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i
International Law
and Transnational
Organised Crime
Edited by
PI E R R E H AUC K
and
S V E N PE T E R K E
1
iv
1
Great Clarendon Street, Oxford, OX2 6DP,
United Kingdom
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v
Preface
The purpose of this book is to supply the academic need for a thorough account of the
key concepts of international law to transnational organised crime (TOC).
Having been disregarded by international legal doctrine for a long time, TOC has
more and more become an important subject matter in state practice. As a matter of
fact, the United Nations have categorized TOC and international terrorism as a ‘new
threat’ to international peace that has the potential to undermine not only democratic
institutions and the rule of law but also sustainable development and regional stabil-
ity. In this way, TOC and its combat pose enormous challenges to the theory and prac-
tice of international law.
By contrast, however, TOC still plays a marginal role in academic writing and
there are only few systematic publications offering profound insights into the various
international treaties and documents dealing with the suppression of this complex
phenomenon.
The reasons for this unsatisfying state of affairs are multifaceted. With all due cau-
tion, it still appears that the issue of TOC is neither very inviting nor very accessible to
international lawyers. Especially compared to international criminal law stricto sensu,
which is commonly defined as encompassing exclusively those norms that entail in-
dividual responsibility directly under public international law, TOC is widely seen as
part of so-╉called transnational criminal law: an area of law placed at the outer limits of
international criminal law lato sensu, forming part of a new area of interest with novel
empirical and theoretical features. Last but not least it follows a crime control model
to comprehend which requires multidisciplinary knowledge of both international re-
lations and criminological concepts in particular. These concepts have indeed been
incorporated into international law, but their adequacy and universality have been
compromised by academics all the time.
The mere existence of the UN Convention against Transnational Organised Crime
and its Protocols gives yet another reason. It demonstrates the need to approach this
subject in a more comprehensive way than by simply looking only at the content of
the numerous international treaties and initiatives that complement them. Over the
last decades and under the impression of a ‘globalization’ of TOC states have set up
an international framework that affects virtually every corner of our societies, be it in
a negative or in a positive sense. To understand this better, however, requires insights
into the basic concepts and controversies that surround the numerous documents that
define this area of study. This also implies the necessity to analyse the effectiveness of
these instruments.
Furthermore, many international lawyers have a conservative background in public
and administrative law and therefore possess only rudimentary knowledge of the con-
ceptual fundaments of the debate on organised crime and its transnational manifes-
tations. Thanks to the emergence of international criminal law this profile has indeed
begun to change. But there is still growing awareness today of the need to go beyond
these traditional limitations of international legal doctrine and theory. In the special
vi
vi Preface
case of TOC, it seems that many scholars even find it difficult, or simply have too little
time, to build this bridge by noticing appropriate publications.
Our book is meant to provide this necessary, multidisciplinary ‘backpack’. It con-
tains systematic contributions to the pertinent universal conventions and other rele-
vant international regimes and issues, such as money laundering, cybercrime, or cul-
tural property. In addition, it inimitably analyses TOC from the perspective of those
branches of international law in which non-state actors and their activities deserve
special attention, namely international security law (the use of force and its exemp-
tions), the international law of armed conflict, international human rights law, inter-
national criminal law, and the law of the sea.
This book is based on an innovative approach that takes into account (1) the crim-
inological fundamentals without which a more critical understanding of the topic is
almost impossible, (2) the demand for a systematic compilation of the various inter-
national regimes that set standards for national legislators, and (3) the increasing
fragmentation of international law, which necessitates special reflection on the subject
from the perspective of its relevant sub-areas.
Corresponding to this multidisciplinary approach to content, our team of thirty
authors likewise comes from a public international and/or criminal law background.
It mostly consists of academics but also contains practitioners, and it spans Africa,
Australia, Europe, North America, and South America in global experience.
It is our hope that this book will prove to be a useful tool for both practitioners and
academics of all disciplines dealing with TOC who are seeking an easy access to this
complex area of law.
We would like to thank OUP, notably Emma Endean, Nicole Leyland, and Louise
Summerling, for their continuous support throughout this project and our team in
Trier, Monique Schmidt for supervising the editing process, Johanna Horsthemke and
Lina Kahlert for preparatory works, and Kim Eifel, Matthew Langford, Maximilian
Metzen, and Julia Schmidt for proofreading services.
Pierre Hauck and Sven Peterke
Trier/Germany and João Pessoa/Brazil
May 2016
vii
Table of Contents
I . ╇ G E N E R A L QU E S T ION S
1. The Historical Evolution of the International Cooperation
against Transnational Organised Crime: An Overview 3
Frank G. Madsen
1.1 Introduction 3
1.1.1 Organised crime: theoretical considerations 4
1.2 Early Beginnings 4
1.2.1 Piracy and privateering 4
1.3 Institutionalization in the Early Years of the Twentieth Century 5
1.3.1 Slave trade and human traffic 6
1.3.2 Trafficking in humans 8
1.3.3 Trafficking in organs for transplantation 10
1.3.4 Opium 12
1.3.5 Interpol 13
1.4 Modern Era 14
1.4.1 Transnational organised crime and the financial markets 14
1.4.2 Organised crime control and global crime governance 15
1.5 Regional Arrangements 15
1.6 Harmonization 16
1.6.1 Transnational vs international crimes 16
1.6.2 World Society Theory 17
1.6.3 Rationalization 17
1.6.4 Police and technology 18
1.6.5 Random collection 20
1.6.6 Cryptography 20
1.6.7 Extradition 21
1.7 Fragmentation? 21
1.7.1 Waste: present and future opportunity and risk 22
1.8 Final Observations 22
Table of Contents ix
x Table of Contents
Table of Contents xi
I I I . O T H E R R E L E VA N T I N T E R NAT IONA L R E G I M E S
AND ISSUES
12. Transnational Organised Crime and
the Anti-Money Laundering Regime 241
Louis de Koker and Mark Turkington
12.1 Introduction 241
12.2 The Money Laundering Concept 241
12.3 The Global Anti-Money Laundering Framework 242
12.3.1 The development of international standards 242
12.3.2 The international legal framework 246
12.3.3 The FATF 247
12.4 The AML/CFT Strategy 249
12.4.1 The money laundering offence 249
12.4.2 National and international cooperation 252
12.4.3 The engagement and role of the private sector 255
12.4.4 Asset forfeiture 258
12.5 The Effectiveness of the AML/CFT Strategy 259
12.6 Final Observation 263
Table of Contents xv
V. PRO C E DU R A L A N D T E C H NOL O G IC A L C H A L L E NG E S
F OR T H E I N V E S T IG AT ION OF T O C—P OL IC I NG ,
T E C H NOL O G IC A L A S PE C T S , E F F IC I E NC Y, E XC H A NG E
OF I N F OR M AT ION , A BUS E OF P OW E R ,
A N D TAC T IC S F OR C ON DUC T I NG I N V E S T IG AT ION S
22. Policing TOC—The National Perspective:
Challenges, Strategies, Tactics 473
Sheelagh Brady
22.1 Introduction 473
22.2 Traditional Organised Crime and Transnational
Organised Crime 473
22.2.1 Challenges for policing TOC versus OC 475
22.3 Positive Approaches to Tackling TOC from
the National Perspective 477
22.4 The Law Enforcement Toolkit to Tackle TOC 478
22.4.1 Legislation and statute 478
22.4.2 National strategies 479
22.4.3 Intelligence gathering 480
22.4.4 Electronic surveillance 481
22.4.5 Undercover operations 482
22.4.6 Undercover operations using the web 483
22.4.7 Forfeiture and seizure of assets 484
22.4.8 Use of informants and whistle blowers 485
22.4.9 Witness protection 486
22.4.10 Anti-corruption measures 487
22.4.11 Financial monitoring 487
22.5 Use and Types of Technology 488
22.6 Policing TOC 489
22.7 Obstacles and Limitations in the Fight against TOC 490
22.8 Conclusion 492
2. SBiH
SBiH, No. X-╉K-╉08/╉638-╉1 (14 January 2010)����������������������������������尓������������������������������������尓������������459, n. 63
SBiH, No. X-╉K-╉08/╉645-╉1 (26 January 2010)����������������������������������尓������������������������������������尓������������459, n. 63
SBiH, No. X-╉K-╉08/╉638-╉2 (8 February 2010)����������������������������������尓������������������������������������尓������������ 459, n. 63
SBiH, No. X-╉K-╉08/╉638-╉3 (8 February 2010)����������������������������������尓������������������������������������尓������������459, n. 63
SBiH, No. X-╉K-╉08/╉645-╉2 (9 February 2010)����������������������������������尓������������������������������������尓������������ 459, n. 63
xxii
3. UK
The Emperor of Austria v Day and Kossuth, 66 ER 263 (1861). British High
Court of Chancery ����������������������������������尓������������������������������������尓������������������������������������尓����������������������� 6
R v Plymouth Justices, ex parte Driver (1986) QB 95.����������������������������������尓��������������������������������505, n. 32
R v Horseferry Road Magistrates’ Court, ex parte Bennett (1994) AC 42.��������������������������������505, n. 33
R v Bow Street Metropolitan Stipendiary Magistrate, ex parte Pinochet Ugarte
(No. 3) [2000] 1 AC 147 HL����������������������������������尓������������������������������������尓����������������������������466, n. 110
Dahabshiil Transfer Services Ltd. v Barclays Bank Plc [2013] EWHC 3379 (Ch) ����������������262, n. 128
4. Germany
OLG Düsseldorf, Judgment of 26 September 1997, IV-╉26/╉96, 2 StE 8/╉96��������������������������������454, n. 31
BVerfG NJW 2001, 1848 (1850)����������������������������������尓������������������������������������尓��������������������������������454, n. 31
BGH-╉Bundesgerichtshof (Federal Court of Justice), 22.03.2001 –╉GSSt 1/╉00,
BGHSt 46, 321����������������������������������尓������������������������������������尓������������������������������������尓������������������32, n. 42
District Court of Halle/╉S., Judgment of 26 September 2005, Case No. 26
Ns 33/╉2004����������������������������������尓������������������������������������尓������������������������������������尓���������������������� 315, n. 23
District Court of Cologne, Judgment of 28 September 2012, Case No. 2 O 457/╉08,
Zeitschrift für Urheber-╉und Medienrecht (ZUM) 2013, 332-╉337 ����������������������������������尓 316, n. 26
5. Australia
Thorn v R [2009] NSWCCA 294����������������������������������尓������������������������������������尓������������������������������ 251, n. 75
Nahlous v R [2010] NSWCCA 58 ����������������������������������尓������������������������������������尓���������������������������� 251, n. 75
6. Schweiz
Schweizerisches Bundesgericht, Judgment of 14 January 2015,
1 B_╉344/╉2014 (2015)����������������������������������尓������������������������������������尓������������������������������������尓����356, n. 103
xxiii
Table of Legislation
PLATE VII.
1
In actual practice the positive carbon is made
double the thickness of the negative, so that the
two consume at about the same rate.
The arc lamp is largely used for the illumination of wide streets,
public squares, railway stations, and the exteriors of theatres, music-
halls, picture houses, and large shops. The intense brilliancy of the
light produced may be judged from the accompanying photographs
(Plate IX.), which were taken entirely by the light of the arc lamps.
Still more powerful arc lamps are constructed for use in lighthouses.
The illuminating power of some of these lamps is equal to that of
hundreds of thousands of candles, and the light, concentrated by
large reflectors, is visible at distances varying from thirty to one
hundred miles.
Arc lamps are also largely used for lighting interiors, such as
large showrooms, factories or workshops. For this kind of lighting the
dazzling glare of the outdoor lamp would be very objectionable and
harmful to the eyes, so methods of indirect lighting are employed to
give a soft and pleasant light. Most of the light in the arc lamp comes
from the positive carbon, and for ordinary outdoor lighting this carbon
is placed above the negative carbon. In lamps for interior lighting the
arrangement is frequently reversed, so that the positive carbon is
below. Most of the light is thus directed upwards, and if the ceiling is
fairly low and of a white colour the rays are reflected by it, and a soft
and evenly diffused lighting is the result. Some light comes also from
the negative carbon, and those downward rays are reflected to the
ceiling by a reflector placed beneath the lamp. Where the ceiling is
very high or of an unsuitable colour, a sort of artificial ceiling in the
shape of a large white reflector is placed above the lamp to produce
the same effect. Sometimes the lamp is arranged so that part of the
light is reflected to the ceiling, and part transmitted directly through a
semi-transparent reflector below the lamp. The composition of the
light of the arc lamp is very similar to that of sunlight, and by the use
of such lamps the well-known difficulty of judging and matching
colours by artificial light is greatly reduced. This fact is of great value
in drapery establishments, and the arc lamp has proved a great
success for lighting rooms used for night painting classes.
The powerful searchlights used by warships are arc lamps
provided with special arrangements for projecting the light in any
direction. A reflector behind the arc concentrates the light and sends
it out as a bundle of parallel rays, and the illuminating power is such
that a good searchlight has a working range of nearly two miles in
clear weather. According to the size of the projector, the illumination
varies from about 3000 to 30,000 or 40,000 candle-power. For some
purposes, such as the illuminating of narrow stretches of water, a
wider beam is required, and this is obtained by a diverging lens
placed in front of the arc. In passing through this lens the light is
dispersed or spread out to a greater or less extent according to the
nature of the lens. Searchlights are used in navigating the Suez
Canal by night, for lighting up the buoys along the sides of the canal.
The ordinary form of searchlight does this quite well, but at the same
time it illuminates equally an approaching vessel, so that the pilot on
this vessel is dazzled by the blinding glare. To avoid this dangerous
state of things a split reflector is used, which produces two separate
beams with a dark space between them. In this way the sides of the
canal are illuminated, but the light is not thrown upon oncoming
vessels, so that the pilots can see clearly.
Glass reflectors are much more efficient than metallic ones, but
they have the disadvantage of being easily put out of action by
gunfire. This defect is remedied by protecting the glass reflector by a
screen of wire netting. This is secured at the back of the reflector,
and even if the glass is shattered to a considerable extent, as by a
rifle bullet, the netting holds it together, and keeps it quite
serviceable. Reflectors protected in this way are not put out of action
by even two or three shots fired through them. Searchlight arcs and
reflectors are enclosed in metal cylinders, which can be moved in
any direction, vertically or horizontally.
In the arc lamps already described, a large proportion of the light
comes from the incandescent carbon electrodes. About the year
1901 an American electrician, Mr. P. C. Hewitt, brought out an arc
lamp in which the electrodes took no part in producing the light, the
whole of which came from a glowing stream of mercury vapour. This
lamp, under the name of the Cooper-Hewitt mercury vapour lamp,
has certain advantages over other electric illuminants, and it has
come into extensive use.
Fig. 22.—Sketch of Mercury Vapour Lamp.