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Springer Proceedings in Mathematics & Statistics

Jim M. Cushing
M. Saleem
H.M. Srivastava
Mumtaz Ahmad Khan
M. Merajuddin Editors

Applied Analysis
in Biological and
Physical Sciences
ICMBAA, Aligarh, India, June 2015
Springer Proceedings in Mathematics & Statistics

Volume 186
Springer Proceedings in Mathematics & Statistics

This book series features volumes composed of selected contributions from

workshops and conferences in all areas of current research in mathematics and
statistics, including operation research and optimization. In addition to an overall
evaluation of the interest, scientific quality, and timeliness of each proposal at the
hands of the publisher, individual contributions are all refereed to the high quality
standards of leading journals in the field. Thus, this series provides the research
community with well-edited, authoritative reports on developments in the most
exciting areas of mathematical and statistical research today.

More information about this series at http://www.springer.com/series/10533

Jim M. Cushing M. Saleem
•

H.M. Srivastava Mumtaz Ahmad Khan

•

M. Merajuddin
Editors

Applied Analysis
in Biological and Physical
Sciences
ICMBAA, Aligarh, India, June 2015

123
Editors
Jim M. Cushing Mumtaz Ahmad Khan
Department of Mathematics and Program Department of Applied Mathematics
in Applied Mathematics Aligarh Muslim University
University of Arizona Aligarh, Uttar Pradesh
Tucson, USA India

M. Saleem M. Merajuddin
Department of Applied Mathematics Department of Applied Mathematics
Aligarh Muslim University Aligarh Muslim University
Aligarh, Uttar Pradesh Aligarh, Uttar Pradesh
India India

H.M. Srivastava
Department of Mathematics and Statistics
University of Victoria
Victoria, BC
Canada

ISSN 2194-1009 ISSN 2194-1017 (electronic)

Springer Proceedings in Mathematics & Statistics
ISBN 978-81-322-3638-2 ISBN 978-81-322-3640-5 (eBook)
DOI 10.1007/978-81-322-3640-5
Library of Congress Control Number: 2016951965

Mathematics Subject Classification (2010): 92B05, 92D25, 92C60, 35Q35, 46T99

© Springer India 2016

This work is subject to copyright. All rights are reserved by the Publisher, whether the whole or part
of the material is concerned, specifically the rights of translation, reprinting, reuse of illustrations,
recitation, broadcasting, reproduction on microfilms or in any other physical way, and transmission
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The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, service marks, etc. in this
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The registered company address is: 7th Floor, Vijaya Building, 17 Barakhamba Road, New Delhi 110 001, India
Preface

This volume comprises three parts. Part I contains the contributions from the dis-
cipline of nonlinear dynamics and its applications to the biological sciences, Part II
presents the research papers on nonlinear analysis and applications to a variety of
problems in science, engineering and industry and lastly Part III focuses on con-
tributions concerning applied analysis. The authors were speakers and participants
at the conference. Their papers touch upon a variety of important contemporary
topics including linear/nonlinear analysis, mathematical biology/ecology, dynami-
cal systems, graph theory, variational inequalities/functional analysis, differential
and difference equations, partial differential equations, numerical analysis/
techniques, chaos and wavelet analysis. The emphasis is on both the mathemati-
cal and the applied aspects of these topics. All contributions were peer reviewed.
This volume mainly focuses on current research in fields of mathematical
analysis that can be used as sophisticated tools for the study of scientific problems.
The reader will find a variety of applications and different facets of nonlinear
analysis, with an interdisciplinary flavor that ranges from model development and
formulation to the mathematical and theoretical analysis of the models. We hope
that the work presented in this volume will appeal to and benefit researchers,
academicians and engineers equally. We further hope that the research embodied in
this volume will stimulate the formation of interdisciplinary groups for fruitful
collaborative research.
The Department of Applied Mathematics at Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh,
India, offers a Ph.D. research program in areas ranging from applied disciplines
such as Mathematical Biology and Graph Theory, to purely mathematical disci-
plines, like Functional Analysis, Special Functions and Algebra. This department is
part of the Faculty of Engineering and Technology and actively interacts with
engineering faculty and students. When in June 2014 the department was entrusted
with the task of organizing and hosting an international conference, it was natural to
include applied analysis and applications to the physical sciences as major themes.
Owing to the increasing interest and importance of applications in the biosciences,
it was decided also to include them as a major theme of the conference.

v
vi Preface

We are very grateful to the members of the Editorial Board for their guidance.
Our sincere thanks are due to many experts, including those on the Editorial Board,
who have acted as peer reviewers/referees.
The faculty members and the ministerial staff of the Department of Applied
Mathematics provided invaluable help with the organization of ICMBAA-2015.
We would particularly like to thank Lt. Gen. Zameer Uddin Shah (Vice Chancellor,
AMU) and Brigadier S. Ahmad Ali (Pro Vice Chancellor, AMU) for their support
and patronage. Dr. Sabiha Tabassum, Dr. Ghazala Yasmin, Mr. Mohammad Malik,
and Dr. Abdullah Bin Abu Baker handled innumerable tasks during the organiza-
tion of the conference and also during the development of this volume with style
and grace under pressure. Financial support for the conference from DST, New
Delhi; CSIR, New Delhi; TEQIP-II and AMU, Aligarh is greatly acknowledged.
TEQIP-II Program in the Z.H. College of Engineering and Technology needs a
special mention here for its generous support towards the preparation of this
volume.
We place on record our deep appreciation and thanks to all the contributors of
this volume. This volume was made possible only by their efforts and cooperation.
Finally, we gratefully acknowledge our indebtedness to Springer and their support
team for their cooperation and patience. Our special thanks are given to Mr.
Shamim Ahmad, Ms. Ignasy Devi and Mr. V. Praveenkumar from Springer for their
cooperation and encouragement.

Arizona, USA Jim M. Cushing

Aligarh, India M. Saleem
Victoria, Canada H.M. Srivastava
Aligarh, India Mumtaz Ahmad Khan
Aligarh, India M. Merajuddin
March 2016
Editorial Board

Aziz Alaoui, University LeHavre, France

Hal Smith, Arizona State University, USA
Hiroshi Matano, University of Tokyo, Japan
J.B. Shukla, IIT Kanpur, India
J.K. Kim, Kyungnam University, Korea
Linda J.S. Allen, Texas Tech. University, USA
Malay Banerjee, IIT Kanpur, India
Patrick De Leenheer, Oregon State University, USA
Peeyush Chandra, IIT Kanpur, India
Ranjit K. Upadhyay, Indian School of Mines, India
Robert Stephen Cantrell, University of Miami, USA
Shandelle M. Henson, Andrews University, USA
Shariefuddin Pirzada, University of Kashmir, India
Sunita Gakkhar, IIT Roorkee, India
A.K. Pani, IIT Bombay, India
Adimurthi, TIFR Bengaluru, India
Edi Tri Baskoro, Int. Tek. Bandung, Indonesia
G.P. Kapoor, IIT Kanpur, India
M.A. Sofi, University of Kashmir, India
P. Veeramani, IIT Madras, India
P.N. Srikanth, TIFR Bengaluru, India
Qamrul Hasan Ansari, AMU, Aligarh, India
S. Arumugam, Kalasalingam University, India
Satya Deo, HRI Allahabad, India
Subiman Kundu, IIT Delhi, India
V.D. Sharma, IIT Bombay, India
Zhou Guofei, Nanjing University, China

vii
Contents

Part I Applications to Biological Sciences

Modeling and Dynamics of Predator Prey Systems on a Circular
Domain . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
Radouane Yafia, M.A. Aziz-Alaoui and Samira El Yacoubi
Pattern Formation in a Prey-Predator Model with Nonlocal
Interaction Terms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
Malay Banerjee, Moitri Sen and Vitaly Volpert
One Dimensional Maps as Population and Evolutionary Dynamic
Models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
Jim M. Cushing
An SIR Model with Nonlinear Incidence Rate and Holling Type III
Treatment Rate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
Preeti Dubey, Balram Dubey and Uma S. Dubey
Dynamic Complexities in a Pest Control Model with Birth Pulses . . . . . 83
Anju Goel and Sunita Gakkhar
Dynamical Behavior of a Modified Leslie–Gower Prey–Predator
Model with Michaelis–Menten Type Prey-Harvesting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99
R.P. Gupta and Peeyush Chandra
A Special Class of Lotka–Volterra Models of Bacteria-Virus Infection
Networks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113
Daniel A. Korytowski and Hal L. Smith
Plant Disease Propagation in a Striped Periodic Medium . . . . . . . . . . . . 121
Arnaud Ducrot and Hiroshi Matano
A Within-Host Model of Dengue Viral Infection Dynamics . . . . . . . . . . . 165
Arti Mishra

ix
x Contents

Stabilization of Prey Predator Model via Feedback Control . . . . . . . . . . 177

Anuraj Singh
Graph Theoretic Concepts in the Study of Biological Networks . . . . . . . 187
M. Indhumathy, S. Arumugam, Veeky Baths
and Tarkeshwar Singh
Some Algebraic Aspects and Evolution of Genetic Code . . . . . . . . . . . . . 201
Tazid Ali and Nisha Gohain

Part II Applications to Physical Sciences

On Ramsey (2K2, 2H)-Minimal Graphs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 219
Kristiana Wijaya and Edy Tri Baskoro
Solution of Viscous Burgers Equation Using a New Flux
Based Scheme . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 227
Mohammad Belal and Nadeem Hasan
Effect of Slip Velocity on the Performance of a Magnetic Fluid
Based Transversely Rough Porous Narrow Journal Bearing. . . . . . . . . . 243
Snehal Shukla and Gunamani Deheri
On the Wave Equations of Kirchhoff–Narasimha and Carrier . . . . . . . . 259
Pratik Suchde and A.S. Vasudeva Murthy
Mathematical Model of Flow in a Channel with
Permeability - Combined Effect of Straight and
Curved Boundaries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 277
P. Muthu and M. Varunkumar

Part III Applied Analysis

Approximate Controllability of Nonlocal Fractional
Integro-Differential Equations with Finite Delay . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 293
Kamaljeet, D. Bahuguna and R.K. Shukla
Some Solutions of Generalised Variable Coefficients
KdV Equation by Classical Lie Approach . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 309
Rajeev Kumar, Anupma Bansal and R.K. Gupta
Levitin–Polyak Well-Posedness of Strong Parametric Vector
Quasi-equilibrium Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 321
M. Darabi and J. Zafarani
Best Simultaneous Approximation in Quotient Spaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 339
T.D. Narang and Sahil Gupta
H(., ., .)-g-Proximal-Point Mapping with an Application . . . . . . . . . . . . . 351
Shamshad Husain, Huma Sahper and Sanjeev Gupta
Contents xi

Some Integral Inequalities for Log-Preinvex Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 373

Akhlad Iqbal and V. Samhita
Estimates for Initial Coefficients of Certain Starlike Functions
with Respect to Symmetric Points . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 385
Kanika Khatter, V. Ravichandran and S. Sivaprasad Kumar
Note on Convex Functionals in the Dual Spaces of Nonreflexive
Banach Spaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 397
Yuqing Chen, Yeol Je Cho and Jong Kyu Kim
Nonlinear Aspects of Certain Linear Phenomena in Banach Spaces . . . . 407
M.A. Sofi
Some Results on Fixed Points of Weak Contractions for Non
Compatible Mappings via (E.A)-Like Property . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 427
T. Som, A. Kundu and B.S. Choudhury
Editors and Contributors

About the Editors

Jim M. Cushing is Professor in the Department of Mathematics and member of the

Interdisciplinary Program in Applied Mathematics at the University of Arizona,
Tucson, U.S.A. His professional interests include discrete and continuous dynamic
systems and applications in population, ecological and evolutionary biology. He is
a fellow of the American Mathematical Society, editor-in-chief of the Journal of
Biological Dynamics and past president of the International Society of Difference
Equations. He is also the Alexander von Humboldt Fellow.
M. Saleem is Professor in the Department of Applied Mathematics, Aligarh
Muslim University, India. He did his Ph.D. from the Indian Institute of Technology
Kanpur, India, in 1980. His main area of research is mathematical modelling of
ecological problems. He has also published numerous papers on elasticity in several
journals of international repute. His current research interests include cancer growth
models. He is a life member of the Indian Society for Mathematical Modelling &
Computer Simulation.
H.M. Srivastava has held the position of Professor Emeritus in the Department of
Mathematics and Statistics at the University of Victoria in Canada since 2006. Prior
to this, he was a professor in the same department from 1974 to 2006 and associate
professor in the same department from 1969 to 1974. He has held numerous visiting
research and honorary chair positions at many universities and research Institutes in
different parts of the world. He is also actively editorially associated with numerous
international scientific research journals. His current research interests include
several areas of pure and applied mathematical sciences such as real and complex
analysis, fractional calculus and its applications, integral equations and transforms,
higher transcendental functions and their applications, q-series and q-polynomials,
analytic number theory, analytic and geometric inequalities, probability and
statistics, and inventory modelling and optimization. He has published 25 books,
monographs and edited volumes, 30 book and encyclopaedia chapters, 45 papers in

xiii
xiv Editors and Contributors

international conference proceedings, and more than 1,000 scientific research

journal articles, as well as written forewords and prefaces to many books and
journals. He is currently listed as the 2015 Thomson-Reuters Highly Cited
Researcher.
Mumtaz Ahmad Khan is Dean of the Faculty of Engineering & Technology and
Professor in the Department of Applied Mathematics, Aligarh Muslim University,
India. He did both his M.Sc. and Ph.D. from Lucknow University in 1970 and
1978, respectively. He has 150 research papers to his credit published in several
international journals of repute. He has successfully guided 17 Ph.D. and 12 M.Phil
students. He is in the editorial board of International Transactions in Mathematical
Sciences and Computer. He is a reviewer for American Mathematical Review. His
current research interests include discrete complex analysis, fractional calculus and
its application, integral equations and transforms, higher transcendental functions
and their applications, q-series, q-polynomials and umbral calculus.
M. Merajuddin is Professor in the Department of Applied Mathematics, Aligarh
Muslim University, India. He did both his M.Sc. and Ph.D. from the Indian Institute
of Technology Kanpur, India, in 1978 and 1985, respectively. His research interests
include graph theory and discrete mathematics.

Contributors

Tazid Ali Department of Mathematics, Dibrugarh University, Dibrugarh, India

S. Arumugam National Centre for Advanced Research in Discrete Mathematics,
Kalasalingam University, Krishnankoil, Tamil Nadu, India; Department of
Computer Science, Liverpool Hope University, Liverpool, UK; Department of
Computer Science, Ball State University, Muncie, IN, USA
M.A. Aziz-Alaoui UniHavre, LMAH, FR CNRS 3335, ISCN, Normandie
University, Le Havre, France
D. Bahuguna Department of Mathematics & Statistics, Indian Institute of
Technology Kanpur, Kanpur, India
Malay Banerjee Department of Mathematics and Statistics, IIT Kanpur, Kanpur,
India
Anupma Bansal Department of Mathematics, DAV College for Women,
Ferozepur Cantt, Punjab, India
Edy Tri Baskoro Combinatorial Mathematics Research Group, Faculty of
Mathematics and Natural Sciences, Institut Teknologi Bandung, Bandung,
Indonesia
Veeky Baths Department of Biological Sciences, Birla Institute of Technology
and Science Pilani, Zuarinagar, Goa, India
Editors and Contributors xv

Mohammad Belal Department of Mechanical Engineering, Aligarh Muslim

University, Aligarh, India
Peeyush Chandra Department of Mathematics and Statistics, IIT Kanpur,
Kanpur, India
Yuqing Chen College of Applied Mathematics Guangdong University of
Technology, Guangzhou, Guangdong, People’s Republic of China
Yeol Je Cho Department of Mathematics Education, The Research Institute of
Natural Sciences, Gyongsang National University, Jinju, Korea
B.S. Choudhury Department of Mathematics, IIEST, Shibpur, Howrah, West
Bengal, India
Jim M. Cushing Department of Mathematics and Program in Applied
Mathematics, University of Arizona, Tucson, AZ, USA
M. Darabi Department of Basic Sciences, Golpayegan University of Technology,
Golpayegan, Isfahan, Iran
Gunamani Deheri Department of Mathematics, Sardar Patel University, Anand,
Gujarat, India
Balram Dubey Department of Mathematics, BITS Pilani-Pilani Campus, Pilani,
Rajasthan, India
Preeti Dubey Department of Mathematics, BITS Pilani-Pilani Campus, Pilani,
Rajasthan, India
Uma S. Dubey Department of Biological Sciences, BITS Pilani-Pilani Campus,
Pilani, Rajasthan, India
Arnaud Ducrot IMB, UMR CNRS 5251, University of Bordeaux, Bordeaux,
France
Samira El Yacoubi IMAGES-Espace-Dev, UMR 228 IRD UM UR UG,
University of Perpignan Via Domitia, Perpignan, France
Sunita Gakkhar Department of Mathematics, Indian Institute of Technology
Roorkee (IITR), Roorkee, Uttarakhand, India
Anju Goel Department of Mathematics, Indian Institute of Technology Roorkee
(IITR), Roorkee, Uttarakhand, India
Nisha Gohain Department of Mathematics, Dibrugarh University, Dibrugarh,
India
R.K. Gupta School of Mathematics and Computer Applications, Thapar
University, Patiala, Punjab, India
R.P. Gupta Department of Mathematics, VNIT, Nagpur, India
xvi Editors and Contributors

Sahil Gupta Guru Nanak Dev University, Amritsar, India

Sanjeev Gupta Department of Humanities and Social Sciences, Indian Institute of
Technology, Kanpur, India
Nadeem Hasan Department of Mechanical Engineering, Aligarh Muslim
University, Aligarh, India
Shamshad Husain Department of Applied Mathematics, Aligarh Muslim
University, Aligarh, India
M. Indhumathy National Centre for Advanced Research in Discrete Mathematics,
Kalasalingam University, Krishnankoil, Tamil Nadu, India
Akhlad Iqbal Department of Mathematics, Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh,
India
Kamaljeet Department of Mathematics & Statistics, Indian Institute of
Technology Kanpur, Kanpur, India
Kanika Khatter Department of Applied Mathematics, Delhi Technological
University, Delhi, India
Jong Kyu Kim Department of Mathematics Education, Kyungnam University,
Changwon, Korea
Daniel A. Korytowski School of Mathematical and Statistical Sciences, Arizona
State University, Tempe, AZ, USA
Rajeev Kumar Department of Mathematics, Maharishi Markandeshwar
University, Mullana, Ambala, Haryana, India
A. Kundu Department of Mathematics, Siliguri Institute of Technology,
Darjeeling, West Bengal, India
Hiroshi Matano Graduate School of Mathematical Sciences, University of Tokyo,
Komaba, Tokyo, Japan
Arti Mishra Department of Mathematics, Indian Institute of Technology,
Roorkee, Uttarakhand, India
P. Muthu Department of Mathematics, National Institute of Technology,
Warangal, Telangana, India
T.D. Narang Guru Nanak Dev University, Amritsar, India
V. Ravichandran Department of Mathematics, University of Delhi, Delhi, India
Huma Sahper Department of Applied Mathematics, Aligarh Muslim University,
Aligarh, India
V. Samhita Department of Mathematics, BITS Pilani Hyderabad Campus,
Hyderabad, Telangana, India
Editors and Contributors xvii

Moitri Sen SERC, IISc Bangalore, Bangalore, India

R.K. Shukla Invertis University, Bareilly, India
Snehal Shukla Department of Mathematics, Shri R.K. Parikh Arts and Science
College, Petlad, Gujarat, India
Anuraj Singh Graphic Era University, Dehrdaun, India
Tarkeshwar Singh Department of Mathematics, Birla Institute of Technology and
Science Pilani, Zuarinagar, Goa, India
S. Sivaprasad Kumar Department of Applied Mathematics, Delhi Technological
University, Delhi, India
Hal L. Smith School of Mathematical and Statistical Sciences, Arizona State
University, Tempe, AZ, USA
M.A. Sofi Department of Mathematics, University of Kashmir, Srinagar, India
T. Som Department of Mathematical Sciences, IIT (BHU), Varanasi, India
Pratik Suchde TIFR Centre for Applicable Mathematics, Bangalore, India
M. Varunkumar Department of Mathematics, National Institute of Technology,
Warangal, Telangana, India
A.S. Vasudeva Murthy TIFR Centre for Applicable Mathematics, Bangalore,
India
Vitaly Volpert Institut Camille Jordan, UMR 5208 CNRS, University Lyon 1,
Villeurbanne, France
Kristiana Wijaya Combinatorial Mathematics Research Group, Faculty of
Mathematics and Natural Sciences, Institut Teknologi Bandung, Bandung,
Indonesia
Radouane Yafia Ibn Zohr University, Campus Universitaire Ait Melloul, Agadir,
Morocco
J. Zafarani Department of Mathematics, Sheikhbahaee University, Isfahan, Iran;
University of Isfahan, Isfahan, Iran
 Part I
Applications to Biological Sciences
Modeling and Dynamics of Predator Prey
Systems on a Circular Domain

Radouane Yafia, M.A. Aziz-Alaoui and Samira El Yacoubi

Abstract The present chapter is devoted to the mathematical modeling and the
analysis of the dynamics of predator prey systems on a circular domain. We first
give some reminders on the Laplace operator and spectral theory on a disc. Then,
we analyze the dynamics of two mathematical models with two or three reaction
diffusion equations, defined on a circular domain. The results are given in terms of
local/global stability and of emergence of spatio-temporal patterns due to symmetry-
breaking bifurcations. One basic type of such a phenomenon is Turing bifurcation
which gives rise to pattern formation, a process by which a spatially uniform state
loses stability to a non-uniform state. We derive, theoretically, the conditions for
Turing diffusion driven instability to occur, and perform numerical simulations to
illustrate how biological processes can affect spatiotemporal pattern formation in a
spatial domain.

Keywords Dynamics · Predator prey · Spatio-temporal · Circular domain ·

Patterns · Turing instability

R. Yafia
Ibn Zohr University, Campus Universitaire Ait Melloul,
Route Nationale N°10, Agadir, Morocco
e-mail: yafia1@yahoo.fr
M.A. Aziz-Alaoui (B)
UniHavre, LMAH, FR CNRS 3335, ISCN, Normandie University, 76600 Le Havre, France
e-mail: aziz.alaoui@univ-lehavre.fr
S. El Yacoubi
IMAGES-Espace-Dev, UMR 228 IRD UM UR UG,
University of Perpignan Via Domitia,
52, rue Paul Alduy, Perpignan, France
e-mail: yacoubi@univ-perp.fr

© Springer India 2016 3

J.M. Cushing et al. (eds.), Applied Analysis in Biological and Physical Sciences,
Springer Proceedings in Mathematics & Statistics 186,
DOI 10.1007/978-81-322-3640-5_1
4 R. Yafia et al.

1 Introduction

In our knowledge, the first mathematical model of predator prey interaction is given
by A. Lotka [16] and V. Volterra [20]. This model is a simplified system of two ordi-
nary differential equations which does not take into account the space variable and
supposes that every individual is accessible to every other individual and produces the
so-called “mean-field description of the system”. One of the oldest spatio-temporal
model which takes into account the movement of individuals/organisms/particules
is the standard reaction diffusion system (Fisher [13], Kolmogorov et al. [15],
Murray [17]):

∂ N (X, t)
= DΔN (X, t) + f (N (X, t)), (X, t) ∈ Ω × R+ , Ω ⊆ Rn , (1)
∂t
where N is a p components vector, Δ is the Laplacian operator, D is the diffusion
matrix and f is a nonlinear term (reaction term) representing the interactions between
species N (individuals/organisms/particules).
From the mathematical modeling point of view, if N (x, t) is the concentration of
individuals/organisms/particules at time t > 0 and the position x. Then the diffusion
term can be regarded as:
∂ N (X, t)
= DΔN (X, t)
∂t
where D (which can depend on x) is a positive definite symmetric diffusion
matrix which describes the non-homogeneous diffusion. Therefore, the local reaction
process is modeled by a local dynamical system as follows:

∂ N (X, t)
= f (N (X, t))
∂t
To describe the interaction of both types of processes (diffusion and reaction), we
suppose that they happen on a small time interval. If we let this interval to tend
to zero, then this time-splitting scheme turns into the so-called reaction-diffusion
system, given by system (1).
If the reaction diffusion processes occur in a spatially confined domain Ω, then
boundary conditions have to be imposed, for example the Dirichlet condition when
specifying the values that the solution must check on the boundaries of the field:

N (X, t) = ϕ(X ), X ∈ ∂Ω

or the Neumann condition when specifying the values the derivative of the solution
must satisfy on the boundaries of the field :

∂N
(X, t) = ψ(X ), X ∈ ∂Ω; n is outflow through the boundary of Ω.
∂n
Modeling and Dynamics of Predator Prey Systems on a Circular Domain 5

If ψ(X ) = 0, then, for the dynamic of the populations, there is no immigration nor
emigration.
There are other possible boundary conditions. For example the Robin boundary
conditions, which are a combination of Dirichlet and Neumann conditions. The
dynamic boundary conditions, or the mixed boundary conditions which correspond
to the juxtaposition of different boundary conditions on different parts of the border
of the domain.
A lot of mathematical problems arise from reaction diffusion theory such as: exis-
tence and regularity of solutions, boundedness of solutions, stability, traveling waves
etc. [3–5, 7–10, 14, 23, 24]. One of these questions is: how the diffusion term can
affect the asymptotic behavior of the corresponding system without diffusion term?
In 1952, Turing prove that, under certain conditions, chemical products react and dif-
fuse to produce non constant steady state and induce spatial patterns. This property
can be explained as follows: In the absence of diffusion, the stable uniform steady
state of the corresponding ordinary differential equation becomes unstable in the
presence of diffusion (which called diffusion driven instability or Turing instability)
and spatial patterns can evolve through bifurcations [17].

2 Spectral Theory on a Circular Domain

In this section, since there exists a difference between the analysis in a rectangle
domain and a circular domain (disc), we give some results on the Laplace operator
on a circular domain (see, [17]).
Let us consider a disc with a radius R as follows:

D = {(r, θ) : 0 ≤ r < R}.

∂2 ∂2
Then the Laplace operator is defined in cartesian coordinates as Δϕ = ∂x2
ϕ + ∂ y2
ϕ
and in polar coordinates (r, θ) as Δrθ ϕ = ∂r∂ 2 ϕ + r1 ∂r∂ ϕ + r12 ∂θ∂ 2 ϕ,
2 2


with x = r cos(θ ), y = r sin(θ ) and r = x 2 + y 2 and tan(θ ) = xy .
To compute the eigenvectors on the circular domain, one needs to separate vari-
ables using polar coordinates. Considering the eigenvalue problem
⎧
⎨ Δrθ ϕ = −λϕ
ϕ(R, θ) = 0, θ ∈ [0, 2π] (2)
⎩ ∂ϕ
∂η
= 0, on r = R and θ ∈ [0, 2π ]

and looking for solutions of the form ϕ(r, θ) = P(r )Φ(θ ). By differentiation and
from the Eq. (2) we have:

1  1
P  (r )Φ(θ ) + P (r )Φ(θ ) + 2 P(r )Φ  (θ ) = −λP(r )Φ(θ ) (3)
r r
6 R. Yafia et al.

Therefore
r2 1 Φ  (θ )
{P  (r ) + P  (r ) + λP(r )} = − (4)
P(r ) r Φ(θ)

The only way for these two expressions to equal for all possible values of r and θ is to
have them both equal a constant. Therefor, there exists k such that −Φ  (θ ) = k 2 Φ(θ)
The appropriate boundary conditions to apply to this problem state that the func-
tion Φ(θ) and its first derivative with respect to θ are periodic in θ .
Then, the solution is given by:

Φn (θ ) = an sin(nθ ) + bn cos(nθ ) for integers k = n ≥ 1

where an and bn are constants.

Then we have the following second order differential equation of
 
1  k2
P (r ) + P (r ) + λ − 2 P(r ) = 0, such that P  (R) = 0

(5)
r r
√
Let x = λr and P(x) = J ( √xλ ). Then, we have
 
1  k2
J  (x) + J (x) + 1 − 2 J (x) = 0 (called Bessel equation) (6)
x x

The solution for it is the n th Bessel function

+∞
 (−1)l x n+2l
Jn (x) =
l=0
l!(n + l)! 2

√
Since P(r ) = Jn ( λr ), we get:
√
φnλ (r, θ) = Φn (θ )Jn ( λr ) (7)

which are eigenfunctions of the Laplacian operator in polar coordinates.

The eigenvalues λ associated to the eigenvector φnλ are determined from the bound-
ary conditions.
λ
From Dirichlet√boundary conditions defined √ as follows φn (R, θ) = 0, ∀θ ∈
[0, 2π] we get Jn ( λR) = 0. This means that λR is a root of Jn .
From
√ the Neumann boundary√conditions: ∂r φnλ (R, θ) = 0, ∀θ ∈ [0, 2π ] we get
Jn ( λR) = 0. This means that λR is a root of Jn .


We denote these roots by αnm and assume they are indexed in increasing order:

Jn (αnm ) = 0, αn1 < αn2 < αn3 < ....

Modeling and Dynamics of Predator Prey Systems on a Circular Domain 7
√
Therefore λR = αnm for some index m and the eigenvalues will be written in the
following form:
αnm 2
λnm =
R

where n is the index of n th Bessel function and m is the index number of their roots.
If R = 1, then the eigenvalues of the equations Δϕ = −λϕ are the square of zero
solution of Bessel functions.

3 Mathematical Model of Two Species

In this section, we consider a 2-D reaction diffusion model which is based on

the modified Leslie-Gower model with Beddington-DeAngelis functional responses
[4–6, 11, 12, 18, 19, 21, 22]:
⎧
⎨ ∂u(t,X ) = D1 Δu(t, X ) + a1 − b1 u(t, X ) − c1 v(t,X )
u(t, X )
∂t d1 u(t,X )+d2 v(t,X )+k1
(8)
⎩ ∂v(t,X ) )
= D2 Δv(t, X ) + a2 − u(t,X )+k2 v(t, X )
c 2 v(t,X
∂t

u(t, X ) and v(t, X ) represent population densities at time t and space X = (x, y)
defined on a circular domain (or disc domain) with radius R (i.e. Ω = {X = (x, y) ∈
R2 , x 2 + y 2 < R 2 }), r1 , a1 , b1 , k1 , r2 , a2 , and k2 are model parameters assuming only
positive values, a1 is the growth rate of preys u, a2 describes the growth rate of
predators v, b1 measures the strength of competition among individuals of species
u, c1 is the maximum value of the per capita reduction of u due to v, c2 has a similar
meaning to c1 , k1 measures the extent to which environment provides protection to
prey u, k2 has a similar meaning to k1 relatively to the predator v, d1 and d2 are two
positive constants, D1 and D2 are the terms diffusions of the preys and the predators.
Steady States and Stability
We consider the reaction diffusion system of two species (8) defined on a circular
domain with Neumann boundary conditions (which means that there are no flux of
species of both predator and prey on the boundary of the circular domain Ω), where
Ω = {(x, y) : x 2 + y 2 < R 2 }. We can write x and y in polar coordinates as follow
x = r cosθ and y = rsinθ , applying the polar coordinate transformation  we find
Γ = {(r, θ) : 0 < r < R, 0 ≤ θ < 2π}, R the radius of the disk Ω; r = x 2 + y 2 ,
and θ = tan−1 ( xy ).
Without loss of generalities we denote also u(t, x, y) = u(t, r cos(θ ), rsin(θ )) =
u(t, r, θ) and v(t, x, y) = v(t, r cos(θ ), rsin(θ )) = v(t, r, θ) are the densities of prey
and predators respectively in polar coordinates, at t = 0, u(0, r, θ) = u 0 (r, θ) ≥
0, v(0, r, θ) = v0 (r, θ) ≥ 0. Therefore the Laplacian operator in polar coordinates
is given by:
8 R. Yafia et al.

∂ 2u 1 ∂u 1 ∂ 2u
Δrθ u = + + , (9)
∂r 2 r ∂r r 2 ∂θ 2
Then, the spatio-temporal system (8) in polar coordinates is written as follows:
⎧ ∂u(t,r,θ)
⎨ ∂t = D1 Δrθ u(t, r, θ) + f (u(t, r, θ), v(t, r, θ)) ∀(r, θ) ∈ Γ, t > 0
⎪
∂v(t,r,θ)
= D2 Δrθ v(t, r, θ) + g(u(t, r, θ), v(t, r, θ)) ∀(r, θ) ∈ Γ, t > 0 (10)
⎪ ∂t
⎩ ∂u(t,r,θ)
∂n
= ∂v(t,r,θ)
∂n
= 0, ∀(r, θ) ∈ ∂Γ

where
⎧
⎨ f (u(t, r, θ), v(t, r, θ)) = a1 − b1 u(t, r, θ) − c1 v(t,r,θ)
u(t, r, θ),
d1 u(t,r,θ)+d2 v(t,r,θ)+k1
⎩ g(u(t, r, θ), v(t, r, θ)) = a2 − c2 v(t,r,θ)
v(t, r, θ),
u(t,r,θ)+k2
(11)
A steady state (u e , ve ) of (10) is a solution of the following system

D1 Δrθ u e (t, r, θ) + f (u e (t, r, θ), ve (t, r, θ)) = 0

(12)
D2 Δrθ ve (t, r, θ) + g(u e (t, r, θ), ve (t, r, θ)) = 0

Let us denote the non-negative cone by

R2+ = {(u, v) ∈ R2 , u 0 ≥ 0, v0 ≥ 0}

and the positive cone by

intR2+ = {(u, v) ∈ R2 , u 0 > 0, v0 > 0}.

The trivial steady states (belonging to the boundary of int R2+ , i.e. at which one or
more of populations has zero density or is extinct) are in the following forms:
   
a1 a2 k 2
E 0 = (0, 0), E 1 = , 0 , E 2 = 0, . (13)
b1 c2

and the homogeneous steady state is given by E ∗ = (u ∗ , v∗ ), where

√
∗ −B + B 2 + 4 AC
u = , (14)
2A
a2 ∗
v∗ = (u + k2 ), (15)
c2

and

B = c1 a2 + b1 c2 k1 + b1 d2 k2 a2 − a1 d1 c2 − a1 d2 a2 ,
Modeling and Dynamics of Predator Prey Systems on a Circular Domain 9

A = b1 d2 a2 + d1 b1 c2 ,

C = k1 a1 c2 + a1 a2 d2 k2 − c1 a2 k2 ,

We will investigate the asymptotic behavior of orbits starting in the positive cone.

Proposition 1 ([1])
Let Θ be the set defined by

a1 a2
Θ = (u, v) ∈ R2+ , 0 ≤ u ≤ ,0≤v≤ (a1 + b1 k2 )
b1 b1 c2

(i) Θ is a positively invariant region for the flow associated to equation (10).
(ii) All solutions of (10) initiating in Θ are ultimately bounded with respect to R2+
and eventually enter the attracting set Θ.
To study the existence of Turing instability one needs to prove the stability of spatially
independent homogeneous steady state.
Proposition 2 (local stability without diffusion [1])
• If 0 < u ∗ < θ1 or θ2 < u ∗ < ab11 , then E ∗ = (u ∗ , v∗ ) is asymptotically stable.
• If (a22 d2 + a2 d1 c2 + k1 b1 c2 < a1 d1 c2 ) and θ1 < u ∗ < θ2 , then E ∗ = (u ∗ , v∗ ) is
unstable for system (16).
• If a1 d1 < k1 b1 , then the positive equilibrium E ∗ = (u ∗ , v∗ ) is locally asymptoti-
cally stable.
The proofs of Propositions 1 and 2 are given in [1].

4 Model with Three Species

In this section, we consider the following reaction-diffusion model [4, 5, 21, 23]
⎧ ∂U (T,x,y) 0 V (T,x,y)
⎪
⎪ ∂T = D1 ΔU (T, x, y) + (a0 − b0 U (T, x, y) − Uv(T,x,y)+d )U (T, x, y),
⎪
⎪
0
⎪
⎪ ∂ V (T,x,y) v U (T,x,y) v W (T,x,y)
⎪
⎪ = D2 ΔV (T, x, y) + (−a1 + U (T,x,y)+d
1
− V 2(T,x,y)+d2 )V (T, x, y),
⎨ ∂T 0
∂ W (T,x,y) v3 W (T,x,y)
= D3 ΔW (T, x, y) + (c3 − V (T,x,y)+d3 )W (T, x, y),
⎪
⎪
∂T
⎪
⎪ ∂U = ∂ V = ∂ W = 0,
⎪
⎪
⎪
⎪ ∂n ∂n ∂n
⎩
U (0, x, y) = U0 (x, y) ≥ 0, V (0, x, y) = V0 (x, y) ≥ 0, W (0, x, y) = W0 (x, y) ≥ 0,
(16)
10 R. Yafia et al.

U (T, x, y) the density of prey specie, V (T, x, y) the density of intermediate preda-
tor specie and W (T, x, y) the density of top-predator specie, at time T and posi-
tion (x, y), defined on a circular domain (or disc domain) with radius R (i.e.
Ω = {(x, y) ∈ R2 /x 2 + y 2 < R 2 }. Δ is the Laplacian operator. ∂U , ∂ V and ∂∂η
∂η ∂η
W
are
respectively the normal derivatives of U , V and W on ∂Ω. The three species are
assumed to diffuse at rates Di (i = 1, 2, 3). a0 , b0 , v0 , d0 , a1 , v1 , v2 , d2 , c3 , v3 and d3
are assumed to be positive parameters and are defined as follows: a0 is the growth
rate of the prey U , b0 measures the mortality due to competition between individuals
of the species U , v0 is the maximum extent that the rate of reduction by individual
U can reach, d0 measures the protection whose prey U and intermediate predator V
benefit through the environment, a1 represents the mortality rate V in the absence of
U , v1 is the maximum value that the rate of reduction by the individual U can reach,
v2 is the maximum value that the rate of reduction by the individual V can reach, v3
is the maximum value that the rate of reduction by the individual W can reach, d2
is the value of V for which the rate of elimination by individual V becomes v22 , c3
described the growth rate of W , assuming that there are the same number of males
and females. d3 represents the residual loss caused by high scarcity of prey V of the
species W .
The initial data U0 (x, y), V0 (x, y) and W0 (x, y) are non-negative continuous
functions on Ω. The vector η is an outward unit normal vector to the smooth boundary
∂Ω. The homogeneous Neumann boundary condition signifies that the system is self
contained and there is no population flux across the boundary ∂Ω.
Following the same algebraic computations as done in Sect. 3, firstly, we write x
and y in polar coordinates as follow x = r cos θ and y = r sin θ . By applying the
 Γ = {(r, θ) : 0 < r < R, 0 ≤ θ < 2π }. R
polar coordinate transformation, we find
is the radius of the disk Γ , with r = x 2 + y 2 and θ = tan−1 ( xy ).
Without loss of generalities we denote also

u(t, x, y) = u(t, r cos(θ ), r sin(θ )) = u(t, r, θ),

v(t, x, y) = v(t, r cos(θ ), r sin(θ )) = v(t, r, θ)

and
w(t, x, y) = w(t, r cos(θ ), r sin(θ )) = w(t, r, θ)

are the densities of prey, predators and top predators respectively in polar coordinates.
Therefore the Laplacian operator in polar coordinates is given by:

∂ 2u 1 ∂u 1 ∂ 2u
Δrθ u = + + 2 2. (17)
∂r 2 r ∂r r ∂θ
Modeling and Dynamics of Predator Prey Systems on a Circular Domain 11

To simplify system (16) we introduce some transformations of variables:


a0 a2 a03 t r 
U= u, V = 0 v, W = w, T = , r = , θ = θ ,
b0 b0 v0 b0 v0 v2 a0 a0

and
c a2
a = ba0 d0 0 , b = aa01 , c = av10 , d = d2av02b0 , p = v0 3b0 0v2 , q = vv23 , s = d3av02b0 , δ1 = a0 D1 ,
0 0
δ2 = a0 D2 , δ3 = a0 D3 .
Then the spatio-temporal system (16) in polar coordinates is written as follows:
⎧ ∂u(t,r,θ)
⎪
⎪ = δ1 Δr θ u(t, r, θ) + f (u(t, r, θ), v(t, r, θ), w(t, r, θ )), ∀(r, θ) ∈ Γ, t > 0
⎪ ∂t
⎪
⎪
⎪ ∂v(t,r,θ)
⎪
⎪ = δ2 Δr θ v(t, r, θ) + g(u(t, r, θ), v(t, r, θ), w(t, r, θ )), ∀(r, θ) ∈ Γ, t > 0
⎨ ∂t
∂w(t,r,θ)
∂t = δ3 Δr θ w(t, r, θ) + h(u(t, r, θ), v(t, r, θ), w(t, r, θ )), ∀(r, θ) ∈ Γ, t > 0
⎪
⎪
⎪
⎪ ∂u(t,r,θ)
⎪
⎪ ∂n = ∂v(t,r,θ)
∂n = ∂w(t,r,θ)
∂n = 0, ∀(r, θ) ∈ ∂Γ
⎪
⎪
⎩
u(0, r, θ) = u 0 (r, θ) ≥ 0, v(0, r, θ) = v0 (r, θ) ≥ 0, w(0, r, θ) = w0 (r, θ) ≥ 0.
(18)
where
⎧
⎪
⎪ f (u(t, r, θ), v(t, r, θ), w(t, r, θ)) = (1 − u(t, r, θ) − u(t,r,θ)+a
v(t,r,θ)
)u(t, r, θ),
⎨
g(u(t, r, θ), v(t, r, θ), w(t, r, θ)) = (−b + u(t,r,θ)+a − v(t,r,θ)+d )v(t, r, θ),
cu(t,r,θ) w(t,r,θ)
⎪
⎪
⎩
h(u(t, r, θ), v(t, r, θ), w(t, r, θ)) = ( p − v(t,r,θ)+s
qw(t,r,θ)
)w(t, r, θ),
(19)
Without diffusion, system (18) becomes
⎧ ∂u(t,r,θ)
⎪
⎪ = (1 − u(t, r, θ) − u(t,r,θ)+a
v(t,r,θ)
)u(t, r, θ),
⎨ ∂t
∂v(t,r,θ)
= (−b + u(t,r,θ)+a
cu(t,r,θ)
− v(t,r,θ)+d
w(t,r,θ)
)v(t, r, θ), (20)
⎪
⎪
∂t
⎩ ∂w(t,r,θ)
∂t
= ( p − v(t,r,θ)+s )w(t, r, θ),
qw(t,r,θ)

A steady state (u e , ve , we ) of (20) is an homogeneous steady state of (18) which is a

solution of the following system
⎧
⎪
⎪δ Δ u (t, r, θ) + f (u e (t, r, θ), ve (t, r, θ), we (t, r, θ)) = 0,
⎨ 1 rθ e
δ2 Δr θ ve (t, r, θ) + g(u e (t, r, θ), ve (t, r, θ), we (t, r, θ)) = 0, (21)
⎪
⎪
⎩
δ3 Δr θ we (t, r, θ) + h(u e (t, r, θ), ve (t, r, θ), we (t, r, θ)) = 0,
12 R. Yafia et al.

Steady States and stability

Simple (and tedious) algebraic computations show that problem (18) has a homoge-
neous steady-state if and only

qc > bq + p and qc − bq − p > a(bq + p). (22)

The homogeneous steady-state in the case when d = s, is uniquely given by

a(bq + p) p(v∗ + s)
u∗ = , v∗ = (1 − u ∗ )(u ∗ + a) and w∗ = . (23)
qc − bq − p q

A similar study can be used when d = s.

The conditions (22) ensure that the system (18) has a positive homogeneous steady
state corresponding to constant coexistence of the three species E ∗ = (u ∗ , v∗ , w∗ ).
Proposition 3 Conditions (22) are satisfied, the set defined by
 
p
Θ ≡ [0, 1] × [0, 1 + a] × 0, (1 + a + s) (24)
q

is positively invariant region, moreover all solutions of (18) initiating in Θ are

ultimately bounded with respect to R3+ and eventually enter the attracting set Θ.
By the same in the last section, we need the following result which states the stability
of the homogeneous steady state.
Proposition 4 (local stability without diffusion) If conditions (22) are satisfied and

a+1 2a
> ,
qc qc − bq − p

and
dp((1 − u ∗ )(u ∗ + a) + s) cu ∗
b+ ∗ ∗
> ∗ (25)
q((1 − u )(u + a) + d) 2 u +a

and
p 2 ((1 − u ∗ )(u ∗ + a) + s)2 dp((1 − u ∗ )(u ∗ + a) + s)
> b + .
q(u ∗ + a) q((1 − u ∗ )(u ∗ + a) + d)2

Then, the homogeneous steady state E ∗ = (u ∗ , v∗ , w∗ ) is locally asymptotically

stable.
The proofs of Propositions 3 and 4 require long and tedious (albeit simple) algebraic
computations, they can be found in [2].
Modeling and Dynamics of Predator Prey Systems on a Circular Domain 13

5 Pattern Formation and Turing Instability

Pattern formation is a process by which a spatially uniform state loses stability to a

non-uniform state : a pattern.
Two basic types of symmetry-breaking bifurcations, which are responsible for the
emergence of spatio-temporal patterns are:

• The space-independent Hopf bifurcation breaks the temporal symmetry of a system

and gives rise to oscillations that are uniform in space and periodic in time.
• The (stationary) Turing bifurcation breaks spatial symmetry, leading to the forma-
tion of patterns that are stationary in time and oscillatory in space.
In this section, we mainly focus on this last type of bifurcation.

5.1 Turing Instability for Two Species Model

In this section, in order to study the diffusion driven instability for system (10), we
have to analyze the stability of the homogeneous steady state E ∗ = (u ∗ , v∗ ) which
corresponds to co-existence of prey and predator. The Jacobian evaluated at the equi-
librium E ∗ = (u ∗ , v∗ ) is
⎛ ⎞ ⎛ ∂ ∂
⎞
fu fv ∂u
f (u ∗ , v∗ ) ∂v f (u ∗ , v∗ )
M =⎝ ⎠=⎝ ⎠
∂ ∗ ∗ ∂ ∗ ∗
gu gv ∂u
g(u , v ) ∂v
g(u , v )
⎛ ⎞
(a1 d1 −k1 b1 )u ∗ −2b1 d1 u ∗2 −b1 d2 u ∗ v∗ ∗ ∗
(k1 +d1 u )
d1 u ∗ +d2 v∗ +k1
− (dc11uu∗ +d ∗
2 v +k1 )
2
⎜ ⎟
=⎝ ⎠
a22
c2
−a2

By setting
⎛ ⎞
u − u∗
S=⎝ ⎠ ϕ(r, θ)eλt+ikr
v − v∗

where φ(r, θ) is a eigenfunction of the Laplacian operator on a disc domain with

zero flux boundary, i.e.:
Δrθ φ = −k 2 φ,
φr (R, θ) = 0

k is the wave number and λ is the perturbation growth rate. Then by linearizing
around (u ∗ , v∗ ), we have the following equation:
14 R. Yafia et al.

dS
= M S + DΔS (26)
dt
where ⎛ ⎞
D1 0
D=⎝ ⎠
0 D2

by substituting S by φeλt in Eq. (26) and canceling eλt , we get:

λφ = M − Dk 2 φ (27)

We obtain the characteristic equation for the growth rate λ as determinant of

 
 λ − f u + D1 k 2 − fv 
det (λI2 − M + k D) = 0 ⇔ 
2  = 0, (28)
−gu λ − gv + D2 k 2 

By computation we have the expression of the characteristic equation Θ(k 2 ):

Θ(k 2 ) = λ2 + R(k 2 )λ + B(k 2 ) (29)

where
R(k 2 ) = k 2 (D1 + D2 ) − tr (M) (30)

and
B(k 2 ) = D1 D2 k 4 − (D2 f u + D1 gv )k 2 + det(M). (31)

Therefore, the eigenvalues are the roots of (29) are given by


−R(k 2 ) ± (R(k 2 ))2 − 4B(k 2 )
λ± (k) = (32)
2
Let 
−z 2 ± z 22 − 4z 1 z 3
θ1,2 = , (33)
z 12

and
z 1 = 2b1 d1 c2 + b1 d2 a2 ,

z 2 = a22 d2 + a2 d1 c2 + k1 b1 c2 − a1 d1 c2 ,

z 3 = a22 d2 k2 + b1 d2 k2 a2 + k1 a2 c2 .
Another random document with
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against him. By way of revenge, they could think of nothing better
than to accuse him of being himself guilty of the very offences
against which he had set his face.
“They are trying to make out that I am the owner of ships
which I use for the purpose of conveying this false paper-
money to Brittany,” he writes to Lady Atkyns. “They have
stated this to the Government. Fortunately, my whole conduct
and reputation, and all that I have done to destroy this
shameful traffic, serve to show the improbability of such
accusations.”
But, in spite of all his energy and determination, Cormier’s
enemies were too strong for him. It was in vain that he demonstrated
his good faith. Calumny had done its work.
The British Government had decided, in concert with the Comte
d’Artois, to send an important mission to the Netherlands, with a
view, doubtless, to establishing relations with the Stadtholder, whose
position was becoming critical owing to the sequel to the Revolution.
The man to be entrusted with this mission would have to be some
one who had given proof of his qualifications. Cormier seemed cut
out for the post, and he stood in readiness for it, enjoying the
prospect of thus getting into touch again with France, and of perhaps
being able to serve the interests that were so dear to him. But he
had reckoned without his foes. Their efforts were redoubled, and in
the course of November Cormier learnt that another had been
entrusted with the mission. His anger and disappointment can be
imagined. He decided that, in spite of all, he would leave England
and betake himself to Holland on private business. Doubtless he
imagined also that it would be an advantage to be near the French
frontier, and that he would be the better able to follow the course of
events at the Temple. It was a risky step to take, for there was
nothing to guarantee his complete security in the Netherlands.
However that might be, his decision was taken, and on November
25, 1794, Baron d’Auerweck wrote to Lady Atkyns to acquaint her
with the news of Cormier’s departure, conveying to her at the same
time many apologies for his having himself neglected to write to her
to take farewell. During the months that follow the “little baron”
replaces the Breton magistrate as principal correspondent of Lady
Atkyns.
It is a strange personality that stands revealed in these letters of
Baron d’Auerweck. Keen and resourceful, the baron lays himself out
to exploit to the utmost the valuable friendship of the English lady,
thus bequeathed to him, as it were, by Cormier. Trained by Peltier,
d’Auerweck seems to have modelled himself upon his master, and to
have become in his turn the accomplished publicist, plausible, fluent,
supple, with a gift of raillery and sarcasm, together with a turn for
philosophy. Lady Atkyns, though not unappreciative of his copious
epistles, shows clearly that she estimates him at his real value, and
is careful not to take him too much into her confidence. It must be
enough for him to know that there is still reason to hope that the
Dauphin may be saved. D’Auerweck himself is not in a position to
give her much information in return. His letters consist rather of a
bright and lively commentary upon the political situation and the
course of events generally in France.
Upon Cormier’s decision to leave England the Baron expresses
himself in downright language, and makes it a text for a disquisition
upon his elder’s character.
“Cormier’s departure has disturbed me a good deal,” he
writes to Lady Atkyns, “the more so that, with a little
prudence, he could have spared himself this unpleasantness,
and might have succeeded in getting what he wanted. A man
who has passed his whole life in the magistracy ought, at the
age of fifty-six, to know something about men, but Cormier
has never got further than the A B C of such knowledge. I
have had some rather hot disputes with him over his rash
confidence, his purposeless explosions, his sudden
friendships that ended in ruptures, thus increasing the number
of his enemies.... But we both of us felt the parting. I must do
him the justice of admitting that there is a lot of kindness and
sympathy in his character. I think he has the same feeling of
friendship for me that I have for him. It is my wish to serve him
whenever the opportunity may arrive.”
 By an unfortunate coincidence, the political situation in Holland
was undergoing a disquieting change at the moment of Cormier’s
arrival. Until then England had exercised a decisive influence there,
both by reason of the presence of her army and through counsels of
the Stadtholder. But in the autumn of 1794 a popular feeling in favour
of the Revolution began to make itself felt, fanned by the hostility
aroused against the undisciplined English troops, with their looting
and pillaging, and intensified by an unlooked-for piece of news: the
French, led by Pichegru, had crossed the frontier and were
advancing by long marches, and seizing all the places they passed
through on their way. In a few weeks the power of the Stadtholder
would have gone! Though clothed in rags, the soldiers of the
National Convention were welcomed with transports of delight.
Never did troops show such discipline, it should be added.
But Pichegru was not alone. Beside him marched representatives
of the Convention, eager to institute in the United Provinces the
principles of the Revolution and to establish the guarantees of order
and security inseparable therefrom.
Therein lay the danger for those who, like Cormier, were to be
found in flagrante delicto of emigration. On November 8, 1794, an
order came from the Committee of Public Safety to the
representatives with the army, commanding them to seize the
Stadtholder, together with his wife and children, as well as to arrest
immediately all émigrés who might fall into their hands.
Knowledge of this important decree had not come to London on
December 15, for on this date we find d’Auerweck writing to Lady
Atkyns that he has had news of Cormier, “who is now at La Haye in
good health and spirits.”
The extreme cold which prevailed this year contributed in a
remarkable degree, as is well known, to the success of Pichegru’s
operations in Holland. Shut in by the ice, the powerless fleet was
obliged to surrender to the French cavalry—a memorable incident in
the military annals of the Republic. The famous dams, which were to
be opened and to flood the country and submerge the French,
became useless by reason of the frost. In short, Pichegru triumphed
throughout. He made his entry into Amsterdam on January 10, 1795,
and eight days later the Stadtholder embarked for England. The
Dutch Republic had come into being.
Cormier’s fate throughout this period must have been a matter for
anxiety to Lady Atkyns, but the absence of anything in the shape of
definite news from Paris as to the state of things at the Temple
continued to be to her a source of far greater disquietude. The vague
assurance as to the Dauphin’s well-being, which d’Auerweck
transmitted to her from time to time, counted for nothing, as she
knew herself to be better informed as to what had been under way.
What had been happening? A third letter, addressed by Laurent to
his correspondent, under date of March 3, 1795, enlightens us a
little:—
“Our little mute has now been smuggled away into the
palace of the Temple and well concealed. There he will
remain, and if need be can be passed off as the Dauphin. The
triumph is altogether yours, general. You can now be quite at
ease in your mind—send me your orders and I shall carry
them out. Lasne will take my place now as soon as he likes.
The best and safest steps have been taken to ensure the
Dauphin’s safety. Consequently I shall be able to get to you in
a few days, and shall be able to tell you all further details
orally.”
These lines herald a momentous alteration in the régime of the
prison. First of all, there is the question of Laurent’s leaving it.
Presumably his presence is no longer needed there. This suggests
that success is assured. And Lasne—how is it that his name makes
its appearance here for the first time? We shall find him declaring in
1834 that his service in the Temple began in Fructidor year II., that is
to say, between August 18 and September 16, 1794.[75] In that case
Laurent would have had him as his colleague for several months
already! The Temple documents preserved in the National Archives,
and examined fifteen years later, establish the fact that Lasne did
not, indeed, enter upon his duties until March 31, 1795, thus bearing
out the accuracy of Laurent’s statement.
 We see, then, that the little mute has been transferred to the
palace of the Temple—that is to say, into one of the many empty
suites in the great maze of buildings that surrounded the Tower. Here
he has been, or perhaps will soon be, joined by the Dauphin himself,
for means of retreat from this labyrinth of buildings are infinitely
greater than from the fourth storey of the Tower.
To replace the mute, another substitute has been found, a
scrofulous boy who may be expected soon to die. All barriers to the
Dauphin’s escape will thus be removed. So much we gather from
Laurent, and all his statements are borne out by documents which
have been left by Royalist agents.
This second substitution effected, Laurent was able to quit his post
with an easy mind, and we find that he did actually leave the Temple
on March 29, 1795. His successor, Lasne, arrives two days later.
Gomin, who perhaps knows part of the truth through Laurent (and,
moreover, his rôle is more especially to attend to Marie Thérèse), is
careful not to confide in him, knowing well the risk he would run by
so doing. Lasne finds in the prison a boy who is evidently very ill, in
great suffering, whose death is soon to be expected. What would be
the use of asking questions? It is enough for him to attend to the
child as best he may during the few weeks of life that still remain to
him.

Spring had passed and June had arrived before Lady Atkyns was
again to see the familiar handwriting, rounded and minute, of her
friend the Breton magistrate. The letter bore the postmark of
Hamburg. What was Cormier doing on the banks of the Elbe? He
would seem to have had some perilous adventures. Probably he had
been arrested as an émigré and had escaped the guillotine by some
happy chance. However that may be, the news he had to tell of
events in France came as a great relief to his correspondent.
“We have been better served, my dear friend, than we
ourselves arranged. Our agents have not kept to our plan, but
 they have done wisely.... But we must have patience. Things
are in such a condition at present that they can be neither
hastened nor delayed. A false move might have very bad
results.”
Within a week of the arrival of this letter, an announcement, that
came to many as a surprise, found its way round London. It was
officially reported that the Dauphin had died in prison on June 8,
1795. Had not Cormier’s assurances come in time to buoy her up, so
categorical a statement might well have given Lady Atkyns a severe
shock. She knew now, however, that it could not be of her boy that
there was question.
Some weeks pass in silence, and Lady Atkyns, impatient for news,
urges the “little baron” to set out for Hamburg. He starts in the first
week of July, but is delayed at Ocfordnese, whence he writes to her
on the 16th. At last he reaches his destination, but means of
communication are so uncertain that several more weeks elapse
before she hears anything further. September finds d’Auerweck
returning to London with a letter from Cormier to Lady Atkyns. In
October, again unable to curb her anxiety, she had just decided to
send d’Auerweck to Paris, when, to her deep grief and dismay, she
learnt suddenly from Cormier that everything had gone wrong—that
“they had all been deceived, shamefully deceived.” The child that
had died on June 8 was, indeed, the second substitute, and the
Dauphin had undoubtedly escaped, but others had got possession of
him, and the boy handed over to Lady Atkyns’ agents was the young
mute.
“Yes,” he writes, “we have been taken in totally and
completely. That is quite certain. But how have they managed
to do it? And did we take every step that could be taken to
make this impossible? These are matters you will want me to
go into in detail, and I shall not fail to do so; but I must wait
until I have time to trace the sequence of events from a diary
day by day for a year past. The entries for the first two months
are missing for the present—the least interesting period
certainly, since down to that time, and for several months
afterwards, only the project of carrying off the Dauphin was
 being kept in view, the project which had to be abandoned
afterwards in favour of another which seemed simpler and
more feasible, as well as less perilous.”
Cormier’s long letter left Lady Atkyns completely in the dark as to
what exactly had happened. They had been tricked somehow—that
was all she knew.
To us, as to her, the names of most of the many participants in this
mysterious intrigue remain unknown. Laurent went off to San
Domingo in the following year, where he died on August 22, 1807.
Gomin, to some extent his accomplice in the matter of the
substitution, followed Marie Antoinette’s daughter to Austria, and
was careful to keep what he knew to himself. As for our three
friends, Cormier, Frotté, and d’Auerweck, we shall learn presently
the reasons for their silence.
The one person who has tried to clear up the obscurity of these
happenings inside the Temple is the wife of the bootmaker, Antoine
Simon, the Dauphin’s first warder. Considerations of space prevent
us from entering here upon any detailed examination of her
evidence, but we must not pass it by without a word. Mme. Simon,
after her husband’s death during the Reign of Terror—he was
guillotined in Thermidor—withdrew to the asylum for incurables in
the Rue de Sèvres, where she was to spend the remainder of her
existence. Here she was heard on many occasions to assert that she
was convinced the Dauphin was alive, having seen him carried off
when she and her husband were leaving the Temple, on the evening
of January 19, 1794. If this were true, it would result that that child
looked after by Laurent was not the Dauphin at all! This does not fit
in with the version that we have put together from Laurent’s own
letters and the various other documents which we have been able to
examine. But even if it were true, the poignant question would still
call for an answer—what became of the young Dauphin after his
escape? Into whose hands did he fall?

FOOTNOTES:
[75] His deposition at the Richemont trial.—Provins.
 CHAPTER VI
THE FRIENDS OF LADY ATKYNS

What was the Chevalier de Frotté doing all this time? What steps
was he taking towards the realization of what he had called so often
the goal of his life, and towards the execution of the promises he had
made with so much ardour and enthusiasm?
Transported with joy on hearing that the British Government at last
contemplated listening to his projects and sending him to Normandy,
Frotté, when leaving London, betook himself with four comrades-in-
arms to Jersey—the great rendezvous at that time for the insurgents
engaged in dangerous enterprises on the Continent, and seeking to
find landing-places on the French coast.
It was the middle of winter—snow was falling heavily, and there
were strong winds. Several weeks passed, during which the patience
of our émigrés was severely taxed. Nothing was more difficult than to
effect a landing in Normandy under such conditions. Apart from the
difficulty of finding a vessel to make the crossing, it was necessary to
choose some spot where they might succeed in escaping the
vigilance of the troops stationed all along the cliffs, whose forts
presented a formidable barrier. In short, Frotté and his friends found
themselves confronted with serious obstacles.
On January 11, 1795, they were observed to leave Guernsey in a
small sailing-vessel manned by English sailors, taking with them
three émigrés who were to act as guides. What happened to them?
No one knows exactly. Certain it is merely that the boat returned
rudderless and disabled, with Frotté and his four companions.
According to their own account, they took a wrong direction in the
dark, and sailed along the coast in the midst of rocks. Their guides
landed first, and disappeared from sight under a hail of bullets, and it
was with great difficulty that they themselves had been able to get
back to Guernsey.
At the beginning of February they made another effort, and
succeeded in landing near Saint-Brieuc. Frotté at once made his way
inland to join the insurgents, but ill fortune followed him. He had not
been a fortnight in the country when he learned, to his surprise, that
the Chouans under Cormatin had just concluded a truce to prepare
the way for peace. His feelings may be imagined. To have waited so
long for this! So much for his hopes and castles in the air! But there
was no help for it. On February 17, 1795, the treaty of Tannaye was
concluded, and a month later Frotté, who had kept moving about
over La Vendée and Normandy unceasingly to survey the ground,
established himself at Rennes, where he assisted at the conference
of La Mabilais, which was to confirm the truce already agreed to.
 Marie-Pierre-Louis, Count de Frotté, 1766-1800.
(After a portrait belonging to the Marquis de Frotté.)
If the turn taken by events had led him off temporarily in a different
direction, his mind never abandoned the secret purpose which had
brought him to France. Nevertheless, a change, at first
imperceptible, but afterwards obvious enough, was coming over him.
The reader will not have forgotten the way in which a feeling of
antagonism had grown up between Cormier and the Chevalier. The
ill-will cherished by the latter for his quondam friend had not
disappeared. On the contrary, the belief that Lady Atkyns was
keeping him deliberately at arm’s length had intensified the jealousy.
The result was inevitable. Chagrined at being thus left on one side,
and at being supplanted, as he felt, in his fair lady’s affections, he
soon began to devote himself entirely to his new rôle as a Chouan
leader, and ceased to interest himself any longer in the drama of the
Temple. In truth, he was not without pretexts for this semi-desertion
of the cause.
On March 16, anxious to explain himself to Lady Atkyns, he writes
to tell her just how he is feeling on the subject. He would have her
realize that there is no longer any ground for hopes as to the
Dauphin’s safety. When in touch with the representatives of the
Convention who took part in the conference at La Mabilais, he had
taken one of them aside, it seems, and questioned him frankly as to
whether the Republican Government would consent to listen to any
proposal regarding the young Prince, and whether he, Frotté, would
be allowed to write to the Temple. The member of the Convention
made reply, after taking a day to consider the matter and to consult
his colleagues, that what Frotté suggested was out of the question.
“Your devotion,” he said, “would be fruitless, for under
Robespierre the unhappy boy was so demoralized, mentally
and physically, that he is now almost an imbecile, and can’t
live much longer. Therefore you may as well dismiss any such
idea from your head—you can form no notion of the hopeless
condition the poor little creature has sunk into.”
These lines, reflecting the view then current among the official
representatives of the Convention, stand out strikingly when we
recall the situation at the Temple in this very month of March, 1795,
and the absolute order given to Frotté not to allow the child to be
seen. They tally at all points with what we know of the substitution
that had been effected. To this substitution, indeed, Frotté himself
proceeds to make an explicit allusion towards the end of the letter.
“Perhaps the Convention is anxious,” he writes, “to bring
about the death of the child whom they have substituted for
the young King, so that they may be able to make people
believe that the latter is not really the King at all.”
As for himself, he has made up his mind. He will make no further
efforts for the deliverance of the Dauphin.
On April 25, 1795, the La Mabilais Treaty was signed, and Frotté,
who refused to subscribe to it, went off again to Normandy, confident
of seeing the struggle recommence, and impatient to set going a
new insurrection. Had he received any reply from Lady Atkyns to his
outspoken missive? Assuredly not. If she gave any credence to his
statements at the time, they must soon have passed out of her
memory, for, thanks to Cormier, June found her quite confident again
of the success of their plans. Not knowing, therefore, what to say to
her old admirer—Cormier having forbidden her to tell him the names
of their agents—she determined to keep silent.
Shortly afterwards, on the day after June 8, the report of the
Dauphin’s death reached Normandy. The proclamation of the Comte
de Provence—for how many weeks must he not have been waiting
impatiently for it to be made—as successor to the throne of France
in his nephew’s place was read to the insurgents. Frotté, who for
some time already had been responding to the advances made to
him by the pretendant, now formally placed his sword at the service
of the new King.
What would have prevented him from taking this step? Would a
personal interview with Lady Atkyns have had this effect? Perhaps;
but devoted now to his new mission, passing from fight to fight,
Frotté was no longer his own master.
Nevertheless, at the end of 1795, some feeling of remorse, or else
the desire to renew his old place in the goodwill of Lady Atkyns, who
had twice asked him to write and tell her about himself, moved Frotté
to take pen in hand once again. He had been engaged in fighting for
several months, concerting surprises and ambuscades, always on
the qui vive. He had twice narrowly escaped capture by the enemy.
In spite of this he managed to keep up an interesting
correspondence with his companions operating more to the south
and to the west, in La Vendée and in Le Bocage, and with the chiefs
of his party in London, who supplied the sinews of war, as well as
with Louis XVIII. himself, in whose cause he had sworn to shed the
last drop of his blood. There is no reason to be astonished at finding
our “Général des Chouans” expressing himself thus, or at the
changed attitude adopted by him, dictated by circumstances and the
new situation in which he has now found himself. Here is how he
seeks to disabuse Lady Atkyns of the hope to which she is still
clinging:—
“No, dear lady, I shall not forget my devotion to you before I
forget my allegiance to the blood of my kings. I have broken
faith in no way, but, unfortunately, I have none but untoward
news to give you. I have been grieved to find that we have
been deceived most completely. For nearly a month after
landing I was in the dark, but at last I got to the bottom of the
affair. I was not able to get to see the unfortunate child who
was born to rule over us. He was not saved. The regicides—
regicides twice over—having first, like the monsters they are,
allowed him to languish in his prison, brought about his end
there. He never left it. Just reflect how we have all been
duped. I don’t know how it is that without having ever received
my letters you are still labouring under this delusion. Nothing
remains for you but to weep for our treasure and to punish the
miscreants who are responsible for his death. Madame alone
remains, and it is almost certain that she will be sent to the
Emperor, if this has not been done already.”
These lines but confirmed what Frotté had written in the preceding
March, after his talk with the representative of the Convention. The
news of the Dauphin’s death having been proclaimed shortly after
that, there had been no longer any difficulty in persuading the
Chevalier to take up arms in the service of the Comte de Provence.
He discloses himself the change that has come over his sentiments.
 “How is it,” he writes to Lady Atkyns, “that you are still
under the delusion, when all France has resounded with the
story of the misfortunes of our young, unhappy King? The
whole of Europe has now recognized His Royal Highness, his
uncle, as King of France.... The rights of blood have given me
another master, and I owe him equally my zeal and the
service of my arm, happy in having got a number of gallant
Royalists together. I have the honour of being in command of
those fighting in Normandy. That is my position, madame. You
will readily understand how I have suffered over the terrible
destiny of my young King, and nothing intensifies my sorrow
so much as the thought of the sadness you yourself will feel
when you learn the truth. But moderate your grief, my friend.
You owe yourself to the sister not less than to the brother.”
And to enforce this advice, Frotté recalls to her the memory of the
Queen, which should serve, he thinks, to remove all scruples.
“Remember the commands of your august friend, and you
will be able to bear up under your misfortunes. You will keep
up your spirits for the sake of Madame. You will live for her
and for your friends, to whom, moreover, you should do more
justice. Adieu, my unhappy friend. Accept the homage of a
true Royalist, who will never cease to be devoted to you, who
will never cease either to deplore this deception of which we
have been victims. Adieu.”
Was this farewell, taken in so nonchalant a fashion, to denote a
final sundering of two hearts united by so many memories in
common? It would appear so. Lady Atkyns was so strong in her
convictions that the only effect of such words would be to make her
feel that all was over between her and the Chevalier. Later, when he
made an effort to renew relations with her and asked her to return
the letters he had written to her, she would seem to have refused
point blank, from what she wrote to a confidant.
He must, however, have got hold of some portion of their
correspondence, for on his return to his château of Couterne, this
indefatigable penman, in the scant leisure left him by his military
duties, filled several note-books with reminiscences and political
reflections tending to justify his conduct. In one of these note-books,
which have been carefully preserved, he transcribed fragments of his
letters to his friend—fragments carefully selected in such a way as
not to implicate him in the affair of the Temple, once the death of the
Dauphin had been announced. Had he lived, he would doubtless
have learned what had really happened, as set forth in the
documents we have been studying; but his days were numbered.
His end is well known: how, having fallen into an ambush, he and
six of his companions were shot by Napoleon’s orders, in despite of
a safe-conduct with which he was furnished, on February 18, 1800,
at Verneuil. If in the course of these five years he did learn the full
truth about the Dauphin, he doubtless abstained from any reference
to it out of regard for the King. He carried his private convictions in
silence to the grave.
The news of his death was received with emotion in London.
Peltier, who had had good opportunities for forming an opinion of
him, gave out a cry of horror. “This act,” he wrote in his gazette,
“covers Bonaparte for ever with shame and infamy.”

The small circle of Lady Atkyns’ London friends lost thus one of its
members. Meanwhile, Lady Atkyns had been making the
acquaintance of a French woman who had been living in England for
some years, and whose feelings corresponded to a remarkable
degree with her own. This lady had found a warm welcome at
Richmond, near London, on her arrival as an émigré from France.
Pale, thin, anxious-looking, the victim of a sombre sorrow which
almost disfigured her face, Louise de Chatillon, Princesse de
Tarente, wife of the Duc de la Tremoïlle, had escaped death in a
marvellous way. A follower of Marie-Antoinette, from whom she had
been separated only by force, she had been arrested on the day
after August 10 as having been the friend of the Princesse de
Lamballe. Shut up in the sinister prison of l’Abbaye, she had felt that
death was close at hand. From her dungeon she could see the men
of September at their work and hear the cries of agony given forth by
their victims. At last, after ten days of imprisonment, she was
liberated, thanks to an unexpected intervention, and in the month of
September, 1792, she succeeded in finding a ship to take her to
England.
Hers was a strikingly original personality, and it is not without a
feeling of surprise that one studies the portrait of her which
accompanies the recent work, Souvenirs de la Princesse de Tarente.
The drama in which she had taken part, and the bloody spectacle of
which she had been a witness, seem to have left their mark on her
countenance, with its aspect of embittered sadness. Her eyes give
out a look of fierceness. Save for the thin hair partially covering her
forehead, there is almost nothing feminine in her face. Seeing her for
the first time, Lady Atkyns must have received an impression for
which she was unprepared. They took to each other, however, very
quickly, having a bond in common in their memories of the Queen.
Both had come under the charm of Marie-Antoinette, their devotion
to whom was ardent and sincere. The Queen was their one great
topic of conversation. Few of their letters lack some allusion to her.
Knowledge of Lady Atkyns’ devotion to the Royal House of
France, of the sacrifices she had made, was widespread in the world
of English society, and the Princess, having heard of her, was
anxious to meet the woman, who, more fortunate than herself, had
been able to afford some balm to the sufferings, to prevent which
she would so willingly have given her life. The Duke of Queensberry
brought about a meeting between the two ladies. What passed
between them on this occasion? What questions did they exchange
in their eager anxiety to learn something new about the Queen?
Doubtless the most eager inquiries came from the Princess, and
bore upon the achievements of Lady Atkyns, her visit to the
Conciergerie, her talks with the illustrious prisoner. For weeks
afterwards there was an interchange of letters between the two, in
which is clearly disclosed the state of affectionate anxiety of the
Princess’s mind. They address each other already by their Christian
names, Louise and Charlotte. Lady Atkyns shows Mme. de Tarente
the few souvenirs of the Queen she still possessed, the last lines the
Queen wrote to her. It is touching to note, in reading their
correspondence, how every day is to them an anniversary of some
event in the life of the Queen, full of sweet or anguishing memories.
“How sad I was yesterday!” writes the Princess. “It was the
anniversary of a terrible day, when the Queen escaped
assassination only by betaking herself to the King’s
apartments in the middle of the night. Why did she escape?
To know you—but for that the Almighty would surely have
been kind enough to her to have let her fall a victim then.”
For all the affection which surrounds her, Mme. de Tarente
constantly bemoans her solitude.
“I am in the midst of the world,” she writes, “yet all alone.
Yesterday I longed so to talk of that which filled my poor heart,
but there was none who would have understood me. So I kept
my trouble to myself. I was like one of those figures you wind
up which go for a time and then stop again. I kept falling to
pieces and pulling myself together again. Ah, how sad life is!”
In the summer of 1797 the Princess came to a momentous
decision. The Emperor and Empress of Russia, whom she had
known formerly at the French Court, having heard of her trials and of
the not very enviable condition in which she was living, pressed her
to come to Russia, where she would be cordially greeted. After long
hesitation she decided to accept, but it was not without genuine
heartburnings that she separated from her English friends, from her
Charlotte most of all. She left London at the end of July, and arrived
at St. Petersburg a fortnight later. Very soon afterwards she wrote
Lady Atkyns an account of the journey and of her first impressions of
her new surroundings.
The Emperor and Empress received her in their Peterhof palace
with the utmost consideration. Appointed at once a lady-in-waiting on
the Empress, she found herself in enjoyment of many privileges
attached to this post. The house in which she was to live had been
prepared for her specially by the Emperor’s command. Finally, she
was decorated with the Order of St. Catherine, and the Empress on
her fête day presented her with her portrait. Different indeed is her
position from what it had been at Richmond.
“I never drive out without four horses, and even this is my
own doing, for I ought not, as a lady-in-waiting, to have less
than six. They tell me I shall be obliged to get myself made
the uniform of the Order of St. Catherine, and that would cost
me 1200 roubles, that is, 150 louis.”
But the very marked favour met with by the Princess could not but
disquiet some of the courtiers at the Palace. Within a week of her
arrival, one of the ladies in attendance upon the Empress, Mme. de
Nelidoff, at the instigation of Prince Alexandre Kourakine, hastened
to represent Mme. de Tarente’s conduct and the unusual honour that
had been shown her under the most unfavourable light to her
Majesty the Empress; and her jealousy thus aroused (so one of
Mme. de Tarente’s friends tells the tale), she had no difficulty in
settling matters with her husband, and when the Princess next
entered the imperial presence, the Emperor neither spoke to her nor
looked at her.
The snub was patent, but the Princess seems to have taken it
nonchalantly enough. The friendly welcome accorded to her by St.
Petersburg society, the kindness and affection she met with from the
Golowine family, in whose house she soon installed herself, there to
remain until her death, enabled her speedily to forget the intrigue of
her enemies at the Court. The incident is barely alluded to in her
letters to Lady Atkyns, which continue to be taken up chiefly with
reminiscences of their beloved Queen.
Towards the end of 1798 the two friends are sundered by Lady
Atkyns’ decision to return to France, impelled by the desire to be
near those who had played so important a rôle in her life, and to
meet again those friends who had co-operated in her work—perhaps
also to meet and question those who might be in a position to
enlighten her regarding the fate of the Dauphin. This decision she
communicates to the Princess, who opposes it strongly, warning her
against the imprudence she is about to commit. Lady Atkyns
persists, and the Princess at last loses patience. “I have so often
combated your mad idea,” she writes nobly, “that I don’t wish to say
anything more on the subject.”
In the spring of 1814 the news came to St. Petersburg of the
defeat of the armies of Napoleon and the accession of Louis XVIII.
Immediately large numbers of exiles, who were but waiting for this,
made haste back to France. Mme. de Tarente contemplated being of
their number, but before she could even make arrangements for the
journey, death came to her on January 22, 1814.

Hamburg, where our friends Mme. Cormier and the “little Baron”
took refuge in 1795, was already a powerful city, rich by reason of its
commerce, and its governing body, conscious of its strength, were
not the less jealous of its independence. Its unique position, in the
midst of the other German states, the neutrality to which it clung and
which it was determined should be respected, sufficed to prevent it
hitherto from looking askance at the ever-growing triumphs of the
armies of the French Republic, and the Convention, too much taken
up with its own frontiers, had done nothing to threaten the
independence of the Hanseatic town.
This fact did not escape the émigrés, who were finding it more and
more difficult to evade the rigorous look-out of the Revolutionary
Government, and soon Hamburg was filled with nobles,
ecclesiastics, Chouans, conspirators, Royalist agents, just as
London had been some years earlier. Safe from surprises, and in
constant communication with England, Germany, and Italy, this world
of wanderers had discovered an ideal haven in which to hatch all
their divers plots. Clubs were started by them, called after celebrated
men. Rivarol was the centre of one set, noted for its intellectual
stamp and its verve and wit. The publications also that saw the light
in Hamburg enjoyed a wide liberty, and this it was that opened the
eyes of the Republican Government to the state of things.
On September 28, 1795, there arrived at Hamburg, Citoyen
Charles-Frédéric Reinhard, official representative of the Convention,