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Problem Books in Mathematics

Antonio Caminha Muniz Neto

An Excursion
through Elementary
Mathematics,
Volume I
Real Numbers and Functions
Problem Books in Mathematics
Series Editor:
Peter Winkler
Department of Mathematics
Dartmouth College
Hanover, NH 03755
USA

More information about this series at http://www.springer.com/series/714

Antonio Caminha Muniz Neto

An Excursion through
Elementary Mathematics,
Volume I
Real Numbers and Functions

123
Antonio Caminha Muniz Neto
Mathematics
Universidade Federal do Ceará
Fortaleza, Ceará, Brazil

ISSN 0941-3502 ISSN 2197-8506 (electronic)

Problem Books in Mathematics
ISBN 978-3-319-53870-9 ISBN 978-3-319-53871-6 (eBook)
DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-53871-6

Library of Congress Control Number: 2017933290

© Springer International Publishing AG 2017

This work is subject to copyright. All rights are reserved by the Publisher, whether the whole or part of
the material is concerned, specifically the rights of translation, reprinting, reuse of illustrations, recitation,
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storage and retrieval, electronic adaptation, computer software, or by similar or dissimilar methodology
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The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, service marks, etc. in this publication
does not imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such names are exempt from the relevant
protective laws and regulations and therefore free for general use.
The publisher, the authors and the editors are safe to assume that the advice and information in this book
are believed to be true and accurate at the date of publication. Neither the publisher nor the authors or
the editors give a warranty, express or implied, with respect to the material contained herein or for any
errors or omissions that may have been made. The publisher remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional
claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.

Printed on acid-free paper

This Springer imprint is published by Springer Nature

The registered company is Springer International Publishing AG
The registered company address is: Gewerbestrasse 11, 6330 Cham, Switzerland
To Gabriel and Isabela, my most beautiful
theorems.
To my teacher Valdenísio Bezerra, in
memorian
Preface

This is the first of a series of three volumes (the other ones being [4] and [5])
devoted to the mathematics of mathematical olympiads. Generally speaking, they
are somewhat expanded versions of a collection of six volumes, first published
in Portuguese by the Brazilian Mathematical Society in 2012 and currently in its
second edition.
The material collected here and in the other two volumes is based on course
notes that evolved over the years since 1991, when I first began coaching students
of Fortaleza to the Brazilian Mathematical Olympiad and to the International
Mathematical Olympiad. Some 10 years ago, preliminary versions of the Portuguese
texts also served as textbooks for several editions of summer courses delivered at
UFC to math teachers of the Cape Verde Republic.
All volumes were carefully planned to be a balanced mixture of a smooth and
self-contained introduction to the fascinating world of mathematical competitions,
as well as to serve as textbooks for students and instructors involved with math clubs
for gifted high school students.
Upon writing the books, I have stuck myself to an invaluable advice of the
eminent Hungarian-American mathematician George Pólya, who used to say that
one cannot learn mathematics without getting one’s hands dirty. That’s why, in
several points throughout the text, I left to the reader the task of checking minor
aspects of more general developments. These appear either as small omitted details
in proofs or as subsidiary extensions of the theory. In this last case, I sometimes
refer the reader to specific problems along the book, which are marked with an *
and whose solutions are considered to be an essential part of the text. In general, in
each section, I collect a list of problems, carefully chosen in the direction of applying
the material and ideas presented in the text. Dozens of them are taken from former
editions of mathematical competitions and range from the almost immediate to real
challenging ones. Regardless of their level of difficulty, we provide generous hints,
or even complete solutions, to virtually all of them.
This first volume concentrates on real numbers, elementary algebra, and real
functions. The book starts with a non-axiomatic discussion of the most elementary
properties of real numbers, followed by a detailed study of basic algebraic identities,

vii
viii Preface

equations and systems of equations, elementary sequences, mathematical induction,

and the binomial theorem. These pave the way for an initial presentation of algebraic
inequalities like that between the arithmetic and geometric means, as well as those
of Cauchy, Chebyshev, and Abel. We then run through an exhaustive elementary
study of functions that culminates with a first look at implicitly defined functions.
This is followed by a second look on real numbers, focusing on the concept of
convergence for sequences and series of reals. We then return to functions, this
time to successively develop, in detail, the basics of continuity, differentiability,
and integrability. Along the way, the text stays somewhere between a thorough
calculus course and an introductory analysis one. Lots of interesting examples and
important applications are presented throughout. Whenever possible (or desirable),
the examples are taken from mathematical competitions, whereas the applications
vary from the proof and several applications of Jensen’s convexity inequality to
Lambert’s theorem on the irrationality of  and Stirling’s formula on the asymptotic
behavior of nŠ. The text ends with a chapter on sequences and series of functions,
where, among other interesting topics, we construct an example of a continuous and
nowhere differentiable function, develop the rudiments of the generating function
method, and discuss Weierstrass’ approximation theorem and the rudiments of the
theory of Fourier series.
Several people and institutions contributed throughout the years for my effort
of turning a bunch of handwritten notes into these books. The State of Ceará
Mathematical Olympiad, created by the Mathematics Department of the Federal
University of Ceará (UFC) back in 1980 and now in its 36th edition, has since
then motivated hundreds of youngsters of Fortaleza to deepen their studies of
mathematics. I was one such student in the late 1980s, and my involvement with this
competition and with the Brazilian Mathematical Olympiad a few years later had a
decisive influence on my choice of career. Throughout the 1990s, I had the honor
of coaching several brilliant students of Fortaleza to the Brazilian Mathematical
Olympiad. Some of them entered Brazilian teams to the IMO or other international
competitions, and their doubts, comments, and criticisms were of great help in
shaping my view on mathematical competitions. In this sense, sincere thanks go to
João Luiz Falcão, Roney Castro, Marcelo Oliveira, Marcondes França Jr., Marcelo
C. de Souza, Eduardo Balreira, Breno Falcão, Fabrício Benevides, Rui Vigelis,
Daniel Sobreira, Samuel Feitosa, Davi Máximo Nogueira, and Yuri Lima.
Professor João Lucas Barbosa, upon inviting me to write the textbooks to the
Amílcar Cabral Educational Cooperation Project with Cape Verde Republic, had
unconsciously provided me with the motivation to complete the Portuguese version
of these books. The continuous support of Professor Hilário Alencar, president of
the Brazilian Mathematical Society when the Portuguese edition was first published,
was also of great importance for me. Special thanks go to professors Abdênago
Barros and Fernanda Camargo, my colleagues at the Mathematics Department of
UFC, who had made quite useful comments on the Portuguese editions, which
were incorporated in the text in a way or another; they had also read the entire
English version and helped me in improving it in a number of ways. If it weren’t for
my editor at Springer-Verlag, Mr. Robinson dos Santos, I almost surely would not
Preface ix

have had the courage to embrace the task of translating more than 1500 pages from
Portuguese into English. I acknowledge all the staff of Springer involved with this
project in his name.
Finally, and mostly, I would like to express my deepest gratitude to my parents
Antonio and Rosemary, my wife Monica, and our kids Gabriel and Isabela. From
early childhood, my parents have always called my attention to the importance of
a solid education, having done their best for me and my brothers to attend the
best possible schools. My wife and kids filled our home with the harmony and
softness I needed to get to endure on several months of solitary nights of work
while translating this book.

Fortaleza, Brazil Antonio Caminha Muniz Neto

December 2016
Contents

1 The Set of Real Numbers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

1.1 Arithmetic in R . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.2 The Order Relation in R . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
1.3 Completeness of the Real Number System . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
1.4 The Geometric Representation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
2 Algebraic Identities, Equations and Systems . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
2.1 Algebraic Identities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
2.2 The Modulus of a Real Number .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
2.3 A First Look at Polynomial Equations .. . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
2.4 Linear Systems and Elimination . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
2.5 Miscellaneous . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
3 Elementary Sequences . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
3.1 Progressions .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
3.2 Linear Recurrences of Orders 2 and 3 . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
3.3 The † and … Notations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78
4 Induction and the Binomial Formula . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87
4.1 The Principle of Mathematical Induction .. . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87
4.2 Binomial Numbers .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98
4.3 The Binomial Formula .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104
5 Elementary Inequalities. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111
5.1 The AM-GM Inequality . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111
5.2 Cauchy’s Inequality .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123
5.3 More on Inequalities .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128
6 The Concept of Function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143
6.1 Definitions and Examples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143
6.2 Monotonicity, Extrema and Image . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153
6.3 Composition of Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 163
6.4 Inversion of Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 172

xi
xii Contents

6.5 Defining Functions Implicitly . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 176

6.6 Graphs of Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 185
6.7 Trigonometric Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 195
7 More on Real Numbers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 201
7.1 Supremum and Infimum .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 201
7.2 Limits of Sequences . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 208
7.3 Kronecker’s Lemma . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 221
7.4 Series of Real Numbers.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 228
8 Continuous Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 245
8.1 The Concept of Continuity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 245
8.2 Sequential Continuity .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 256
8.3 The Intermediate Value Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 264
9 Limits and Derivatives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 275
9.1 Some Heuristics I . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 275
9.2 Limits of Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 277
9.3 Basic Properties of Derivatives .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 292
9.4 Computing Derivatives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 302
9.5 Rôlle’s Theorem and Applications .. . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 312
9.6 The First Variation of a Function.. . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 318
9.7 The Second Variation of a Function.. . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 328
9.8 Sketching Graphs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 339
10 Riemann’s Integral . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 347
10.1 Some Heuristics II . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 347
10.2 The Concept of Integral . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 351
10.3 Riemann’s Theorem and Some Remarks . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 360
10.4 Operating with Integrable Functions .. . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 368
10.5 The Fundamental Theorem of Calculus . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 381
10.6 The Change of Variables Formula . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 392
10.7 Logarithms and Exponentials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 398
10.8 Miscellaneous . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 414
10.9 Improper Integration .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 426
10.10 Two Important Applications .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 437
11 Series of Functions.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 447
11.1 Taylor Series . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 447
11.2 Series of Functions.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 456
11.3 Power Series . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 472
11.4 Some Applications .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 486
11.5 A Glimpse on Analytic Functions.. . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 499
Contents xiii

Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 511

A Glossary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 513

B Hints and Solutions .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 515

Index . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 643
Chapter 1
The Set of Real Numbers

This first chapter recalls some definitions and results which are essential to all
further developments. We assume from the reader a modest acquaintance with the
most basic concepts of set theory; we also assume that he or she is familiar with the
sets of naturals,

N D f1; 2; 3; 4; : : :g;

integers,

Z D f0; ˙1; ˙2; ˙3; : : :g;

and rationals,
na o
QD I a; b 2 Z; b ¤ 0 ;
b
as well as with the elementary arithmetic operations within these sets.
In what concerns the integers1, given a; b 2 Z, with a ¤ 0, we say that a divides
b if there exists an integer c such that b D ac. Equivalently, to say that a divides b is
the same as to say that the rational number ba is an integer; for example, 13 divides
52, since 52
13
D 4.
If a divides b, we also say that a is a divisor of b, or that b is divisible by a; in
such a case, we denote a j b. If a doesn’t divide b (or, which is the same, if ba … Z),
we denote a − b. An integer n is even if 2 j n; otherwise, n is said to be odd. Hence,
0, ˙2, ˙4, ˙6, . . . are the even integers, while ˙1, ˙3, ˙5, . . . are the odd ones.

1
We refer the reader to Chap. 6 of [5] for a systematic discussion of what follows.

© Springer International Publishing AG 2017 1

A. Caminha Muniz Neto, An Excursion through Elementary Mathematics, Volume I,
Problem Books in Mathematics, DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-53871-6_1
2 1 The Set of Real Numbers

Given natural numbers a and b, it is well known that there exist unique integers
q and r satisfying the following conditions:

b D aq C r and 0  r < a: (1.1)

The above relation is known as the division algorithm, and the integers q and r
are respectively called the quotient and the remainder of the division of b by a.
Conditions (1.1) are usually condensed in the diagram
b a
r q

In particular, for given naturals a and b and in the above notations, a j b is the
same as r D 0 and q D ba .
Two nonzero integers a and b always have a greatest common divisor, which
will be denoted gcd.a; b/; Moreover, a and b are said to be relatively prime if
gcd.a; b/ D 1; in particular, if b D ka C 1, then a and b are relatively prime.
If r D mn , with m and n integers, is a representation of the nonzero rational
r, then, by cancelling out factors common to m and n (i.e., cancelling gcd.m; n/
out of m and n), we get an irreducible representation for r. For example, since
gcd.12; 18/ D 6, the rational number 12 2
18 has 3 as an irreducible representation,
which was obtained by cancelling out a factor 6 from both 12 and 18.
An integer p > 1 is prime if 1 and p are its only positive divisors; in another way,
an integer p > 1 is prime if, for a 2 N, we have that
p
2 N ) a D 1 or p:
a
It is a well known fact (cf. Chap. 6 of [5]) that the set of prime numbers is infinite.
Below, we list all prime numbers less than 100:

2; 3; 5; 7; 11; 13; 17; 19; 23; 29; 31; 37; 41; 43; 47; 53;

59; 61; 67; 71; 73; 79; 83; 89; 97:

An integer greater than 1 and which is not prime is said to be composite. It is also a
well known fact (cf. Chap. 6 of [5]) that every natural number n > 1 can be written
(or decomposed) as a product of a finite number of powers2 of prime numbers
(its prime factors); also, such a representation of n is unique, up to the order of the
powers. For instance, 9000 D 23  32  53 is the decomposition of 9000 as a product of
powers of primes. The existence and uniqueness of such a decomposition of n > 1
is known as the Fundamental Theorem of Arithmetic.

2
To recall the definition and the main properties of powers of numbers, we refer the reader to
Section 1.2.
1.1 Arithmetic in R 3

1.1 Arithmetic in R

We use to represent rational numbers in decimal notation. For the rational number
1 1
8 , for example, we write 8 D 0:125 as a shorthand for the equality

1 1 2 5
D C 2 C 3;
8 10 10 10

and say that 0:125 is the decimal representation of 18 .

Some rational numbers have more complicated decimal representations. We take
1
as an example the rational 12 , for which we usually write

1
D 0:08333 : : : :
12

What does this equality mean? Arguing as in the case of 18 , we are tempted to say
that this equality is a shorthand for

1 8 3 3 3
D 2 C 3 C 4 C 5 C : (1.2)
12 10 10 10 10
This is actually so, provided we correctly interpret the sum with an infinite number
of summands at the right hand side. Rigorously, (1.2) means that, if we fix the a
priori maximum error 101n D 0: „00 ƒ‚
: : : 01
…, then we have
n

 
1 8 3 3 3 1
0<  2
C 3 C 4 CC k 
12 10 10 10 10 10n

for every natural number k  n; yet in another way, (1.2) means that all of the
numbers 1082 C 1033 C 1034 C    C 103k , with k  n, approximate 12 1
by defect with
error less than or equal to 0: „
00 ƒ‚
: : : 01
… . In fact, it will follow from Proposition 3.12
n
that
 
1 8 3 3 3 1
 C 3 C 4 CC k D ;
12 102 10 10 10 3  10k

so that the error in the defect approximation 1082 C 1033 C 1034 C    C 103k of 12
1
equals
1 1
310k
, which is always less than or equal to the maximum error 10n , whenever k  n.
1
It is precisely in this sense that we should think of the equality 12 D 0:08333 : : :.
4 1 The Set of Real Numbers

In the light of the above discussion, one question suggests itself naturally: for an
arbitrary sequence3 .a1 ; a2 ; a3 ; : : :/ of decimal digits, can we think of

0:a1 a2 a3 : : :

as the decimal representation of some rational number?

It is possible to prove (and we will do so in Problem 2, page 7) that the answer
to this question is yes if and only if the list .a1 ; a2 ; a3 ; : : :/ is periodic from a certain
point on, i.e., if and only if it is of the form

.a1 ; a2 ; : : : ; al ; b1 ; b2 ; : : : ; bp ; b1 ; b2 ; : : : ; bp ; b1 ; b2 ; : : : ; bp ; : : :/: (1.3)

„ ƒ‚ … „ ƒ‚ … „ ƒ‚ …
p p p

1
(In particular, for the rational number 12 the list is .0; 8; 3; 3; 3; : : :/, which is clearly
periodic.) Therefore, if we are able to exhibit a list of digits that is not periodic from
any point on, we will conclude that the general answer to the question posed above
is no! We show an example of such a list now.
Example 1.1 The sequence of digits .0; 1; 0; 1; 1; 0; 1; 1; 1; 0; : : :/, with infinitely
many 0’s and such that the quantity of digits 1’s after each digit 0 equals the previous
quantity of digits 1 plus one, is not periodic from any point on.
Proof By the sake of contradiction, suppose that the list in the statement is periodic
from some point on, with, say, a block of p digits that repeats itself. The way we
defined the sequence assures that, from some point on, each occurrence of a block of
digits 1 would bring more than p digits 1. Therefore, the block of digits that repeats
itself should be composed only by digits 1, so that the list should be, from some
point on, equal to .1; 1; 1; 1; 1; 1; 1; : : :/. However, if this was so, then we could not
have an infinite number of digits 0, which is a contradiction. t
u
In short, the previous discussion points to the following deficiency of the set
of rationals: every rational number admits a decimal representation, but not every
decimal representation represents a rational number. At this point, in order to fulfill
this deficiency, we postulate4 the existence of a set R, containing Q and having the
following properties:

3
As we shall see in Section 6.1, a sequence of real numbers is just a function f W N ! R; however,
for our purposes here, we can think of a sequence just as an ordered list of numbers, i.e., a list of
numbers in which we specify which is the first number, which is the second, third, and so on. We
will sistematically discuss some important elementary sequences of real numbers in Chap. 3.
4
An axiom or postulate in a certain theory is a property imposed as true. One of the fundamental
characteristics of Mathematics as a branch of human knowledge is the use of the axiomatic
method, i.e., the acceptance of the fact that not every mathematical property can be logically
deduced from previously established properties, being necessary the adoption of an adequate set
of axioms.
1.1 Arithmetic in R 5

(I) Addition, subtraction, multiplication and division in Q extend to similar

operations on R, in the sense that they have, on R, properties similar to those
on Q.
(II) The order relation within Q extends to an order relation within R, so that it has,
in R, the same properties its restriction has in Q; in particular, every element
of R is negative, zero or positive.
(III) In the sense of our previous discussions, to every sequence .a1 ; a2 ; a3 ; : : :/ of
digits there corresponds a unique element x 2 Œ0; 1, which will be denoted by
x D 0:a1 a2 a3 : : :. Conversely, to every x 2 Œ0; 1, there corresponds a (not nec-
essarily unique) sequence .a1 ; a2 ; a3 ; : : :/ of digits, such that x D 0:a1 a2 a3 : : :.
The elements of R are called real numbers, and the set R as a whole is the set of
real numbers5 .
In the rest of this section and in the next two section we discuss in detail each of
the items (I), (II) and (III) above, showing what they really mean.
Beginning with (I), we postulate that R is furnished with two operations,
respectively denoted C and  and called (by analogy with the corresponding
operations on Q) addition and multiplication. Such operations satisfy axioms (1)
to (7), quoted below:
(1) Consistency: for a; b 2 Q, the result a C b of the addition of a and b is the same,
whether we consider the usual addition on Q or the corresponding operation
on R. Analogously, the result a  b of the multiplication of a and b is the
same, whether we consider the usual multiplication on Q or the corresponding
operation on R.
(2) Commutativity: the operations C and  are commutative, i.e., they are such that
a C b D b C a and a  b D b  a, for all a; b 2 R.
(3) Associativity: the operations C and  are associative, i.e., they are such that
a C .b C c/ D .a C b/ C c and a  .b  c/ D .a  b/  c, for all a; b; c 2 R.
(4) Distributivity: Multiplication is distributive with respect to addition, i.e., it is
such that a  .b C c/ D .a  b/ C .a  c/, for all a; b; c 2 R.
(5) The roles of 0 and 1 in R: the rational numbers 0 and 1 are such that 0 C a D a
and 1  a D a, for every a 2 R.
(6) Law of cancellation: if a; b 2 R are such that a  b D 0, then a D 0 or b D 0.
(7) Existence of inverses: for every a 2 R, there exists b 2 R such that a C b D 0.
For every a 2 R n f0g, there exists b 2 R such that a  b D 1.
The properties above have the following important consequences:
(i) Uniqueness of the additive inverse: for a given a 2 R, if b; b0 2 R are such that
a C b D 0 and a C b0 D 0, the associativity and commutativity of addition

5
There are more construtive (and rigorous) ways of introducing the real numbers, as the reader
can find in [6], for example. However, in these notes we chose to follow an approach that was as
close as possible to the previous experience of the medium reader, sacrificing rigor in the name of
understanding.
6 1 The Set of Real Numbers

give us
b D b C 0 D b C .a C b0 /
D .b C a/ C b0 D .a C b/ C b0
D 0 C b0 D b0 :
Hence, the real number a has a unique additive inverse, which from now on will
be denoted by a, as is usually done within Q. It follows from a C .a/ D 0
that a is the additive inverse of a; therefore, according to the notation just
established for additive inverses, we have .a/ D a.
(ii) Uniqueness of the multiplicative inverse: for a given a 2 R n f0g, if b; b0 2 R
are such that a  b D 1 and a  b0 D 1, then b D b0 . The proof of this fact
is completely analogous to that of the previous item (cf. Problem 3, page 7).
From now on, we will denote the multiplicative inverse of a 2 R n f0g by a1 ,
as is also usually done within Q.
(iii) For a 2 R, we have a  0 D 0: in order to check this, let a  0 D e. The
distributivity of multiplication with respect to addition gives

e D a  0 D a  .0 C 0/ D a  0 C a  0 D e C e:
Hence,
e D e C 0 D e C .e C .e//
D .e C e/ C .e/
D e C .e/ D 0;
so that a  0 D e D 0.
In view of the above properties, we adopt the convention (as is usual within Q) to
omit the sign  of multiplication, thus writing simply ab instead of ab. Now, observe
that the associativity and commutativity of addition and multiplication in R allow us
to add or multiply an arbitrary finite number of real numbers without worrying with
which summands or factors should be initially operated; the final result will always
be the same6 .
We also define the operations of subtraction () and division () in R as is
usually done in Q: for a; b 2 R, we set

a  b D a C .b/ and a  b D ab1 ;

6
Rigorously speaking, the validity of such a statement should be proved as a theorem, what can
be done with the aid of the principle of mathematical induction (cf. Chap. 5). However, in order
to have a less terse reading, we chose not to give a formal proof of this fact, just relying on the
previous experience of the reader.
1.2 The Order Relation in R 7

with b ¤ 0 in the last case; yet in the case of division, and whenever there is no
danger of confusion, we write a=b or ab as synonymous for a  b.

Problems: Section 1.1

1. * Establish the following properties of proportions: if a, b, c and d are nonzero

reals, such that ab D dc , then

a c a˙c
D D :
b d b˙d

2. * Given a sequence .a1 ; a2 ; a3 ; : : :/ of digits, prove that the real number

0:a1 a2 a3 : : : represents the decimal expansion of a rational if and only if the
sequence .a1 ; a2 ; a3 ; : : :/ is periodic from some point on, in the sense of (1.3).
3. * Prove the uniqueness of multiplicative inverses in R. More precisely, prove that
if a ¤ 0 is a real number and b; b0 2 R are such that a  b D a  b0 D 1, then
b D b0 .
4. Prove, from the axioms for addition and multiplication of reals, that a D .1/a,
for every a 2 R.
5. In each of the following items, decide whether the real number in question is
rational or not. In doing so, assume that the pattern of digits suggested up to the
dots is actually followed. Moreover, in case the number is rational, write it as an
irreducible fraction:
(a) 2:324444 : : :.
(b) 0:12121212 : : :.
(c) 2:1345454545 : : :.
(d) 0:1234567891011121314 : : :.

1.2 The Order Relation in R

We postulate the existence of an order relation on R, which amounts to a way

of comparing real numbers. By the sake of analogy with the corresponding order
relation on Q, we denote this order relation by , and also read it as greater than or
equal to. The order relation on R satisfies axioms (1’) to (5’) below:
(1’) Consistency: for a; b 2 Q such that a  b in Q, we have a  b in R.
(2’) Reflexivity: a  a, for every a 2 R.
(3’) Antisymmetry: if a; b 2 R are such that a  b and b  a, then a D b.
(4’) Transitivity: if a; b; c 2 R are such that a  b and b  c, then a  c.
(5’) Dichotomy: for all a; b 2 R, one has either a  b or b  a.
8 1 The Set of Real Numbers

In all that follows, if a; b 2 R are such that a  b and a ¤ b, we write a > b

and read a is greater than b. We also write a  b (read a is less than or equal to b)
as a synonymous for b  a, and a < b (read a is less than b) as a synonymous for
b > a. If a 2 R is such that a > 0, we say that a is positive; if a < 0, we say that a
is negative.
With respect to the order relation  on R, we also impose axioms (6’) and (7’)
below, which guarantee – as they do in Q – its compatibility with the operations of
addition and multiplication:
(6’) a > b , a  b > 0.
(7’) a; b > 0 ) a C b; ab > 0.
The next result collects some other useful properties of the order relation on R,
which can be deduced from axioms (1’) to (7’). From now on, we say that two
nonzero real numbers have equal signs if they are both positive or both negative.
Proposition 1.2 Let a; b; c; d 2 R.
(a) If a > 0, then a
 < 0, and vice-versa.
b > 0 ) ab > 0
(b) If a > 0, then .
b < 0 ) ab < 0

b > 0 ) ab < 0
(c) If a < 0, then .
b < 0 ) ab > 0
(d) a > b ) a C c > b C c.
(e) a > b; c  d )  a C c > b C d.
c > 0 ) ac > bc
(f) If a > b, then .
c < 0 ) ac < bc
(g) a ¤ 0 ) a2 > 0.
(h) a > 0 , 1a > 0.
1
(i) If a and b have equal signs and a > b, then a < 1b .
Proof We prove just a few of the above items, letting the others as exercises (see
Problem 1, page 10).
(a) This follows from axiom (6’):

0 > a , 0  .a/ > 0 , a > 0:

(d) Again by axiom (6’), we have

a > b ) a  b > 0 ) .a C c/  .b C c/ > 0 ) a C c > b C c:

(e) We use (d) and the transitivity of :


a>b ) aCc>bCc
) a C c > b C d:
cd ) bCcbCd
1.2 The Order Relation in R 9

(f) Suppose c > 0 (the case c < 0 can be treated analogously). It follows from (6’)
and (7’) that
a > b ) a  b > 0 ) .a  b/c > 0 ) ac  bc > 0 ) ac > bc:

(h) Suppose a > 0. If we had 1a < 0, it would follow from (b) that 1 D a  1a < 0,
which is an absurd (for the order relation on R extends that on Q).
(i) Since a and b have equal signs, it follows from (b) and (c) that ab > 0. Thus,
1
item (h) gives ab > 0. Since b  a < 0, we get from either (b) or (c) that
1 1 ba 1
 D D .b  a/  < 0:
a b ab ab
1
Finally, (6’) assures that this is equivalent to a
< 1b .
t
u
Items (b) and (c) of the former proposition are known as the sign rules for
multiplication of real numbers.
Next, let r 2 R be given. The square of r, denoted r2 , is the real number r2 D rr;
the cube of r, denoted r3 , is the real number r3 D r  r  r. More generally, for a given
n 2 N, we define the nth power of r, denoted rn , as being r, if n D 1, or the real
number obtained by multiplying r by itself n times, if n > 1:

rn D r„ r ƒ‚
    …r :
n

Once more we call the attention of the reader to the fact that the associativity of the
multiplication of reals, together with the principle of mathematical induction (cf.
Chap. 5) allows us to prove that the result of the right hand side of the equality above
does not depend on the order in which we multiply the n copies of r. Therefore, rn
is a well defined real number. Problem 3, page 10, lists some useful properties of
the powers of real numbers.
We collect below an important consequence of the properties of the order relation
on R, listed in the last proposition.
Corollary 1.3 Let r be a positive real number and m and n be natural numbers,
with m > n. Then:
(a) 0 < r < 1 ) rm < rn .
(b) r > 1 ) rm > rn .
Proof
(a) Since r is positive, multiplying both sides of the inequality r < 1 by r, we get
r2 < r. Multipliying both sides of this last inequality by r once more, it follows
that r3 < r2 and, hence, that r3 < r2 < r. Proceeding this way, we arrive at the
desired result, i.e.,

   < r4 < r3 < r2 < r:

10 1 The Set of Real Numbers

(b) The proof of this item is essentially equal to that of (a), with the only difference
that, in this case, we have r > 1.
t
u
We next illustrate, in an example, how the above corollary can be useful in
comparing certain real numbers.
Example 1.4 In order to compare 2100 C 3100 and 4100 , for instance, it suffices to
see that

2100 C 3100 < 3100 C 3100 D 2  3100

D 2  33  397 D 54  397
< 64  497 D 43  497 D 4100 :

In Chapter 5, we will sistematically study some important inequalities involving

real numbers. For the time being, the following corollary – in spite of its simplicity
– will play an important role.
Corollary 1.5 For a; b 2 R, we have

a2 C b2  0; (1.4)

with equality if and only if a D b D 0.

Proof Item (g) of Proposition 1.2 gives a2 ; b2  0. Therefore, item (d) of that
proposition gives a2 C b2  0. Now, let a ¤ 0. Then, it follows from item (g)
of the above mentioned proposition that a2 > 0. On the other hand, since we still
have b2  0, item (e) of that proposition guarantees that a2 C b2 > 0. t
u

Problems: Section 1.2

1. * Prove items (b), (c) and (g) of Proposition 1.2.

2. * Generalize Corollary 1.5, showing that, if a; b; c 2 R, then

a2 C b2 C c2  0;

with equality if and only if a D b D c D 0.

3. * Given r; s 2 R and m; n 2 N, prove that7 :
(a) .rs/n D rn sn .

7
In order to prove properties (a) to (d) in a rigorous way, we have to rely on the principle of
mathematical induction (cf. Chap. 5). Thus, our intention here is simply to make the reader give
some arguments on their plausibility.
1.2 The Order Relation in R 11

(b) rmCn D rm rn .
(c) .rm/n D rmn .
n n
(d) rs D rsn , if s ¤ 0.
4. * For r 2 R n f0g and n 2 N, we extend the notion of powers with natural
exponents to powers with integer exponents by defining rn D r1n . For example,
r1 D 1r , r2 D r12 etc. If we also set r0 D 1, prove that, for all m; n 2 N, one
m
has rrn D rmn .
5. Let a and b be nonzero integers, with b > 1. If the only prime divisors of b are
2 or 5, prove that the decimal representation of ab is finite.
6. * If x ¤ 0 is a real number and n 2 N, prove that xn is positive if n is even, and
has the same sign of x if n is odd.
7. Prove that 12  13 C 14  15 C     99
1 1
C 100 > 15 .
8. Given positive real numbers a and b such that a < b, compare (i.e., decide
which is the greatest of) the numbers aC1 aC2
bC1 and bC2 .
9. (TT) We are given ten real numbers such that the sum of any four of them is
positive. Show that the sum of all ten numbers is also positive.
10. Decide which of the numbers 3111 or 1714 is the greatest one.
11. * Let n 2 N and a; b be positive reals. Prove that:
(a) a < b if and only if a2 < b2 .
(b) a < b if and only if an < bn .
(c) an C bn < .a C b/n .
12. (EKMC - adapted) Let a, b and c be the lenghts of the sides of a right triangle,
c being the hypotenuse. Which one is the greatest: a3 C b3 or c3 ? Justify your
answer.
13. Show that, for every n 2 N, we have 12n C 22n C 32n  2  7n .
14. * Find all natural numbers a, b and c such that a  b  c and 1a C 1b C 1c is an
integer.
15. (IMO) Explain how to write 100 as a sum of naturals whose product is as large
as possible.
16. (Russia)8 The leftmost digit of the decimal representations of the natural
numbers 2n and 5n is the same. Prove that such digit is equal to 3.
17. (Russia) Let a, b, c and d be positive real numbers. Show that, among the
inequalities

a C b < c C d; .a C b/.c C d/ < ab C cd and .a C b/cd < ab.c C d/;

at least one is false.

8
For a converse to this problem, see Example 10.60.
12 1 The Set of Real Numbers

1.3 Completeness of the Real Number System

For the time being, we postulate that to every sequence .a1 ; a2 ; a3 ; : : :/ of digits,
there corresponds a unique x 2 R, in the following sense: for a fixed maximum
error 101n , with n 2 N, we have
a a2 ak 1
1
0x C C  C k  n;
10 102 10 10
for every natural k  n. In particular, it follows from this inequality that
a1 a2 ak 1
x C 2 C  C k C n;
10 10 10 10
for every k  n. Taking k D n and recalling that aj  9 for every j, we get
a1 a2 an1 an 1
x  C 2 CC C nC n
10 10 10n1 10 10
9 9 9 9 1
 C 2 C    C n1 C n C n
10 10 10 10 10
9 9 9 1
D C 2 C    C n1 C n1
10 10 10 10
9 9 1
D C 2 C    C n2
10 10 10
D    D 1;
Thus, 0  x  1.
As a shorthand to the above postulate, we say that the set R of real numbers is
complete. In this respect, we refer the reader to Section 7.1, as well as to Problem 9,
page 242, where the completeness of the real number system will be more rigorously
discussed.
Conversely, we also postulate that to every positive real number x there cor-
responds a nonnegative integer m and a sequence .a1 ; a2 ; a3 ; : : :/ of digits, such
that x D m C 0:a1 a2 a3 : : :, in the sense of the previous paragraph. If m > 0 and
m D bn : : : b1 b0 , with the bi ’s being their digits, we write

x D bn : : : b1 b0 :a1 a2 a3 : : :

and say that bn : : : b1 b0 :a1 a2 a3 : : : is the decimal representation or expansion of x.

As was seen in Problem 2, page 7, a real number is rational exactly when its
decimal representation is finite or infinite and periodic. On the other hand, a real
number which is not rational is said to be irrational. Thus, irrational numbers
are those real numbers which cannot be written as quotients of two integers,
or, in another way, those reals whose decimal representations are infinite and
nonperiodic.
1.3 Completeness of the Real Number System 13

Up to the present, the only irrational number we have met was the number
0;0101101110 : : : (cf. Example 1.1). In a sense, such an example is pretty dis-
satisfying, for it is difficult to manipulate this number (i.e., it is difficult to make
calculations with it). We will remedy this situation in what follows.
From an arithmetic point of view, one great advantage of the set of reals, in
comparison to the set of rationals, is the possibility of making root extractions of
positive real numbers. More precisely, given a real number x > 0 and a natural
number n, it is possible to prove (and we will do so, in two different ways, in
sections 7.1 and 8.3) that there exists a unique positive real number y such that
yn Dpx. From now on, we shall call this real number y the nth root of x, and write
y D n x; the natural n is the index of the root. In short,
p
y D n x , x D yn :

Indices n D 2 and n D 3 occur so frequently that deserve p special names p and

notations.
p When n D 2 (and x > 0), we write simply x, instead of 2
p and
x,
say that x is the square root of x; when n D 3 (and x > 0), we say that 3 x is the
cubic root of x.
The argument in the next example allows us to heuristically understand why roots
of positive reals do exist.
p 2
Example 1.6 By definition, we have p 2 D 2. Since 12 < 2 < 22 , the result
2 2
of Problem 11, page 11, gives 1 < 2 < 2. Now, p since 1:4 < 2 < 1:5 , it
follows once again from that problempthat 1:4 < 2 < 1:5. Analogously, since
1:412 < 2 < 1:422 , we have 1:41 < 2 < 1:42. Continuing this way, we obtain
apunique list .a1 D 4; a2 D 1; a3 D 4; : : :/ of digits, such that 1:a1 a2 : : : an1 an <
2 < 1:a1 a2 : : : an1pa0n for all n  1, where a0n D an C 1. Thus, we have no option
but to conclude that 2 D 1:a1 a2 a3 : : : D 1:414 : : :.
At this point, we urge the reader to at least read the statements of Problems 1
and 2, page 14, to get an idea on how to (partially) extend the concept of nth root
to negative reals, as well as to take a look at the main properties of root extraction.
We now turn to powers of natural numbers. A perfect square is a natural number
which can be written in the form m2 , for some m 2 N; hence, the perfect squares
are the natural numbers 12 D 1, 22 D 4, 32 D 9, 42 D 16 etc. A perfect cube is a
natural number which can be written in the form m3 , for some m 2 N; the perfect
cubes are, then, the naturals 13 D 1, 23 D 4, 33 D 27, 43 D 64 etc. More generally,
a natural n is a perfect power if there exist natural numbers n and k, with k > 1,
such that n D mk . If this is the case, we say that n is a k-th perfect power, i.e., is
equal to one of the natural numbers 1k , 2k , 3k , 4k etc. Equivalently, to
psay that n 2 N
is a kth perfect power is the same as to say that its kth root, k n, is a natural
number.
The following proposition, which by now we take for granted, gives an infinite
supply of examples of irrational numbers, which, as we will see in a moment, are
more or less easy to handle. For a proof of it, we refer the reader to Chap. 6 of [5].
(Nevertheless, see Problems 7 and 8.)
14 1 The Set of Real Numbers

Proposition 1.7 p Given natural numbers n and k, with k > 1, either n is a k-th
perfect power or k n is an irrational number.
p p p
According to the above proposition, numbers like 2, 3 3, 5 10 etc are all
examples of irrationals (for 2 is not a perfect square, 3 is not a perfect cube and
10 is not a perfect 5th power).
Now we can, at least formally (i.e., without worrying with approximations),
operate with several irrational numbers. Let us see an example where we (indirectly)
apply the last proposition to explain why a certain real number is irrational.
p p p p
Example 1.8 The number 2 C 3 is irrational. In fact, if we let r D 2 C 3,
there are two possibilities: r 2 Q or r 62 Q. Suppose, for the sake of contradiction,
that r 2 Q. Then, since the set of rationals is closed with respect to multiplication,
we would have r2 2 Q. On the other hand, the distributivity of multiplication with
respect to addition gives
p p p p
r2 D . 2 C 3/. 2 C 3/
p p p p p p
D 2. 2 C 3/ C 3. 2 C 3/
p p
D .2 C 6/ C . 6 C 3/
p
D 5C2 6
p 2 p
so that 6 D r 25 . Therefore, 6 would be the quotient of the rational numbers
p
r2  5 and 2 and, as such, 6 would be itself a rational number. This contradicts the
result of Proposition 1.7, so that r … Q.
In order to finish our discussion on rational and irrational numbers, note that the
set of irrationals is not closed with respect to the ordinary arithmetic operations.
For instance, for a given irrational number r, although r is also irrational,
p we have
r C .r/ D 0, which is a rational. On the other hand, if we set r D 2, we get
r  r D r2 D 2, which is also a rational. Finally, if r ¤ 0, then the quotient of r by
itself is equal to 1, again a rational number.

Problems: Section 1.3

p
1. * Given x < 0 real and n 2 N odd, let y D  n x. Prove that yn D x (so that the
real number y is also called the nth root of x).
2. * Given m; n 2 N and x; y > 0, prove that:
p p p
(a) n xy D n x n y.
p pp
(b) qmn
x D pm n x.
n x
(c) n xy D pn y.
1.4 The Geometric Representation 15

Then, extend the above properties to all nonzero reals x and y, provided m and n
are odd naturals.
3. * Let a and b be rational numbers, and let r be an irrational one. If a C br D 0,
prove that a D b D 0.
4. Let a, b, c and d be rational numbers, and let r be an irrational one. If a C br D
c C dr, prove that a D c and b D d.
5. Let r be a positive real and letpk be an integer greater than 1. If r is irrational,
prove that the numbers 1r and k r are also irrational.
p p
6. (Canada) Let a; b and c be rational numbers, such that a C b 2 C c 3 D 0.
Prove that a; b and c are all equal to zero.
7. * Assuming the validity of the Fundamental Theorem of Arithmetic (according
p
to the last paragraph of the introduction to this chapter), prove that 2 is an
irrational number.
p
8. Let p be a prime number, and k > 1 be natural. Prove that k p is irrational.

1.4 The Geometric Representation

A quite useful way of thinking geometrically on the set of rational numbers is the
following: we take a line r, and mark on it a point O; then, we choose one of the half-
lines that O determines on r, call it positive (the other being called negative) and set
a line segment ` as unit of measure. Then, we associate to each rational number a
point of r, in the following way: first, we associate 0 to the point O; then (according
to Figure 1.1), given a rational number ab , with a; b 2 N, we mark, starting from O
and on the positive half-line, a line segment OA of length a` (i.e., OA is obtained by
juxtaposition of a segments equal to `). If b D 1, we associate a1 D a to the point A.
If b > 1, we divide OA into b equal line segments, by plotting b  1 points on OA;
from these b  1 points, we let B denote the one closest to O, and associate ab to the
point B. It is not difficult to show (cf. Problem 1) that this geometric construction is
consistent, in the sense that, by changing ab for another equivalent fraction, we get
the same point B on r. Moreover, an analogous construction can obviously be made
for the negative rationals, marked on the negative half-line.
By proceeding as described in the previous paragraph, it happens that there are
lots of points on r which are not associated to any rational number. In order to give a
simple example, let A be the point associated to the number 1, and construct a square

a
b
a
...
O B A r

Fig. 1.1 plotting rationals on a real line.

16 1 The Set of Real Numbers

C B

O A E r

Fig. 1.2 a point that doesn’t represent any rational number.

OABC, as shown in Figure 1.2. By using a compass, mark on the positive half-line a
point E such that OE D p OB. Since OA D 1,pit follows from Pythagoras Theorem
9 10

that OE D OB D 2. However, since 2 is irrational (cf. Proposition 1.7 or

Problem 7, page 15), we conclude that E is not associated to any rational number.
At this point, two natural questions pose themselves: is it possible to mark on r
all of the real numbers? If we assume that the answer to the previous question is
yes, then, after we mark all reals on r, will there be unmarked points on r? One of
the axioms of Plane Euclidean Geometry11 , stated below, assures that the answers
to these two questions are, respectively, yes and no.
Axiom 1.9 There is a one-to-one correspondence between the points on an
Euclidean line r onto the set of real numbers, which is completely determined
by the following choices:
(a) A point O on r, to represent the real number 0.
(b) A half-line, among those that O determines on r, where we mark the positive
reals.
(c) A point on the half-line of item (b), to represent the number 1.
If we fix choices on a line r as specified by the above axiom, we say that r is the
real line (cf. Figure 1.3).
For further use, we need the following definition.
Definition 1.10 For given real numbers a < b, we set12 :
(i) Œa; b D fx 2 RI a  x  bg.

9
Pythagoras of Samos was one of the greatest mathematicians of classical antiquity. The theorem
that bears his name was already known to babylonians, at least two thousand years before he was
born; nevertheless, Pythagoras
p was the first one to prove it. It is also attributed to him the first proof
of the irrationality of 2.
10
We recall that Pythagoras’ Theorem, one of the most celebrated (and important) results of Plane
Euclidean Geometry, says that, in every right triangle, the square of the length of the hypotenuse
equals the sum of the squares of the lengths of the legs. For two different proofs of it, see chapters 4
and 5 of [4].
11
For an axiomatic construction of plane Euclidean Geometry, we refer the reader to [16].
12
We call the reader’s attention to the less common notations Œa; bŒ instead of Œa; b/, a; b instead
of .a; b, a; bŒ instead of .a; b/, Œa; C1Œ instead of Œa; C1/ and   1; aŒ instead of .1; a/.
1.4 The Geometric Representation 17

(ii) Œa; b/ D fx 2 RI a  x < bg.

(iii) .a; b D fx 2 RI a < x  bg.
(iv) .a; b/ D fx 2 RI a < x < bg.
(v) Œa; C1/ D fx 2 RI a  xg.
(vi) .a; C1/ D fx 2 RI a < xg.
(vii) .1; a D fx 2 RI x  ag.
(viii) .1; a/ D fx 2 RI x < ag.
An interval in R is the set R itself, or a subset of R of any of the seven types
above. Observe that, in the real line, an interval corresponds to a line segment
(perhaps with the exclusion of one or both of its end points), to a half-line (perhaps
with the exclusion of its real end point), or even to the whole real line.
Remarks 1.11
i. We stress that the symbols C1 and 1 (one respectively reads plus infinite
and minus infinite) do not represent real numbers. They merely serve to point out
that, in each of the items (v), (vi), (vii), (viii) above, the corresponding intervals
do contain all reals greater than or equal to (resp. greater than), or less than or
equal to (resp. less than) a.
ii. According to the previous definition, we shall denote R D .1; C1/.
Given real numbers a < b, we say that a and b are the endpoints and that b  a is
the length of each one of the intervals of items (i) to (iv), in the previous definition.
In this case, we also say that those intervals have finite length. Analogously, the
real number a is the (only) endpoint of each of the intervals of items (v) to (viii),
which have infinite (i.e., not finite) lengths. An interval in R is bounded provided
it has finite length; otherwise, the interval is said to be unbounded. In particular,
the bounded intervals of R are precisely those of items (i) to (iv), in the previous
definition.
If a bounded interval has endpoints a < b, we shall say that it is closed, closed
on the left, closed on the right or open when such an interval is respectively equal
to Œa; b, Œa; b/, .a; b or .a; b/. Alternatively, we say that Œa; b/ is open on the right
and .a; b is open on the left. Finally, infinite intervals are named accordingly, by
using obvious extensions of the above terminologies. Figure 1.3 shows the interval
Œa; b/,

0 a b R

Fig. 1.3 the open on the right interval Œa; b/.

18 1 The Set of Real Numbers

Problems: Section 1.4

1. * With respect to the geometric interpretation of rational numbers, discussed at

section 1.4, let the fractions ab and dc be given, where a; b; c; d 2 N. If ab D dc ,
explain why the construction given in the text associates both these fractions to
the same point of the real line.
Another random document with
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 perpetually. ¹⁷And as for thee, if thou wilt walk
before me as David thy father walked, and do
according to all that I have commanded thee,
and wilt keep my statutes and my judgements;
¹⁸then I will establish the throne of thy
kingdom, according as I covenanted with
David thy father, saying, There shall not fail
thee a man to be ruler in Israel. ¹⁹But if ye turn
away, and forsake my statutes and my
commandments which I have set before you,
and shall go and serve other gods, and
worship them: ²⁰then will I pluck them up by
the roots out of my land which I have given
them; and this house, which I have hallowed
for my name, will I cast out of my sight, and I
will make it a proverb and a byword among all
peoples.
16. for ever] Compare xxx. 8.

²¹And this house, which is so high, every one

that passeth by it shall be astonished, and
shall say, Why hath the Lord done thus unto
this land, and to this house?
21. which is so high] The Hebrew must be rendered by a past
tense, which was high—as though the speaker spoke from a later
standpoint than the age of Solomon. That interpretation, however, is
clumsy; and in all probability the reading in Chronicles is simply an
attempt to improve an erroneous text in Kings. There the original
reading probably was “and this house shall become ruins; every one
who passes by,” etc.

²²And they shall answer, Because they forsook

the Lord, the God of their fathers, which
brought them forth out of the land of Egypt,
and laid hold on other gods, and worshipped
them, and served them: therefore hath he
brought all this evil upon them.
22. they shall answer] Render, men shall say.
 Chapter VIII.
1‒6 (compare 1 Kings ix. 10, 11, 17‒19).
Solomon’s Cities.

¹And it came to pass at the end of twenty

years, wherein Solomon had built the house of
the Lord, and his own house,
1. twenty years] Compare 1 Kings vi. 38, vii. 1.

²that the cities which Huram had given to

Solomon, Solomon built them, and caused the
children of Israel to dwell there.
2. the cities which Huram had given to Solomon] According to 1
Kings ix. 12, 13 it was Solomon who gave Huram cities. Huram
however was not pleased with them (1 Kings ix. 12, 13), and from
this fact the English translators of 1611 concluded that Huram
rejected them and “restored” them. No reconciliation of these
different versions is tenable; and it is to be supposed that the
Chronicler’s tradition is unhistorical—the idea that the wealthy
Solomon could not or did not purchase what he required from Huram
except by parting with a portion of the territories of Israel was
repugnant, if not incredible, in the Chronicler’s day.

built them] i.e. fortified them.

³And Solomon went to Hamath-zobah, and

prevailed against it.
 3. Hamath-zobah] The two kingdoms of Hamath and Zobah are
distinguished from one another (1 Chronicles xviii. 3, 9 = 2 Samuel
viii. 3, 9), Hamath apparently being north of Zobah. It is probable
however that Hamath as the name of a city belonged to more than
one place, and Hamath-zobah may be a southern namesake of the
well-known Hamath the great (Amos vi. 2).

prevailed against it] No mention of this campaign is made

elsewhere. It may be a genuine tradition preserved only in
Chronicles. On the other hand, this statement and the reference to
the store-cities built in Hamath (verse 4) may be due to nothing
except the mention of Tadmor in the wilderness (itself an error, see
following note). If Solomon built far-off Tadmor, then (the Chronicler
thinks) he must also have subdued the region of Hamath.

⁴And he built Tadmor in the wilderness, and all

the store cities, which he built in Hamath.
4. Tadmor in the wilderness] Palmyra (Bädeker, Palestine⁵, p.
344) is meant, a city on an oasis north-east of Damascus half-way
between Damascus and the Euphrates. Apart from this passage of
Chronicles it first appears in history in b.c. 34, when it was
threatened with attack by Mark Antony. This silence of history for a
thousand years casts a doubt on the belief that Tadmor (Palmyra) is
as old as the time of Solomon, and the doubt is strengthened by a
reference to the parallel passage (1 Kings ix. 18), for there (1) the
text (Kethīb) has “Tamar,” with “Tadmor” as marginal reading (Ḳerī),
and (2) Tamar (Tadmor) is associated with Gezer, Beth-horon, and
Baalath, cities either in Judah or on its borders. Probably therefore
the marginal reading “Tadmor” in 1 Kings is due to the influence of 2
Chronicles, and the text of 1 Kings (“Tamar”) is correct. The city built
by Solomon was a Tamar in the south of Judah.

⁵Also he built Beth-horon the upper, and Beth-

horon the nether, fenced cities, with walls,
gates, and bars;
 5. Beth-horon the upper] Not mentioned in the parallel passage
(1 Kings ix. 17) which however has Gezer. The site of Gezer has
recently been explored with extremely interesting results (see e.g.
Macalister, Bible Side-lights from the Mound of Gezer). The
Chronicler probably omits the name of Gezer, because he had no
liking for the tradition that Solomon married a daughter of Pharaoh (a
heinous sin in the eyes of the Chronicler’s contemporaries), and
according to 1 Kings ix. 16 Gezer was presented to Solomon by the
Pharaoh as the dowry of his daughter.

⁶and Baalath, and all the store cities that

Solomon had, and all the cities for his
chariots, and the cities for his horsemen, and
all that Solomon desired to build for his
pleasure in Jerusalem, and in Lebanon, and in
all the land of his dominion.
6. Baalath] A city in the tribe of (the southern) Dan not far from
Gezer and Beth-horon (1 Kings ix. 18).

cities for his chariots] See note on i. 14.

7‒10 (= 1 Kings ix. 20‒23).

Solomon’s Task-workers.

⁷As for all the people that were left of the

Hittites, and the Amorites, and the Perizzites,
and the Hivites, and the Jebusites, which were
not of Israel;
7. Hittites ... Jebusites] See notes on 1 Chronicles i. 13‒15.

⁸of their children that were left after them in

the land, whom the children of Israel
 consumed not, of them did Solomon raise a
levy of bondservants, unto this day.
8. consumed not] But in Kings, were not able to consume, a
displeasing remark, which the Chronicler therefore softened down.

a levy of bondservants] Compare the notes on ii. 2, 17.

⁹But of the children of Israel did Solomon

make no servants for his work; but they were
men of war, and chief of his captains, and
rulers of his chariots and of his horsemen.
9. and chief of his captains] Read (with 1 Kings ix. 22) and his
princes and his captains. The statements of this verse must be
read in connection with 1 Kings v. 13 ff., xii. 4 ff., whence it appears
that, though Solomon did not actually reduce any Israelite to
permanent slavery, yet he imposed upon his own people a corvée
which was felt to be very burdensome.

¹⁰And these were the chief officers of king

Solomon, even two hundred and fifty, that
bare rule over the people.
10. And these were the chief] After this preface (compare 1 Kings
ix. 23) we expect both here and in 1 Kings a list of these persons;
compare 1 Chronicles xi. 10 ff., xii. 1 ff. Possibly the text of 1 Kings
suffered at an early date, and the list was missing when the
Chronicler wrote.

two hundred and fifty] According to 1 Kings ix. 23, five hundred
and fifty. On the other hand the under-overseers are reckoned at
three thousand six hundred in 2 Chronicles ii. 18 as against three
thousand three hundred in 1 Kings v. 16. The total number therefore
of overseers of all kinds is given both in 1 Kings and 2 Chronicles as
3850.

11 (= 1 Kings ix. 24).

The House of Pharaoh’s Daughter.

¹¹And Solomon brought up the daughter of

Pharaoh out of the city of David unto the
house that he had built for her: for he said, My
wife shall not dwell in the house of David king
of Israel, because the places ¹ are holy,
whereunto the ark of the Lord hath come.
¹ Hebrew they are.

11. for he said, My wife, etc.] These words are an addition by the
Chronicler. In 1 Kings iii. 1 it is said simply that Solomon brought
Pharaoh’s daughter into the city of David until his own house was
finished.

My wife shall not dwell] Render, No wife of mine shall dwell.

12‒16 (compare 1 Kings ix. 25).

Solomon’s arrangements for the Temple Worship.

This paragraph is in the main an expansion of 1 Kings ix. 25.

¹²Then Solomon offered burnt offerings unto

the Lord on the altar of the Lord, which he
had built before the porch,
12. on the altar of the Lord, which he had built before the porch]
This refers to the great brasen altar of burnt-offering (iv. 1). In 1
Kings the statement is that Solomon burnt incense upon the altar
that was before the Lord (referring to the altar of incense; compare
Exodus xxx. 1‒10). Such an act, according to the Chronicler, was of
the nature of trespass, being punished in the case of Uzziah with
leprosy (xxvi. 16), and was therefore not to be attributed to so great
a king as Solomon.

¹³even as the duty of every day required,

offering according to the commandment of
Moses, on the sabbaths, and on the new
moons, and on the set feasts, three times in
the year, even in the feast of unleavened
bread, and in the feast of weeks, and in the
feast of tabernacles.
13. on the sabbaths, and on the new moons] The writer in Kings
confines Solomon’s sacrificial duties to three times in the year, i.e.
on the three great feasts specified at the end of this verse. The
Chronicler adds the weekly and monthly festivals, in conformity with
the developed ritual of the Priestly Code.

¹⁴And he appointed, according to the

ordinance of David his father, the courses of
the priests to their service, and the Levites to
their charges, to praise, and to minister before
the priests, as the duty of every day required:
the doorkeepers also by their courses at every
gate: for so had David the man of God
commanded. ¹⁵And they departed not from the
commandment of the king unto the priests and
Levites concerning any matter, or concerning
the treasures.
 14. of David] Compare 1 Chronicles xxiv.‒xxvi.

to praise, and to minister before the priests] Compare 1

Chronicles xxiii. 28.

David the man of God] Targum David the prophet of the Lord (a
correct paraphrase). Compare Nehemiah xii. 36.

¹⁶Now all the work of Solomon was prepared

unto the day of the foundation of the house of
the Lord, and until it was finished. So the
house of the Lord was perfected.
16. Now all the work of Solomon was prepared] Render, So all
the work of Solomon was established.

unto the day ... was perfected] LXX. offers a much shorter and
smoother text, from the day on which it was founded until Solomon
perfected the house of the Lord. This reading is probably right.

17, 18 (= 1 Kings ix. 26‒28).

Solomon’s Fleet.

¹⁷Then went Solomon to Ezion-geber, and

to Eloth, on the sea shore in the land of Edom.
17. to Ezion-geber, and to Eloth] In 1 Kings Ezion-geber which is
beside Eloth on the shore of the Red Sea. Strictly speaking it was at
the head of the Gulf of Akaba, the eastern arm of the Red Sea.
Compare xx. 36 and Deuteronomy ii. 8.

¹⁸And Huram sent him by the hands of his

servants ships, and servants that had
knowledge of the sea; and they came with the
servants of Solomon to Ophir, and fetched
 from thence four hundred and fifty talents of
gold, and brought them to king Solomon.
18. sent him by the hands of his servants ships] The words would
seem to imply that Huram had ships transported overland from the
Phoenician coast to the Gulf of Akaba! Either the Chronicler has
phrased the matter carelessly, or perhaps the text should be altered
to conform with Kings, where it is merely said that Solomon built
ships in Ezion-geber—probably with the help of Huram—and that
Huram helped to man them.

Ophir] The situation of this oft-mentioned place is not known. It

has been identified with some part of the coast (a) of India, (b) of
Africa, (c) of Arabia. The last identification is the most probable;
Ophir appears as the name of an Arabian tribe (Genesis x. 29). The
name is variously written in the LXX. but usually with an initial “S,”
Sophir(a), which has been supposed to refer to India.

four hundred and fifty talents] So LXX., but in 1 Kings “four

hundred and twenty” (so Hebrew, in LXX. B “a hundred and twenty”).

Chapter IX.
1‒12 (= 1 Kings x. 1‒13).
The Visit of the Queen of Sheba.

¹And when the queen of Sheba heard of the

fame of Solomon, she came to prove Solomon
with hard questions at Jerusalem, with a very
great train, and camels that bare spices, and
gold in abundance, and precious stones: and
 when she was come to Solomon, she
communed with him of all that was in her
heart. ²And Solomon told her all her questions:
and there was not any thing hid from Solomon
which he told her not. ³And when the queen of
Sheba had seen the wisdom of Solomon, and
the house that he had built,
1. Sheba] An important district in Arabia Felix, the seat of a
kingdom. See notes on 1 Chronicles i. 9, 32; also Barnes on 1 Kings
x. 1.

hard questions] Hebrew ḥidoth, “dark sayings” (Proverbs i. 6); the

singular is translated “riddle” (Judges xiv. 12‒18).

⁴and the meat of his table, and the sitting of

his servants, and the attendance ¹ of his
ministers, and their apparel; his cupbearers
also, and their apparel; and his ascent by
which he went up unto the house of the Lord;
there was no more spirit in her.
¹ Hebrew standing.

4. and their apparel] The phrase is repeated probably through an

error of transcription; it occurs once only in the parallel place in 1
Kings.

his ascent by which he went up] Render (if the text be sound),
his manner of going up, i.e. the pomp with which he went up (so
Targum); but it is better, with LXX. and Peshitṭa, to read the burnt
offerings which he used to offer, a rendering which is right in 1 Kings
x. 5 (compare Revised Version margin). The difference of reading
between Chronicles and 1 Kings in the Hebrew is slight.

⁵And she said to the king, It was a true report

that I heard in mine own land of thine acts ¹,
and of thy wisdom.
¹ Or, sayings.

5. of thine acts] Literally of thy matters; the reference is quite

general.

⁶Howbeit I believed not their words, until I

came, and mine eyes had seen it: and,
behold, the half of the greatness of thy
wisdom was not told me: thou exceeded the
fame that I heard. ⁷Happy are thy men, and
happy are these thy servants, which stand
continually before thee, and hear thy wisdom.
6. the greatness of thy wisdom] Compare 1 Kings x. 7, “thy
wisdom and prosperity.”

⁸Blessed be the Lord thy God, which

delighted in thee, to set thee on his throne, to
be king for the Lord thy God: because thy
God loved Israel, to establish them for ever,
therefore made he thee king over them, to do
judgement and justice.
8. on his throne] To the Chronicler the Israelite throne belongs to
God; the visible king occupies it only as a deputy. Compare 1
Chronicles xxviii. 5, “the throne of the kingdom of the Lord”; 1
Chronicles xxix. 23, “Solomon sat on the throne of the Lord.”
Contrast 1 Kings x. 9.

⁹And she gave the king an hundred and

twenty talents of gold, and spices in great
abundance, and precious stones: neither was
there any such spice as the queen of Sheba
gave to king Solomon.
9. an hundred and twenty talents of gold] A sum so large must be
regarded rather as tribute than as a complimentary gift.

any such spice] i.e. as in 1 Kings “such abundance of spices.”

¹⁰And the servants also of Huram, and the

servants of Solomon, which brought gold from
Ophir, brought algum trees ¹ and precious
stones. ¹¹And the king made of the algum
trees terraces for the house of the Lord, and
for the king’s house, and harps and psalteries
for the singers: and there were none such
seen before in the land of Judah.
¹ In 1 Kings x. 11, almug trees.

10, 11. These verses interrupt the connection in Kings as in

Chronicles They are an interpolation. Verse 12 concludes the
account of the visit of the Queen of Sheba.

10. algum trees] In 1 Kings “almug trees.” Compare ii. 8 (note).

 11. terraces] Perhaps “raised paths.” In 1 Kings x. 12 a different
Hebrew word is used, which may mean “railings” (“pillars,”
Authorized Version).

psalteries] compare 1 Chronicles xiii. 8 (note).

in the land of Judah] Here the Chronicler speaks as a man of his

own age. We should expect, land of Israel.

¹²And king Solomon gave to the queen of

Sheba all her desire, whatsoever she asked,
beside that which she had brought unto the
king. So she turned, and went to her own land,
she and her servants.
12. beside that which she had brought unto the king] This means
that the king beside returning the queen the value of her present to
him, also gave her additional gifts; compare 1 Kings x. 13.

13‒28 (= 1 Kings x. 14‒27).

Solomon’s Greatness.

¹³Now the weight of gold that came to

Solomon in one year was six hundred and
threescore and six talents of gold;
13. six hundred and threescore and six] This may be called a
“round” number, for a system of counting based on the number six
was known in ancient times, e.g. among the Assyrians. Taken
literally, the amount, which would be equal to about £4,000,000 and
of course of vastly greater purchasing power than the same sum to-
day, is fantastically large. For similar high figures, compare 1
Chronicles xxii. 14 (note).
 ¹⁴beside that which the chapmen and
merchants brought: and all the kings of Arabia
and the governors of the country brought gold
and silver to Solomon.
14. chapmen] The English word means “merchant”; compare the
verb, “to chaffer” and the German “Kaufmann.” The Hebrew word
means literally “those who go about” as merchants.

governors] Hebrew paḥoth (plural of peḥah; compare “Pasha”), a

word applied specially to governors of provinces of the Assyrian,
Babylonian, and Persian empires. Presumably governors outside the
land of Israel are here meant.

¹⁵And king Solomon made two hundred

targets of beaten gold: six hundred shekels of
beaten gold went to one target.
15. targets] Hebrew ṣinnah, a word meaning a large shield;
compare 1 Samuel xvii. 7. On the other hand in verse 16 (Hebrew
māgēn) small shields are meant. The English renderings should be
transposed so as to read “shields” in verse 15 and “targets” in verse
16.

six hundred shekels] About 21 lbs. avoirdupois.

went to one target] Render (also in verse 16) were spread upon
one target.

¹⁶And he made three hundred shields of

beaten gold; three hundred shekels of gold
went to one shield: and the king put them in
the house of the forest of Lebanon.
 ¹⁷Moreover the king made a great throne of
ivory, and overlaid it with pure gold.
16. shields] See note on verse 15.

the house of the forest of Lebanon] So called probably because it

was built of cedar of Lebanon (1 Kings vii. 2). It was in Jerusalem
and seems to have existed as late as the time of Isaiah (Isaiah xxii.
8) when it was in use as an armoury.

¹⁸And there were six steps to the throne, with

a footstool of gold, which were fastened to the
throne, and stays ¹ on either side by the place
of the seat, and two lions standing beside the
stays. ¹⁹And twelve lions stood there on the
one side and on the other upon the six steps:
there was not the like made in any kingdom.
²⁰And all king Solomon’s drinking vessels were
of gold, and all the vessels of the house of the
forest of Lebanon were of pure gold: silver
was nothing accounted of in the days of
Solomon.
¹ Or, arms Hebrew hands.

18. with a footstool of gold, which were fastened to the throne] A

quite different detail takes the place of this in 1 Kings x. 19, and the
top of the throne was round behind. Perhaps both details were found
in the original text of Kings.

²¹For the king had ships that went to Tarshish

with the servants of Huram: once every three
 years came the ships of Tarshish, bringing
gold, and silver, ivory, and apes, and
peacocks. ²²So king Solomon exceeded all the
kings of the earth in riches and wisdom. ²³And
all the kings of the earth sought the presence
of Solomon, to hear his wisdom, which God
had put in his heart.
21. For the king had ships that went to Tarshish] Here the
Chronicler misunderstands the parallel passage (1 Kings x. 22, “For
the king had at sea a navy of Tarshish”). “Navy (or ‘ships’) of
Tarshish” (compare Psalms xlviii. 7) is a phrase meaning large ships
fit for long voyages; i.e. such as were the vessels used by the
Phoenicians in trading with Tarshish (i.e. Tartessus in Spain). We
may well compare the use of the title “Indiaman,” for that term came
to be used generally of large trading vessels besides those actually
trading with India. The merchandise mentioned in this verse
doubtless came from the East and not from Tarshish.

apes] These animals were much sought after; they appear

pictured in relief on the Black Obelisk (in the British Museum; among
the tribute received by Shalmaneser II of Assyria.

²⁴And they brought every man his present,

vessels of silver, and vessels of gold, and
raiment, armour, and spices, horses, and
mules, a rate year by year.
24. his present] i.e. his tribute.

armour] A less probable rendering is στακτὴ (“oil of myrrh”) LXX.

(here and in Kings); also “myrrh,” Peshitṭa of 2 Chronicles.

25‒28. Compare i. 14‒17.

 ²⁵And Solomon had four thousand stalls for
horses and chariots, and twelve thousand
horsemen, which he bestowed in the chariot
cities, and with the king at Jerusalem.
25. four thousand stalls for horses and chariots] In the parallel
passage (1 Kings iv. 26 = v. 6, Hebrew), forty thousand stalls of
horses for his chariots. Compare also i. 14 (= 1 Kings x. 26) where
1400 stalls of horses for chariots are ascribed to Solomon. This
number is much more likely to correspond with fact, but that does not
affect the probability that the Chronicler would find no difficulty in
crediting Solomon with possessing 4000 or even 40,000, especially
at the close of his reign. The meaning of the word rendered “stalls” is
quite uncertain: it may mean “pair.”

twelve thousand horsemen] So 1 Kings iv. 26 (v. 6, Hebrew); and

2 Chronicles i. 14 (= 1 Kings x. 26).

chariot cities] See note on i. 14.

²⁶And he ruled over all the kings from the

River even unto the land of the Philistines, and
to the border of Egypt.
26. from the River] i.e. the Euphrates.

even unto the land of the Philistines] The Philistines, it is implied,

were able to maintain their independence.

²⁷And the king made silver to be in Jerusalem

as stones, and cedars made he to be as the
sycomore trees that are in the lowland, for
abundance.
 27. cedars] Rather, cedar wood.

sycomore] i.e. the fig-mulberry, not now a common tree in

Palestine; compare 1 Chronicles xxvii. 28, note.

the lowland] (Hebrew Shephelah). See G. A. Smith, Historical

Geography of the Holy Land, chapter x. “The Shephelah,” and the
note on i. 15.

²⁸And they brought horses for Solomon out of

Egypt, and out of all lands.
28. And they brought, etc.] Compare i. 16, 17.

29‒31 (= 1 Kings xi. 41‒43).

The Epilogue.

An important section of 1 Kings (xi. 1‒40) giving an account of

Solomon’s patronage of idolatry and of the troubles of his reign is
significantly omitted by the Chronicler: see the note on 1 Chronicles
xxix. 25, p. 168. For the authorities to which the Chronicler appeals
in these verses, see Introduction § 5.

²⁹Now the rest of the acts of Solomon, first

and last, are they not written in the history ¹ of
Nathan the prophet, and in the prophecy of
Ahijah the Shilonite, and in the visions of Iddo ²
the seer concerning Jeroboam the son of
Nebat?
¹ Hebrew words. ² Hebrew Jedai, or, Jedo.

29. the history of Nathan] Compare 1 Chronicles xxix. 29.

Ahijah the Shilonite] 1 Kings xi. 29, xiv. 2 ff.

 Iddo] Hebrew Jedai or Jedo (probably a misspelling); compare xii.
15.

³⁰And Solomon reigned in Jerusalem over all

Israel forty years.
30. forty years] The number is a round number; compare Judges
iii. 30, v. 31, viii. 28, xiii. 1.

³¹And Solomon slept with his fathers, and he

was buried in the city of David his father: and
Rehoboam his son reigned in his stead.
31. slept with his fathers] This formula is not used of David (1
Chronicles xxix. 28), doubtless because David’s father was not a
king!

in the city of David] 1 Chronicles xi. 7.

Chapters X.‒XXXVI.
The History of Judah from Rehoboam to
the Exile.

Chapter X.
1‒15 (= 1 Kings xii. 1‒15).
The Conference at Shechem.