known to yield 100 jars of oil. The eggs, when collected, are thrown
into long troughs of water, and being broken and stirred with shovels,
they remain exposed to the sun till the yolk, the oily part, is collected
on the surface, and has time to inspissate; as fast as this oily part is
collected on the surface of the water, it is taken off and boiled over a
quick fire. This animal oil, or tortoise grease, when prepared, is
limpid, inodorous, and scarcely yellow. It is used, not merely to burn
in lamps, but in dressing victuals, to which it imparts no disagreeable
taste. It is not easy, however, to produce oil of turtle’s eggs quite
pure. It has generally a putrid smell, owing to the mixture of addled
eggs. The total gathering of the three shores, between the junction of
the Orinoco with the Apure, where the collection of eggs is annually
made, is 5,000 jars, and it takes about 5,000 eggs to furnish one jar
of oil.
In the Comarca of the Rio Nigro, the value of the turtle oil imported in
1840 was 6,000 dollars; and from the small town of Barra, on the
Amazon, in 1850, turtle oil of the value of 1818 dollars was sent. It is
filled in pots, of which 1628 were made in Santarrem, a mile above
the mouth of the Tapajos.
Turtle oil is employed for various purposes. In some of the West
India islands, it is used when fresh in the place of butter, or salad oil,
and also for lamps.
The eggs of most of the species are excellent, being both nutritive
and agreeable to the taste; those of the green turtle are especially
fine. The white, or albuminous portion, does not, however, harden on
boiling.
The large tree lizard, popularly termed the guana, (Iguana
tuberculata, Laur. Syn. 49) is certainly not very attractive in
appearance, and yet by most persons its flesh is highly esteemed,
being reckoned as delicate as chicken, and but little inferior to turtle
in flavour.
It is about three feet long, from the head to the extremity of the tail,
and covered with a soft skin of a bluish green colour on the back and
legs; on the sides and belly, nearly white. It has a pouch of loose
skin under its throat, of a light green; eyes black; and claws, of which
there are three or five on each foot, sharply pointed. A fringed skin,
or kind of mane, runs along from the head to the tail, which it erects
when irritated, and will then snap hold of anything with great tenacity;
but it is perfectly harmless if undisturbed. The bite is painful, but is
not dangerous.
This ugly-looking tree lizard, which looks like an alligator in
miniature, is considered a great delicacy in most tropical countries.
However white and tender the flesh may be when cooked, when one
of its fore paws happens to stick up in the dish, it reminds one too
much of the allegator to eat it with any great relish.
I know no animal, or rather reptile, whose appearance is so little
calculated to tempt man to eat of its flesh; and yet, despite the
repugnance that results from its looks, neither Ude nor Soyer could
have compounded any dish that would compare to the delicacy of a
well-dressed iguana.
We all know that the turtle is most delicious, yet did we see it for the
first time, we might call it with the rustic ‘a great sea toad.’ The
appearance of the turtle does not carry a letter of recommendation to
the kitchen; accordingly, his introduction to the Lord Mayor’s table
was rather tardy, and we learn from Sir Hans Sloane that, at the
beginning of the last century, turtle was only eaten in Jamaica by the
poor.
The poet Gay hath sung, that he must have been a bold man who
first swallowed an oyster:

‘The man had sure a palate covered o’er

With steel or brass, that on the rocky shore
First ope’d the oozy oyster’s pearly coat,
And risked the living morsel down his throat.’

Yet neither turtle nor oyster looks so repugnant, yet tastes so

delicious, as an iguana.
Although often roasted or fricasseed, a frequent native mode of
cooking the iguana is to boil it, taking out the leaves of fat, which are
melted and clarified, and put into a calabash or dish, into which they
dip the flesh of the guana as they eat it.
It was long before the Spaniards could conquer their repugnance to
the guana, the favourite delicacy of the Indians, but which the former
regarded with disgust as a species of serpent. They found it however
to be highly palatable and delicate, and from that time forward, the
guana was held in repute among Spanish epicures. The story is thus
related by Peter Martyn:—
‘These serpentes are like unto crocodiles, saving in bygness; they
call them guanas. Unto that day none of oure men durste adventure
to taste of them, by reason of they’re horrible deformitie and
lothsomnes. Yet the Adelantado being entysed by the pleasantnes of
the king’s sister Anacaona, determined to taste the serpentes. But
when he felte the flesh thereof to be so delycate to his tongue, he fell
to amayne without al feare. The which thynge his companions
perceiving, were not behynde hym in greedynesse: insomuche that
they had now none other talke than of the sweetnesse of these
serpentes, which they affirm to be of more pleasant taste than eyther
our phesantes or partriches.’
Pierre Labat gives a minute account of the mode of catching this
reptile, and if the reader has no objection to accompany the good
father à la chasse, he may participate in the diversion as follows:
—‘We were attended,’ says he, ‘by a negro who carried a long rod;
at one end of which was a piece of whipcord with a running knot.
After beating the bushes for some time, the negro discovered our
game basking in the sun on the dry limb of a tree. Hereupon he
began whistling with all his might, to which the guana was
wonderfully attentive, stretching out his neck, and turning his head
as if to enjoy it more fully. The negro now approached, still whistling,
and advancing his rod gently, began tickling with the end of it the
sides and throat of the guana, who seemed mightily pleased with the
operation, for he turned on his back and stretched himself out like a
cat before the fire, and at length fell fairly asleep; which the negro
perceiving, dexterously slipt the noose over his head, and with a jerk
brought him to the ground; and good sport it afforded to see the
creature swell like a turkey-cock at finding himself entrapped. We
caught others in the same way, and kept one of them alive seven or
eight days; but,’ continues the reverend historian, ‘it grieved me to
the heart to find that he thereby lost much delicious fat.’
Guanas are very large and plentiful on the outlying cays and islands
of the Bahamas. They are hunted with a small kind of hound, and if
taken alive, the mouth is sewed up with twine, and they keep alive a