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 An Introduction to Clouds
From the Microscale to Climate

Clouds, in their various forms, are a vital part of our lives. Their effects on the Earth’s energy bud-
get and the hydrological cycle depend on processes on the microphysical scale, encompassing the
formation of cloud droplets, ice crystals and precipitation. Cloud formation, in turn, depends on the
large-scale environment as well as the characteristics and availability of aerosol particles. An inte-
grated approach drawing on information from all these scales is essential to gain a complete picture
of the behavior of clouds in the atmosphere.
An Introduction to Clouds provides a fundamental understanding of clouds, ranging from cloud
microphysics to the large-scale impacts of clouds on climate. On the microscale, phase changes
and ice nucleation are covered comprehensively, including aerosol particles and the thermodynamics
relevant for the formation of clouds and precipitation. At larger scales, cloud dynamics, mid-latitude
storms and tropical cyclones are discussed, leading to the role of clouds in the hydrological cycle and
their effect on climate.
Each chapter ends with problem sets and multiple-choice questions that can be completed online;
important equations are highlighted in boxes for ease of reference. Combining mathematical formula-
tions with qualitative explanations of the underlying concepts, this accessible book requires relatively
little previous knowledge, making it ideal for advanced undergraduate and graduate students in
atmospheric science, environmental sciences and related disciplines.

Ulrike Lohmann is a professor at the Institute for Atmospheric and Climate Science, ETH Zurich.
She obtained her Ph.D. in climate modeling and her research now focuses on the role of clouds
and aerosol particles in the climate system, with an emphasis on clouds containing ice. Professor
Lohmann has published more than 200 peer-reviewed articles and several book chapters, and was a
lead author of the Fourth and Fifth IPCC Assessment Reports. She was awarded the Canada Research
Chair in 2002 and was the recipient of the AMS Henry G. Houghton Award in 2007. She is a fel-
low of the American Geophysical Union and the German Academy of Sciences, Leopoldina. Ulrike
Lohmann has been teaching classes in cloud microphysics and cloud dynamics for almost 20 years
at both undergraduate and graduate levels.

Felix Lüönd is a researcher at the Swiss Federal Institute of Metrology, METAS. He obtained his Ph.D.
in atmospheric ice nucleation, for which he was awarded the ETH medal. His experimental work
focused on cloud microphysics. He specialized in the development of dedicated instrumentation to
study the aerosol-induced freezing of cloud droplets and the interpretation of the resulting exper-
imental data in the framework of nucleation theory and its advancements. Currently, Dr. Lüönd’s
research activities are concentrated on aerosol metrology, particularly in the generation of ambient-
like aerosols dedicated to establish traceability in measurements of ambient particulate matter and
particle number concentration.

Fabian Mahrt is a Ph.D. student at the Institute for Atmospheric and Climate Science, ETH Zurich.
He obtained a Master’s degree in Atmospheric and Climate Sciences from ETH. Early in his career
he developed a passion for cloud microphysics. He is particularly interested in aerosol particles and
their role in cloud droplets and ice crystal formation. Fabian Mahrt’s work is experimental in nature,
measuring and understanding aerosol–cloud interactions in both the laboratory and the field.
 An Introduction to Clouds
From the Microscale to Climate

ULRIKE LOHMANN, FELIX LÜÖND AND FABIAN MAHRT

ETH Zurich, Institute for Atmospheric and Climate Science, Switzerland
 University Printing House, Cambridge CB2 8BS, United Kingdom

Cambridge University Press is part of the University of Cambridge.

It furthers the University’s mission by disseminating knowledge in the pursuit of
education, learning and research at the highest international levels of excellence.

www.cambridge.org
Information on this title: www.cambridge.org/9781107018228

c Ulrike Lohmann, Felix Lüönd and Fabian Mahrt 2016
This publication is in copyright. Subject to statutory exception
and to the provisions of relevant collective licensing agreements,
no reproduction of any part may take place without the written
permission of Cambridge University Press.
First published 2016
Printed in the United Kingdom by TJ International Ltd. Padstow Cornwall
A catalog record for this publication is available from the British Library
Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication data
ISBN 978-1-107-01822-8 Hardback
Additional resources for this publication at www.cambridge.org/clouds
Cambridge University Press has no responsibility for the persistence or accuracy
of URLs for external or third-party internet websites referred to in this publication,
and does not guarantee that any content on such websites is, or will remain,
accurate or appropriate.
 To our families
Kassiem, Stefanie, Claudia, Jana and Rainer
 Contents

Preface page xiii

List of symbols and acronyms xvi

1 Clouds 1
1.1 Definition and importance of clouds 1
1.2 Macroscopic cloud properties and cloud types 3
1.2.1 Low-level layered clouds 5
1.2.2 Low-level clouds with vertical extent 8
1.2.3 Mid-level clouds 10
1.2.4 High-level clouds 10
1.2.5 Other cloud types 13
1.3 Microphysical cloud properties 15
1.3.1 Cloud phase 15
1.3.2 Size distributions and water contents 17
1.4 Exercises 23

2 Thermodynamics 26
2.1 Basic definitions 26
2.1.1 Thermodynamic states and variables of state 26
2.1.2 Intensive and extensive variables 27
2.1.3 Open, closed and isolated systems 28
2.1.4 Thermodynamic equilibrium 28
2.1.5 Reversible and irreversible processes 29
2.2 Dry air 31
2.2.1 Ideal gas law 32
2.2.2 First law of thermodynamics 32
2.2.3 Special processes 35
2.2.4 The Carnot process 36
2.2.5 Air parcels 38
2.2.6 Specific entropy 39
2.3 Thermodynamic charts 40
2.4 Thermodynamics of phase transitions 41
2.4.1 The role of the Gibbs free energy in phase transitions 42
2.4.2 Phase transitions in thermodynamic equilibrium: the
Clausius–Clapeyron equation 45
2.4.3 Saturation vapor pressure below 273.15 K 48
vii
viii Contents

2.5 Moist air 52

2.5.1 Water in the atmosphere 52
2.5.2 Partial pressure 52
2.5.3 Water vapor mixing ratio and specific humidity 53
2.5.4 Virtual temperature 53
2.5.5 Relative humidity 54
2.5.6 Dew point temperature 55
2.5.7 Wet-bulb temperature, wet-bulb potential temperature and
lifting condensation level 57
2.5.8 Isentropic condensation temperature 59
2.5.9 Equivalent potential temperature and equivalent temperature 60
2.5.10 Saturation equivalent potential temperature and saturation
equivalent temperature 61
2.5.11 Wet adiabatic processes 62
2.6 Exercises 63

3 Atmospheric dynamics 68
3.1 Basic equations and buoyancy force 68
3.1.1 Navier–Stokes equation 68
3.1.2 Coriolis and centrifugal force 69
3.1.3 Hydrostatic equation 70
3.1.4 Hypsometric equation 70
3.1.5 Buoyancy force 71
3.2 Stability in dry air 72
3.2.1 Dry adiabatic lapse rate 72
3.2.2 Lapse rate and stability 73
3.2.3 Brunt–Väisälä frequency 74
3.3 Stability in condensing air 76
3.4 Instability of layers 79
3.5 Horizontal restoring forces 81
3.5.1 Geostrophic wind 81
3.5.2 Thermal wind 84
3.5.3 Inertial instability 85
3.6 Slantwise displacement 88
3.7 Exercises 90

4 Mixing and convection 95

4.1 Mixing 95
4.1.1 Isobaric mixing 95
4.1.2 Adiabatic mixing 98
4.2 Convection 99
4.2.1 Level of free convection 99
4.2.2 Convective condensation level 99
4.2.3 Elementary parcel theory 103
ix Contents

4.2.4 Modification of the elementary parcel theory 105

4.3 Exercises 112

5 Atmospheric aerosol particles 115

5.1 Chemical and physical characteristics of aerosol particles 115
5.1.1 Chemical characteristics 115
5.1.2 Physical characteristics 116
5.2 Aerosol size distributions 118
5.2.1 Discrete size distributions 118
5.2.2 Size distribution function 118
5.2.3 Logarithmic normal distributions 121
5.2.4 Surface and volume distributions 123
5.2.5 Observed aerosol size distributions 126
5.3 Aerosol sources 129
5.3.1 Formation mechanisms of aerosol particles 129
5.3.2 Aerosol emissions 131
5.4 Aerosol sinks 135
5.4.1 Dry scavenging 135
5.4.2 Wet scavenging 137
5.4.3 Atmospheric processing of aerosol particles 143
5.5 Burden and lifetime of aerosols 144
5.6 Summary of aerosol processes 147
5.7 Exercises 148

6 Cloud droplet formation and Köhler theory 155

6.1 Nucleation 155
6.1.1 Initiation of phase transitions 156
6.1.2 Cluster formation 158
6.2 Kelvin equation 160
6.3 Hygroscopic growth 163
6.4 Raoult’s law 166
6.5 Köhler curve 170
6.5.1 Stable and unstable equilibrium 172
6.5.2 The role of particle size and chemistry for Köhler
activation 176
6.6 Measurements of cloud condensation nuclei 177
6.7 Summary of cloud droplet formation by Köhler activation 180
6.8 Exercises 182

7 Microphysical processes in warm clouds 186

7.1 Droplet growth by diffusion and condensation 186
7.1.1 Diffusion equation for water vapor 188
7.1.2 Heat conduction equation 189
7.1.3 Droplet growth equation 190
x Contents

7.1.4 Solution of the droplet growth equation 193

7.1.5 Growth of a droplet population 193
7.1.6 Application of the droplet growth equation 195
7.2 Droplet growth by collision–coalescence 198
7.2.1 Initiation of the collision–coalescence process 198
7.2.2 Collision and coalescence efficiencies 200
7.2.3 Terminal velocity of cloud droplets and raindrops 202
7.2.4 Growth model for continuous collection 204
7.2.5 Growth model for stochastic collection 207
7.3 Evaporation and break-up of raindrops 208
7.3.1 Evaporation of cloud droplets and raindrops 208
7.3.2 Maximum raindrop size 209
7.3.3 Energy transformation during collision–coalescence 210
7.3.4 Types of raindrop break-up 212
7.4 Exercises 213

8 Microphysical processes in cold clouds 218

8.1 Ice nucleation 218
8.1.1 Homogeneous ice nucleation 219
8.1.2 Heterogeneous ice nucleation 226
8.1.3 Ice nucleating particles 230
8.1.4 Dependence of ice nucleation on temperature and
supersaturation 232
8.2 Ice crystal habits 236
8.3 Ice crystal growth 237
8.3.1 Growth by diffusion 239
8.3.2 Snow formation by aggregation 241
8.3.3 Growth by accretion and terminal velocity of snowflakes 241
8.4 Collapse of ice particles 245
8.4.1 Ice multiplication 245
8.4.2 Melting and sublimation of ice and snow 246
8.5 Summary of microphysical processes in warm and cold clouds 246
8.6 Exercises 248

9 Precipitation 251
9.1 Precipitation rates 251
9.2 Size distributions of hydrometeors 252
9.2.1 Raindrop size distribution 252
9.2.2 Snowflake size distribution 255
9.3 Radar 256
9.3.1 Scattering regimes 257
9.3.2 Radar reflectivity 258
9.3.3 Relation of radar reflectivity to precipitation rate 260
9.3.4 Radar images 261
xi Contents

9.4 Types of precipitation 261

9.4.1 Stratiform precipitation 263
9.4.2 Convective precipitation 267
9.5 Synoptic and mesoscale structure of precipitation 269
9.5.1 Norwegian cyclone model 270
9.5.2 Conveyor belt approach 271
9.5.3 Orographic precipitation 274
9.6 Precipitation in the present and future climate 275
9.7 Exercises 279

10 Storms and cloud dynamics 285

10.1 Isolated thunderstorms and hail 285
10.1.1 Life cycle of an ordinary thunderstorm 286
10.1.2 Hail 288
10.2 Lightning and thunder 290
10.2.1 Global electrical circuit 290
10.2.2 Charge separation within clouds 291
10.2.3 Ground flashes 293
10.3 Multicell and supercell storms 295
10.3.1 Multicell storms 297
10.3.2 Vorticity 298
10.3.3 Supercell storms 301
10.3.4 Tornadoes 304
10.4 Mesoscale convective systems 307
10.5 Tropical cyclones 310
10.5.1 General characteristics 310
10.5.2 Prerequisites for tropical cyclone formation 312
10.5.3 Circulation within a tropical cyclone 313
10.5.4 Differences between tropical and extratropical cyclones 313
10.5.5 Tropical cyclone as a heat engine 314
10.5.6 Decay of tropical cyclones 317
10.6 Cyclones and climate change 317
10.7 Exercises 318

11 Global energy budget 323

11.1 Energy balance at the top of the atmosphere 323
11.2 Energy balance in the atmosphere 326
11.3 Energy balance at the surface 328
11.4 Cloud radiative effects 329
11.5 Exercises 333

12 Impact of aerosol particles and clouds on climate 335

12.1 Aerosol radiative forcing 335
12.1.1 Radiative forcing due to aerosol–radiation interactions 337
xii Contents

12.1.2 Radiative forcing due to aerosol–cloud interactions 340

12.1.3 Comparison of anthropogenic forcings 343
12.2 Clouds and climate 345
12.2.1 Clouds at different altitude levels 345
12.2.2 Cloud regimes 347
12.2.3 Trends in cloud cover 349
12.3 Climate feedbacks 350
12.3.1 Planck feedback 351
12.3.2 Water vapor, lapse rate and ice-albedo feedback 352
12.3.3 Cloud feedback 353
12.4 Climate engineering involving aerosol particles and clouds 356
12.4.1 Stratospheric aerosol injections 358
12.4.2 Marine cloud brightening 360
12.4.3 Cirrus modification 361
12.4.4 Summary of the climate engineering discussion 363
12.5 Exercises 363

References 368
Index 382

The plate section is to be found between pages 214 and 215.

 Preface

Clouds, in their various forms, are a vital part of our lives. They are a crucial part of
the global hydrological cycle, redistributing water to Earth’s surface in the form of pre-
cipitation. In addition, they are a key element for the global energy budget since they
interact with both shortwave (solar) and longwave (terrestrial) radiation. These so-called
cloud–radiation interactions depend strongly on the type of cloud. Clearly clouds affect the
global climate and thus understanding clouds is an important factor for future climate pro-
jections. The effects on Earth’s energy budget and on the hydrological cycle both depend
on processes on the microphysical scale, encompassing the formation of cloud droplets,
ice crystals, raindrops, snowflakes, graupel and hailstones.
Establishing an understanding of clouds and precipitation requires a knowledge of the
environment in which they form, i.e. the atmosphere, with all the gases and airborne par-
ticles present there. The latter are usually referred to as aerosol particles and encompass
a wide range of solid and liquid particles suspended in air. Some aerosol particles can act
as nuclei to form cloud droplets or ice crystals and thus initiate the formation of clouds or
change their phase from liquid to solid. Thus they influence the microphysical properties
of clouds. In turn aerosol particles are removed from the atmosphere when clouds precip-
itate. In order to gain a complete picture of the behavior of clouds in the atmosphere, the
strong interplay between aerosol particles and clouds requires one to tackle the subject in
an integrated approach.
This book is intended to offer a fundamental understanding of clouds in the atmosphere.
It is primarily written for students at an advanced undergraduate level who are new to
the field of atmospheric sciences. The content of this book evolved from the atmospheric
physics lectures held at ETH Zurich. This book is intended to serve students with a mul-
tidisciplinary background as an introduction to cloud physics, assuming that most readers
will have a basic understanding of physics.
The book is organized into 12 chapters, each focusing on a particular topic. Chapter 1
introduces the major cloud types found in the atmosphere and discusses them from a
macroscopic point of view. Chapters 2–4 focus on the meteorological conditions and atmo-
spheric dynamics needed for cloud formation and the thermodynamic principles needed to
describe atmospheric processes, including phase transitions.
Chapter 5 treats atmospheric aerosol particles and their physical characteristics. The
sources and sinks of aerosol particles are discussed at the process level as well as in terms
of their global distributions and lifetimes.
Chapters 6–8 cover cloud microphysics. Chapter 6 discusses the fundamental equations
that describe the formation of cloud droplets. Chapter 7 introduces the processes which

xiii
xiv Preface

ultimately lead to the formation of rain drops. Ice formation and other microphysical
processes occurring in cold clouds are presented in Chapter 8.
Chapter 9 combines the macroscopic view of Chapter 1 with the microscopic view
needed to understand the physics of precipitation as well as the differences between strati-
form and convective precipitation. Also, the change in precipitation since pre-industrial
times and projections into the future are included.
To understand convective clouds, knowledge about cloud dynamics is needed. This is
provided in Chapter 10, where convective clouds at all scales, from isolated thunderstorms
with lightning and thunder to multicells, supercells and mesoscale convective systems,
including tropical cyclones, are discussed.
Finally, Chapters 11 and 12 bring the reader to the global scale. Chapter 11 outlines the
physical principles of the global energy budget and discusses the effects of clouds on it. On
the basis of the information in Chapter 11 the impact of aerosols and clouds on the climate
since pre-industrial times and in future climate projections is considered in Chapter 12.
To strengthen concepts and test the reader’s understanding, qualitative exercises and
mathematical problems are provided at the end of each chapter. This allows the reader to
apply directly the material of the text and provides an opportunity for further learning. To
this end, online solutions are provided and can be accessed at www.cambridge.org/clouds.
For some of the problem sets the usage of a tephigram will be helpful. This, along with
some other material can be accessed from: www.cambridge.org/clouds. Some useful online
information about atmospheric science includes the following links:
• Glossary of Meteorology: http://glossary.ametsoc.org/wiki
• Encyclopedia of Atmospheric Sciences:
http://app.knovel.com/web/toc.v/cid:kpEASV0002/viewerType:toc/root_slug:
encyclopedia-atmospheric/url_slug:encyclopedia-atmospheric/?
• NOAA glossary: http://w1.weather.gov/glossary/
• Fifth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change:
http://www.climatechange2013.org
Throughout the book, important equations are underlaid in gray. All quantities are given
in SI units unless stated otherwise. However, as we often refer to processes occurring above
or below 0 ◦ C, we will use degrees celsius whenever convenient, keeping in mind that
temperatures need to be in kelvins in the equations given (if not noted otherwise).
The outline of the book follows a similar structure to the classic book A Short Course
in Cloud Physics by Rogers and Yau (1989), which served the present authors not only
for their own studies but also for over a decade of teaching at undergraduate level in the
atmospheric physics course. Inspired by the straightforwardness of Rogers and Yau (1989)
in explaining complex concepts of cloud physics and their style of imparting knowledge
to readers new to the atmospheric sciences, paired with the enormous developments in this
field over recent years, the authors decided to come up with this new introductory textbook,
which places a stronger focus on ice clouds, cloud dynamics and climate change.
We felt that, although there are many excellent textbooks at the graduate level, a textbook
introducing the physics of clouds, aerosols and precipitation in an integrated manner com-
bining quantitative discussions at the undergraduate level was lacking. We believe that this
xv Preface

book fills this niche in giving intuitive interpretations of the physical processes discussed.
Through this approach we hope to present the fascination of clouds that has captured us
and thus to stimulate the interest of the readers in this diverse field. The book provides a
fundamental understanding, which can be deepened by the excellent further literature that
is available.
Writing this book would not have been possible without the knowledge we received from
many pioneers of the field of atmospheric sciences; these are named in the appropriate
context throughout the book. Equally important, the development of this book relied on
the help and support from many colleagues and we are very grateful for help in different
aspects. We owe a great debt to Anina Gilgen for her invaluable contribution in putting
together the exercises. Chief among those who provided excellent support are the members
of our research group, who discussed drafts of different chapters and were a great source
of ideas.
The authors wish to thank explicitly Manuel Abegglen, Alexander Beck, Yvonne
Boose, Robert David, Remo Dietlicher, Sylvaine Ferrachat, Blaz Gasparini, Anina Gilgen,
Franziska Glassmeier, Olga Henneberg, Jan Henneberger, Katty Huang, Luisa Ickes,
Zamin Kanji, Christina Klasa, Monika Kohn, Larissa Lacher, Claudia Marcolli, Amewu
Mensah, Angela Meyer, Baban Nagare, David Neubauer, Mikhail Paramonov, Fabiola
Ramelli, Carolin Rösch, Christina Schnadt, Sarah Schöpfer, Berko Sierau, Janina Stäu-
dle, Kathrin Wehrli and Heini Wernli for very valuable discussions and suggestions that
greatly improved the textbook.
Besides, we are indebted to Björn Baschek, Lea Beusch, Sebastian Bretl, Joel Corbin,
Betty Croft, Daniel Cziczo, Corinna Hoose, Hanna Joos, Miriam Kübbeler, Glen Lesins,
Rebekka Posselt, Jacopo Riboldi, Vivek Sant, Linda Schlemmer, Peter Spichtinger, Eric
Sulmoni, André Welti and Marc Wüest. Finally, we are grateful for all the valuable feed-
back we obtained from students of the atmospheric physics lectures, which has been
essential for continuous improvements of the book.
The authors want to thank Remo Dietlicher, Simon Förster, Anina Gilgen, Franziska
Glassmeier, Pascal Graf, Miriam Kübbeler, Jeremy Michael, David Neubauer, Sarah
Schöpfer and André Welti for their help with figures.
Photographs illustrating various aspects within our textbook were kindly provided by
Kouji Adachi, Laurent Barbe, Robert David, Martin Ebert, Blaz Gasparini, Christian
Grams, Zachary Hargrove, Jan Henneberger, Otte Homan, Luisa Ickes, Brian Johnson,
Laurie Krall, Larissa Lacher, Sandra LaCorte, Kenneth Libbrecht, Julian Quinting, Milos
Vujovic and Thomas Winesett.
We specially thank the very helpful staff at Cambridge University Press, namely Susan
Francis, Cassi Roberts and Zoë Pruce in guiding the development of this book and also our
copy-editor Susan Parkinson for valuable comments and suggestions.
 Symbols and acronyms

Symbols
Symbol Value/unit Description
A, B Different substances in Raoult’s law
Ai , Bi Empirical constants for the saturation vapor pressure over ice
Aw , Bw Empirical constants for the saturation vapor pressure over
water
A m2 Area
a m Coefficient of the curvature term in the Köhler equation
aw Water activity
B Buoyancy term
Bλ W m−2 Black body source function
b m3 Coefficient of the solution term in the Köhler equation
b Coefficient in the Hatch–Choate equation
C cm3 CCN concentration at 1% supersaturation
C F/m Capacitance for ice crystals
Cc Cunningham correction factor
CD Drag coefficient
CKE J Collision kinetic energy
CR Constant for radar reflectivity
cl 4219.9 J kg−1 K−1 Specific heat capacity of liquid water
ci J kg−1 K−1 Specific heat capacity of ice
cp 1005 J kg−1 K−1 Specific heat capacity of dry air at constant pressure
cpv 1884.4 J kg−1 K−1 Specific heat capacity of water vapor at constant pressure
cv 718 J kg−1 K−1 Specific heat capacity of dry air at constant volume
cvv 1418.4 J kg−1 K−1 Specific heat capacity of water vapor at constant volume
Da , Dv m2 s−1 Diffusivities of aerosol particles or water vapor in air
E, Ẽ, Ê Collision, collection, coalescence or coagulation efficiencies
Ecoal J Total energy of coalescence
e Pa Partial pressure of water vapor
emix , e mix Pa Mean water vapor pressure of isobarically mixed air before
and after condensation
es,i , es,w Pa Saturation vapor pressures with respect to ice or water
es0 611.2 Pa Saturation vapor pressure at T0 = 273.15 K
e∗ Equilibrium vapor pressure over a solution
F J Helmholtz free energy

F N Force vector

xvi
xvii Symbols and acronyms

FB m s−2 Buoyancy force per unit mass

C
F m s−2 Coriolis force per unit mass
Fd s m−2 Vapor diffusion term in droplet radius growth
equation
Fdi , Fdl m s kg−1 Vapor diffusion terms in the mass growth equations
for ice crystals and cloud droplets
FD kg m s−2 Drag force
F
F m s−2 Dissipation term for momentum, per unit mass, i.e.
friction
Fg kg m s−2 Gravity force
Fk s m−2 Thermodynamic term in droplet radius growth
equation
Fki , Fkl m s kg−1 Thermodynamic terms in the mass growth equations
for ice crystals and cloud droplets
cs
FLW , FLW W m−2 Net longwave radiative fluxes at the TOA in all-sky
and clear-sky conditions
↑ ↓
FLW , FLW W m−2 Upward- and downward-directed longwave radiative
fluxes
FSun 3.85 × 1026 W Radiation emitted by the Sun
cs
FSW , FSW W m−2 Net shortwave radiative fluxes at the TOA in all-sky
and clear-sky conditions
↓
FSW W m−2 Downward-directed shortwave radiative fluxes
 PG
F m s−2 Pressure gradient force per unit mass
f s−1 Coriolis parameter, i.e. planetary vorticity
f Compatibility parameter for heterogeneous
nucleation
fact , ff Activation and frozen fractions
f̄v Mean ventilation coefficient
G J Gibbs free energy
Gs,hom , Gv,hom , Gv,het J Surface and volume terms of the Gibbs free energy
for a pure liquid droplet and for a solution droplet
Gex (n) J Excess Gibbs free energy due to cluster formation
G(n) J Total Gibbs free energy of the cluster
g 9.81 m s−2 Acceleration due to gravity
g, gv , gl J kg−1 Specific Gibbs free energy in general and in the
vapor or liquid phases
H J Enthalpy
H W m−2 Heat flux into the ocean
H m2 s−2 Helicity
h m Height above Earth’s surface, vertical distance
Iλ W m−2 Wavelength-dependent intensity of radiation
I, I0 W m−2 Intensity of radiation in general and at TOA
i Van ’t Hoff factor
J, Ji , Jw cm−3 s−1 General nucleation rate and nucleation rates for ice
in vapor and water in vapor
K cm−3 s−1 Kinetic prefactor for the nucleation rate
K J m−1 s−1 K−1 Coefficient of thermal conductivity in air
K m3 s−1 Collision or collection kernel
xviii Symbols and acronyms

|K|2 Modulus squared of the complex index of

refraction
k 1.38 × 10−23 J K−1 Boltzmann constant
k Slope of the CCN−S relationship
kλ,abs = kabs m−1 Wavelength-dependent absorption
coefficient for greenhous gases, aerosol
particles and cloud hydrometeors
kλ,ext = kext m−1 Wavelength-dependent extinction coefficient
for greenhous gases, aerosol particles and
cloud hydrometeors
kλ,scat = kscat m−1 Wavelength-dependent scattering coefficient
for greenhous gases, aerosol particles and
cloud hydrometeors
L m Characteristic length scale for geostrophic
flow
L2,1 J kg−1 Latent heat for the phase change from phase
1 to phase 2
Lf J kg−1 Latent heat of fusion
Lf 0 = Lf (T0 ) 0.333 × 106 J kg−1 Latent heat of fusion at T0 = 273.15 K
Ls Latent heat of sublimation
Ls0 = Ls (T0 ) 2.834 × 106 J kg−1 Latent heat of sublimation at T0 = 273.15 K
Lv J kg−1 Latent heat of vaporization
Lv0 = Lv (T0 ) 2.501 × 106 J kg−1 Latent heat of vaporization at T0 = 273.15 K
M m s−1 Absolute momentum
MF kg s−1 Mass flux
Md 28.96 g mol−1 Molecular weight of dry air
Ml kg m−3 Cloud liquid water content in units of mass
per unit volume
Mm g mol−1 Molecular weight of moist air
Ms g mol−1 Molecular weight of a solute
Mw 18 g mol−1 Molecular weight of water
MFd , MFu kg s−1 Downward and upward mass fluxes
m, mw , ms kg Masses of air parcel, bulk water and solute
md , mm , mv kg Masses of dry air, moist air and water vapor
m0 kg Masses of one water molecule
mi , ml , mR , m(r) kg Masses of an ice crystal, cloud droplet and
collector drop and of hydrometeors in
general
ma , mtot kg Total mass of aerosol particles and of the
solution droplet
N s−1 Brunt–Väisälä frequency
N Number of molecules
NA 6.022 × 1023 mol−1 Avogadro’s constant
N0 cm−4 Intercept parameter for hydrometeor size
distributions
N, Na , NCCN , Nc , cm−3 Number concentrations in general and of
Nd , Ni , Nr aerosol particles, CCN, cloud droplets,
drizzle drops, ice crystals and raindrops
Nj Number of particles of type j
xix Symbols and acronyms

n Number of moles or molecules

ni , nv m−3 Number concentrations of gas molecules and of water
vapor molecules
nem (r) g cm−3 Mass concentration of hydrometeors
nN (r) cm−3 µm−1 Number concentration of aerosol particles per
micrometer size
nN (r) m−3 mm−1 or m−3 m−1 Number concentration of hydrometeors per unit length
neN (r) cm−3 Number concentration of aerosol particles on a
logarithmic scale
n s , nw Numbers of solute and water molecules
nS (r) µm2 cm−3 µm−1 Surface concentration of aerosol particles per
micrometer size
neS (r) µm2 cm−3 Surface concentration of aerosol particles on a
logarithmic scale
nV (r) µm3 cm−3 µm−1 Volume concentration of aerosol particles per
micrometer size
neV (r) µm3 cm−3 Volume concentration of aerosol particles on a
logarithmic scale
P Probability
PR W Power received at a radar antenna
p Pa Atmospheric pressure
p0 1000 hPa Reference pressure
pc Pa Pressure of the lifting condensation level
pi , pA , pB Pa Partial pressure of particle type i and of substances A
and B
pn Pa Pressure within a cluster
ps Pa Saturation vapor pressure
ptot Pa Total vapor pressure of a solution
Q J Heat energy
Q Generic quantity in thermodynamics
Q1 m−1 Thermodynamic variable in supersaturation equation
Q2 Thermodynamic variable in supersaturation equation
Qλ,ext Extinction efficiency
q J kg−1 Specific heat energy
qi kg kg−1 Cloud ice mass mixing ratio
ql kg kg−1 Cloud liquid water mass mixing ratio
qs , qs,i kg kg−1 Saturation specific humidity with respect to water and
ice
qv kg kg−1 Specific humidity: mass of water vapor per unit mass
of moist air
qv,cl kg kg−1 Specific humidity in a cloudy air parcel
qv,env kg kg−1 Specific humidity in the environment
qv,mix kg kg−1 Mean specific humidity in well-mixed air
qx kg kg−1 Condensate mixing ratio: mass of condensate per unit
mass of dry air
R m Radius of a collector drop
R mm h−1 Precipitation or rain rate
Rd 287 J kg−1 K−1 Gas constant of dry air
Ri m Melted radius of a snowflake
xx Symbols and acronyms

Rm J kg−1 K−1 Gas constant of moist air

RSun 6.98 × 108 m Radius of the Sun
Rv 461.5 J kg−1 K−1 Gas constant of water vapor
R∗ 8.314 J mol−1 K−1 Universal gas constant
R50 m Radius at which 50% of aerosol particles are activated
Re Reynolds number
RH, RHi % Relative humidities with respect to water and ice
Ro Rossby number
r m Radius, distance in spherical coordinates
ract m Critical radius for activation
rc m Critical radius
rd , rh , ri , rr m Radii of a droplet, hydrometeor, ice particle and raindrop
rd m Mean volume radius
req m Equivalent radius for a raindrop or for the drop that is
formed when a snowflake melts
rdry m Dry radius of an aerosol particle
rEarth 6.371 × 109 m Radius of the Earth
rmax m Maximum raindrop radius
rSun−Earth 1.5 × 1011 m Sun–Earth distance
S J K−1 Entropy
S m2 Surface area
S = Sw , Si Ambient saturation ratios with respect to water and ice
Sa µm2 cm−3 Total aerosol surface area concentration
Sact Activation saturation ratio
Sc J Surface energy
Scry Crystallization saturation ratio
Sdel Deliquesence saturation ratio
Smax Maximum supersaturation reached in a cloud
S(r) Size-dependent saturation ratio of a solution droplet with
radius r
S0 1360 W m−2 Solar constant
Sc Schmidt number
s J kg−1 K−1 Specific entropy
s m Path length
s, scl , senv J kg−1 Moist static energies in general and for cloudy or
environmental air
s % Supersaturation
sact % Supersaturation required for activation
T K Temperature of an air parcel
T m s−1 Characteristic time scale for geostrophic flow
T0 273.15 K Melting point temperature (0 ◦ C)
Tatm K Average temperature of the atmosphere
Tcl K Temperature of a cloudy air parcel
Tenv K Temperature of the environment
Tc K Isentropic condensation temperature
Td K Dew point temperature
Te K Effective temperature
Te , Tes K Equivalent and saturation equivalent temperature
xxi Symbols and acronyms

Tin , Tout K Input and output temperature of the Carnot cycle

Tmix , T  mix K Mean temperature in isobarically mixed air before and
after condensation
Tp K Temperature of the air parcel
Tp0 , Ttropo K Temperatures at 1000 hPa and at the tropopause
Trd K Temperature at a droplet’s surface
Ts K Annual global mean temperature at the Earth’s surface
TSun 5769.56 K Temperature of the Sun
Tv , Tv,env K Virtual temperature in general and of the environment
Tw K Wet-bulb temperature
t s Time
U J Internal energy
U m s−1 Characteristic velocity scale for geostrophic flow
u J kg−1 Specific internal energy
u, v m s−1 Horizontal velocity components in x- and y- directions
ug , vg m s−1 Geostrophic wind components in x- and y- directions
V, Vn m3 Volume in general and of the cluster
Va µm3 cm−3 Total aerosol volume concentration
Vsweep m3 Sweep-out volume
v m s−1 Three-dimensional velocity vector
vh m s−1 Horizontal velocity vector
v, vi , vw m3 kg−1 Specific volume in general and of ice and water
v0 m3 Volume of an individual molecule
vD m s−1 Doppler velocity
vh m s−1 Fall velocity of hydrometeors
vr m s−1 Relative velocity of two falling hydrometeors
vT , vT,snow m s−1 Terminal velocity in general and for snow
W J Work
w J kg−1 Specific external work
w, wcl m s−1 Vertical velocity in general and for a cloudy air parcel
wj mass fraction
wl kg kg−1 Adiabatic cloud liquid water mixing ratio
ws kg kg−1 Saturation water vapor mixing ratio
wv kg kg−1 Water vapor mixing ratio: mass of water vapor per unit
mass of dry air
x Dimensionless size parameter for scattering
x0 m Impact parameter within which a collision is certain to
occur
Z mm6 m−3 Radar reflectivity factor
Ze mm6 m−3 Equivalent radar reflectivity factor
z m Height
α, αi , αl , αv m3 kg−1 Specific volumes of air, ice, liquid water and water vapor
αm Accommodation coefficient for ice crystal growth
αc Cloud albedo
αp Planetary albedo
β m−1 s−1 Meridional gradient of Coriolis parameter f
γ,  K m−1 Lapse rates of the ambient air and of an air parcel
γ Radii ratio of collector drop to smaller droplet
xxii Symbols and acronyms

d 9.8 K km−1 Dry adiabatic lapse rate

s K km−1 Pseudoadiabatic lapse rate
F = RF W m−2 Radiative forcing
FLW , FSW W m−2 Changes in FLW and FSW at the TOA
H W m−2 Heat uptake by the ocean
G J Change in Gibbs free energy
G∗ , G∗het J Gibbs free energy barrier in general and for
heterogeneous nucleation
Gs , Gv J Surface and volume terms of the change in
Gibbs free energy
Gs,hom , Gs,sol J Surface terms of the change in Gibbs free
energy in pure water and in a solution
Gv,hom , Gv,sol J Volume terms of the change in Gibbs free
energy in pure water and in a solution
Gw,v , Gi,w , Gi,v J Changes in Gibbs free energy between
water and vapor, ice and water, and ice and
vapor
R W m−2 Net radiative imbalance at the TOA
Ts K Change in global mean surface temperature
δ infinitesimal change
, λ Emissivity in general and
wavelength-dependent emissivity
Entrainment
0.622 Ratio Rd /Rv = mw /md
ζ s−1 z-component of the relative vorticity
η s−1 x-component of the relative vorticity
η Thermodynamic efficiency of the Carnot
process
θ Contact angle
θ K Potential temperature
θe , θes K Equivalent and saturation equivalent
potential temperatures
θmix K Mean potential temperature in well-mixed
air
θw K Wet-bulb potential temperature
κ 0.286 Ratio Rd /cp
κ Hygroscopicity parameter
 m−1 Entrainment rate
 cm−1 Slope of hydrometeor size distributions
B s−1 Scavenging coefficient
λ m Wavelength
λ W m−2 K−1 Climate sensitivity parameter
λ0 W m−2 K−1 Null climate sensitivity parameter
μ Shape parameter of hydrometeor size
distributions
μ kg m−1 s−1 Dynamic viscocity of air
μ J s−1 Chemical potential
xxiii Symbols and acronyms

μ, μS , μV , μm m Number mean radius and arithmetric means

of the surface, volume and mass radii
μg , μg,S , μg,V , μg,m m Geometric means of the number, surface,
volume and mass distributions of aerosol
particles
μ, μ
 m Number mode radius and radius of average
mass
ν m2 s−1 Kinematic viscocity
ξ s−1 y-component of the relative vorticity
ρa kg m−3 Density of an aerosol particle
ρd kg m−3 Density of dry air
ρenv kg m−3 Density of ambient air
ρ l , ρ i , ρs kg m−3 Densities of liquid water, ice and a solution
droplet
ρ, ρm kg m−3 Density in general and of moist air
ρv , ρv,rd , ρvs kg m−3 Ambient water vapor density, water vapor
density at a droplet’s surface and saturation
water vapor density
σ Arithmetic standard deviation
σ 5.67 × 10−8 W m−2 K−4 Stefan–Boltzmann constant
σ N m−1 Surface tension
σi,a , σi,v N m−1 Surface tension of ice in air or vapor
σw,a = σw N m−1 Surface tension of water in air
σw,v 0.0756 N m−1 Surface tension of water in water vapor at
273.15 K
σi,w N m−1 Surface tension between ice and water
σINP,i , σINP,v , σINP,w N m−1 Surface tensions between an INP and ice,
vapor or water
σ , σi m Standard deviations of the aerosol size
distribution in mode i
σg Geometric standard deviation of the aerosol
size distribution
τ Optical depth
τAP Aerosol optical depth
φ ◦ , degrees Latitude
ϕ(Vn ) J Gibbs free energy of the interface between
a cluster and the parent phase
 7.29 ×10−5 s−1 Earth’s rotation
ω Pa s−1 Vertical velocity in the p-system
ω
 s−1 Three-dimensional vorticity vector
ω
h s−1 Horizontal vorticity vector
xxiv Symbols and acronyms

Acronyms
AEJ African easterly jet
AEROCOM Aerosol Intercomparison project
AERONET Aerosol Robotic Network
AOD Aerosol optical depth
AOGCM Coupled atmosphere–ocean general circulation model
AR4 Fourth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change
AR5 Fifth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change
aci Aerosol–cloud interactions
ari Aerosol–radiation interactions
a.u. arbitrary units
BC Black carbon
BWER Bounded weak echo region
CALIPSO Cloud–Aerosol Lidar and Infrared Pathfinder Satellite Observation
CAPE Convectively available potential energy (J kg−1 )
CCB Cold conveyor belt
CCL Convective condensation level
CCN Cloud condensation nuclei
CCNC Cloud condensation nuclei counter
CERES Capacité de Renseignement Electromagnétique Spatial
CIN Convective inhibition
CKE Collision kinetic energy
CNT Classical nucleation theory
CRE Cloud radiative effect
CRH Crystallization relative humidity
CTP Cloud top pressure
DCAPE Downdraft convectively available potential energy (J kg−1 )
DJF December, January, February
DMS Dimethyl sulfide
DRH Deliquescence relative humidity
DU Mineral dust particles
EC Elemental carbon
ECA Emission controlled area
ECHAM6 GCM Global climate model from the Max Planck Institute for Meteorology in
Hamburg, Germany
ECMWF European Centre for Medium-Range Weather Forecast
ERA-interim ECMWF Re-analysis interim
ERFaci Effective radiative forcing due to aerosol–cloud interactions
ERFari Effective radiative forcing due to aerosol–radiation interactions
ERFacitari Effective radiative forcing due to aerosol–cloud and aerosol–radiation
interactions
GCCN Giant CCN
GCM Global climate model
GeoMIP Geoengineering Model Intercomparison Project
GHG Greenhouse gases
xxv Symbols and acronyms

GPCC Global Precipitation Climatology Centre

HTI Height–time indicator
INP Ice nucleating particle
IPCC Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change
ISA International standard atmosphere
ISCCP International Satellite Cloud Climatology Project
ITCZ Intertropical Convergence Zone
IWC Ice water content
JJA June, July, August
LAADS Level-1 and Atmosphere Archive and Distribution System
LCRE Longwave cloud radiative effect
LCL Lifting condensation level
LFC Level of free convection
LH Latent heat flux
LNB Level of neutral buoyancy
LW Longwave
LWC Liquid water content
MCC Mesoscale convective complex
MCS Mesoscale convective system
MEE Mass extinction efficiency
MISR Multi-angle imaging spectroradiometer
MODIS Moderate resolution imaging spectroradiometer
NCFR Narrow cold frontal rainband
NOAA National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration
OC Organic carbon
OLR Outgoing longwave radiation
PBL Planetary boundary layer
POA Primary organic aerosol
POM Particulate organic matter
PPI Plan position indicator
QLL Quasi-liquid layer
Radar Radio detection and ranging
RCP Representative concentration pathway
RF Radiative forcing
RFaci Radiative forcing due to aerosol–cloud interactions
RFacitari Radiative forcing due to aerosol–cloud and aerosol–radiation interactions
RFari Radiative forcing due to aerosol–radiation interactions
RH Relative humidity
SCE Stochastic coalescence equation
SCRE Shortwave cloud radiative effect
SH Sensible heat flux
SOA Secondary organic aerosols
SPCZ South Pacific Convergence Zone
SRM Solar radiation management
SST Sea surface temperature
SS Sea salt
xxvi Symbols and acronyms

SU Sulfate
TC Tropical cyclone
TDE Thermodynamic equilibrium
TOA Top of the atmosphere
WCB Warm conveyor belt
WCFR Wide cold frontal rainband
WFR Warm frontal rainband
WMGHG Well-mixed greenhouse gases
WMO World Meteorological Organization
1 Clouds

Clouds are fascinating to watch for their myriad of shapes. They are also scientifically
challenging because their formation requires both knowledge about the large-scale meteo-
rological environment as well as knowledge about the microphysical processes involved in
cloud droplet and ice crystal formation.
In this chapter we introduce clouds. In Section 1.1 we highlight their importance for
Earth’s energy budget and the hydrological cycle. In Section 1.2 we discuss the main cloud
types, with their macroscopic properties, as defined by the World Meteorological Organi-
zation (WMO), and other, less common cloud types. After this macroscopic description of
clouds, we turn to their microphysical properties in Section 1.3.

1.1 Definition and importance of clouds

A cloud is an aggregate of cloud droplets or ice crystals, or a combination of both, sus-

pended in air. For a cloud to be visible, the cloud particles need to exist in a sufficiently
large concentration. This definition has its origin in operational weather forecasting, where
observers indicate the fraction of the sky that is covered with clouds. A more precise def-
inition of cloud cover is used when the information is derived from satellite data, which
nowadays provide a global picture of the total cloud cover. Satellites define clouds on the
basis of their optical depth, which is the amount of radiation (in our case from the Sun)
removed from a light beam by scattering and absorption (Chapter 12).
There are several global cloud climatologies; most of them derived from satellite data,
so-called satellite retrievals (Stubenrauch et al., 2009). In the global annual average,
roughly 70% of Earth’s surface is covered with clouds. The cloud cover is 5%–15% higher
over oceans than over land (Table 1.1). The oldest satellite data are from the Interna-
tional Satellite Cloud Climatology Project (ISCCP) (Rossow and Schiffer, 1999), which
has cloud information dating back to 1983. The ISCCP satellite picture (Figure 1.1) shows
that clouds cover more than 90% of the sky in the storm tracks of the Southern Ocean
and the semi-permanent Aleutian and Icelandic low pressure regions in the north Pacific
and north Atlantic, respectively, as shown in Figure 1.2. High cloud amounts are also seen
in the Intertropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ) between the equator and 10◦ –15◦ N and in
the South Pacific Convergence Zone (SPCZ), which is a northwest to southeast oriented
band starting at 120◦ E and the equator and extending to 120◦ W and 30◦ S, as a result of
1
 2 Clouds

t
Fig. 1.1 Annual mean total cloud cover [%] averaged over 1983–2009. Data were obtained from the International Satellite
Cloud Climatology Project (ISCCP) web site (http://isccp.giss.nasa.gov/) in December 2014 and are described in
Rossow and Schiffer (1999). A black and white version of this figure will appear in some formats. For the color version,
please refer to the plate section.

South Pacific Convergence Zone (SPCZ) Intertropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ, January)

t
Stratocumulus Storm tracks Intertropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ, July)

Fig. 1.2 Schematic of the regions where clouds occur most often.

convective activity. The location of the ITCZ has an annual cycle that follows the position
of the Sun’s zenith but is modulated by the distribution of land masses; see Figure 1.2.
The extensive cloud cover off the west coasts of North and South America and Africa is
associated with stratiform clouds that form under subtropical high pressure systems over
cold ocean currents. Apart from these regions, the subtropics are characterized by small
cloud amounts, in particular over the main deserts, such as the Sahara and the Kalahari
as well as the desert and arid regions of Australia and the Arabian Peninsula. Satellite
retrievals still have problems in identifying clouds over ice-covered surfaces. Therefore
Another random document with
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 During 1818 Miss Mitford paid another short visit to the Perrys at
Tavistock House in Tavistock Square, evidently arranged with the
idea of keeping their young friend well before the public. “The party
to-day consists of the Duke of Sussex, Lord Erskine, and some
more. I don’t want to dine with them and most sincerely hope we
shall not, for there is no one of literary note; but I am afraid we shall
not be able to get off.” They did not get off, and Miss Mitford “had the
honour of being handed into the dining-room by that royal porpoise,
the Duke of Sussex, who complained much of want of appetite, but
partook of nearly every dish on the table.” Concerning this lack of
appetite, she subsequently wrote to Sir William Elford: “Never surely
did man eat, drink, or swear so much, or talk such bad English. He is
a fine exemplification of the difference between speaking and talking;
for his speeches, except that they are mouthy and wordy and
commonplace, and entirely without ideas, are really not much
amiss.” While on this visit she must have heard from some candid
friend of Mr. Perry’s the following story of Hazlitt’s revenge and, later,
detailed it with great delight—for she dearly loved a joke, even at the
expense of her friends.
Hazlitt had been contributing a series of articles, on the English
Stage, to various newspapers, particularly to the Morning Chronicle,
of which, it will be remembered, Perry was the Editor. Unfortunately
Hazlitt’s “copy” came pouring in at the very height of the
advertisement season, much to Perry’s disgust, who used “to
execrate the d—d fellow’s d—d stuff.” But it was good “copy,”
although the Editor had no idea that its writer was a man of genius,
and having “hired him as you’d hire your footman, turned him off with
as little or less ceremony than you would use in discharging the
aforesaid worthy personage,” because he wrote a masterly but
damaging critique on Sir Thomas Lawrence, one of Perry’s friends.
“Last winter, when his Characters of Shakespeare and his lectures
had brought him into fashion, Mr. Perry remembered him as an old
acquaintance and asked him to dinner, and a large party to meet
him, to hear him talk, and show him off as the lion of the day. The
lion came—smiled and bowed—handed Miss Bentley to the dining-
room—asked Miss Perry to take wine—said once ‘Yes’ and twice
‘No’—and never uttered another word the whole evening. The most
provoking part of this scene was, that he was gracious and polite
past all expression—a perfect pattern of mute elegance—a silent
Lord Chesterfield; and his unlucky host had the misfortune to be very
thoroughly enraged without anything to complain of.”
Reading was a place of great excitement during the year 1818, the
resignation of the Member, Sir John Simeon, necessitating a general
election. This brought Dr. Mitford back from Town post-haste, for he
counted electioneering among his special delights, as we have
previously noted. The occasion furnishes us with one of the few
recorded instances of Mrs. Mitford shaking herself free from the
cares of the household in order to be with and carefully watch her
haphazard spouse. “Papa is going to stay in Reading the whole
election, and mamma is going to take care of him. Very good in her,
isn’t it? But papa does not seem to me at all grateful for this kind
resolution, and mutters—when she is quite out of hearing—
something about ‘petticoat government.’”
The candidate was Fyshe Palmer, who not only won the election
but continued in the representation of Reading for eighteen years.
“He is,” wrote Miss Mitford, “vastly like a mop-stick, or rather, a tall
hop-pole, or an extremely long fishing-rod, or anything that is all
length and no substance; three or four yards of brown thread would
be as like him as anything, if one could contrive to make it stand
upright. He and papa were riding through the town together, and one
of the voters cried out, ‘Fish and Flesh for ever!’ Wit is privileged just
now.”
Mr. Palmer’s wife was the Lady Madelina, a daughter of the Duke
of Gordon, and she and Miss Mitford became very good friends.
Miss Mitford’s anxiety for Palmer’s success was due not so much
because of his politics as for the promise he had given her of
following in the footsteps of his predecessor and keeping her well
supplied with “franks,” if elected. His promise he, doubtless, intended
to keep, but as Miss Mitford despairingly wrote: “he has the worst
fault a franker can have: he is un-come-at-able. One never knows
where to catch him. I don’t believe he is ever two days in a place—
always jiggeting about from one great house to another. And such
strides as he takes, too! Oh! for the good days of poor Sir John
Simeon! He was the franker for me! Stationary as Southampton
Buildings, solid as the doorpost, and legible as the letters on the
brass-plate! I shall never see his fellow.”
Some time after the election, when, indeed, it was a thing
forgotten, Dr. Valpy, the head-master of the Grammar School,
decided to have a Greek play performed by the boys, and to this
function the Mitfords were invited. The play was the Hercules Furens
of Euripides and, of course, Miss Mitford made fun of the whole
performance, especially of the last scene when, to slow music, the
curtain dropped on “Theseus and Hercules in the midst of a hug
which assuredly no Greek poet, painter or sculptor ever dreamt of.
That hug was purely Readingtonian—conceived, born and bred in
the Forbury.” However, the play was well received and became an
annual fixture, with Miss Mitford as the official reporter or, as she put
it, the “official puffer for the Reading paper.”
The year was also notable for the arrival in Reading of Henry Hart
Milman as Vicar of St. Mary’s, and of the Duke of Wellington, who
came in order to look over Strathfieldsaye, Lord Rivers’ estate, some
distance beyond that of the Mitfords along the Basingstoke Road,
which the Nation proposed he should accept as a tribute of its
gratitude. “His Grace comes to look at it sometimes,” wrote Miss
Mitford, “and whirls back the same day. He is a terrible horse-killer.”
Towards the close of the year 1819 the Chancery suit came to an
end. Mr. Elliott—the Doctor’s opponent and a Bond Street
upholsterer—visited Bertram House, saw Dr. Mitford, had a straight
talk with him and, as Miss Mitford recorded, “this long affair of eight
years was settled in eight minutes.”
With the settlement an accomplished fact, the Mitfords began to
look about for an abode of humbler pretentions. London was
suggested and promptly vetoed, as was also the idea of settling in
Reading. Finally they selected a cottage at Three Mile Cross,
situated by the side of the Basingstoke Road and distant about a
mile from their old home. It was a wrench to the ladies to leave
Bertram House, despite the fact that it had been the scene of so
much distress and want. “I shall certainly break my heart when I
leave these old walls and trees,” wrote Miss Mitford, but the blow
was softened by the thought that she would still be able to wander
about the fields and lanes which were so familiar and so dear to her,
and, as was her wont on such occasions, gave vent to her feelings in
a little sonnet:—

“Adieu, beloved and lovely home! Adieu,

Thou pleasant mansion, and ye waters bright,
Ye lawns, ye aged elms, ye shrubberies light
(My own cotemporary trees, that grew
Even with my growth); ye flowers of orient hue,
A long farewell to all! Ere fair to sight
In summer-shine ye bloom with beauty dight,
Your halls we leave for scenes untried and new.
Oh, shades endeared by memory’s magic power,
With strange reluctance from your paths I roam!
But home lives not in lawn, or tree, or flower,
Nor dwells tenacious in one only dome.
Where smiling friends adorn the social hour,
Where they, the dearest are, there will be home.”

Bertram House is a thing of the past, for there is little left of the
building which the Mitfords knew. Another mansion occupies the site,
and only the trees and shrubberies remain as evidence of Dr.
Mitford’s folly; while the name, which marked the Doctor’s proud
descent, has been erased in favour of the older title, Grazeley Court.

FOOTNOTES:
[18] Unfortunately they never received payment for this work,
which was left on their hands, and resulted in a heavy loss.
 CHAPTER XIV

THE COTTAGE AT THREE MILE CROSS

It was during March of the year 1820 that the removal to the cottage
at Three Mile Cross took place. Although it was attended with the
inevitable bustle and discomposure, it could not have been,
according to all accounts, a job of very great difficulty, for most of the
furniture and pictures had been sold—sold at odd times to meet
pressing needs—and there was, therefore, little to convey but the
three members of the family, such books as were left to them,
together with Mossy—the dear old nurse who had shared their
misfortunes right through from the Alresford days—and Lucy the
maid.
 “Our Village” in 1913.
The Village of Three Mile Cross—A general view looking towards Reading.
We can almost picture the scene with the heavy farm-wagon,
broad-wheeled and lumbering, crunching its ponderous way along
the carriage-drive and out through the gates, with some of the dogs
prancing and bounding, now before and now behind, barking at the
unusual sight. Having cleared the gates there would be a turn to the
left, along a short stretch of narrow lane emerging into the road from
the village, where a sharp turn again to the left would take them on
beneath over-arching elms—leafless and gaunt—over a tiny bridge
spanning a tributary of the Loddon, past an occasional cottage
where twitching parlour-blinds would betray the stealthy interest of
the inmates in the passing of the folk from the big house; on until the
road branched, where the right-hand fork would be taken, and so, by
a gentle curve, the wagon would emerge by the side of the George
and Dragon into the Basingstoke Road. And now, with a crack of the
whip—for the last few steps must be performed in good style—the
wagon would sweep once more to the left, where the finger-post, by
the pond opposite, pointed to Reading, and in a moment or two draw
up in the fore-court of the Swan, there to unload into the cottage next
door.
Mossy and Lucy would be waiting to receive the goods, and the
cobbler opposite would watch the proceedings with more than usual
interest, for to him, that night, the village gossips would surely repair
for news, he being so favourably placed for the garnering of it.
While the wagon is being unloaded we will transfer ourselves
again to Bertram House.
The dogs are scampering and scurrying in the undergrowth of the
now neglected shrubbery, chasing leaves which the March winds
scatter crisply. The house is gaunt and cheerless as houses always
are on such occasions. Fitful gleams of watery sunshine streak
through the trees across to the steps down which two sad women
take their slow way. The dogs bound towards them and are greeted
and stroked, the while they curve their sleek and graceful bodies in
an ecstasy of delight.
Along the carriage-drive they walk, with its surface all overgrown
with weeds and marked with the heavy wheels of the wagon, the
tracks of which, deeply cut in the yielding road, they now follow.
Once through the gates they turn for a backward glance of “My own
cotemporary trees” and then a “long farewell to all.” At the end of the
lane they cast one sad look back—there is pain in the eyes of both—
then turning they follow the wheel-marks until the cottage is reached,
the door flies open—for Mossy has been watching for them—and all
that the cobbler sees of their arrival will force him to draw on his
imagination if his inquisitive neighbours are not to be disappointed.

“Your delightful letter, my dear Sir William,” wrote Miss Mitford

shortly afterwards, “arrived at the very moment when kindness was
most needed and most welcome—just as we were leaving our dear
old home to come to this new one. Without being in general very
violently addicted to sentimentality, I was, as you may imagine, a
little grieved to leave the spot where I had passed so many happy
years. The trees, and fields, and sunny hedgerows, however little
distinguished by picturesque beauty, were to me as old friends.
Women have more of this natural feeling than the stronger sex; they
are creatures of home and habit, and ill brook transplanting. We,
however, are not quite transplanted yet—rather, as the gardeners
say, ‘laid by the heels.’ We have only moved to a little village street,
situate on the turnpike road, between Basingstoke and the illustrious
and quarrelsome borough [Reading]. Our residence is a cottage—
no, not a cottage—it does not deserve the name—a messuage or
tenement, such as a little farmer who had made twelve or fourteen
hundred pounds might retire to when he left off business to live on
his means. It consists of a series of closets, the largest of which may
be about eight feet square, which they call parlours and kitchens and
pantries; some of them minus a corner, which has been unnaturally
filched for a chimney; others deficient in half a side, which has been
truncated by the shelving roof. Behind is a garden about the size of a
good drawing-room, with an arbour which is a complete sentry-box
of privet. On one side a public-house, on the other a village shop,
and right opposite a cobbler’s stall.
“Notwithstanding all this, ‘the cabin,’ as Bobadil says, ‘is
convenient.’ It is within reach of my dear old walks; the banks where
I find my violets; the meadows full of cowslips; and the woods where
the wood-sorrel blows. We are all beginning to get settled and
comfortable, and resuming our usual habits. Papa has already had
the satisfaction of setting the neighbourhood to rights by committing
a disorderly person, who was the pest of the Cross, to Bridewell.
Mamma has furbished up an old dairy, and made it into a not
incommodious store room. I have lost my only key, and stuffed the
garden with flowers. It is an excellent lesson of condensation—one
which we all wanted. Great as our merits might be in some points,
we none of us excelled in compression. Mamma’s tidiness was
almost as diffuse as her daughter’s litter. I expect we shall be much
benefited by this squeeze; though at present it sits upon us as
uneasily as tight stays, and is just as awkward looking. Indeed, my
great objection to a small room always was its extreme
unbecomingness to one of my enormity. I really seem to fill it—like a
blackbird in a goldfinch’s cage. The parlour looks all me.”
 Any doubts which the cobbler opposite may have entertained as to
the status of the new arrivals—if, indeed, particulars had not already
filtered through from Grazeley—must have been dispersed by the
Doctor’s action in at once removing the terror of the Cross. More
than this, he had actually suspended the village constable—who was
also the blacksmith—for appearing before him with a blood-stained
head—an unwarrantable offence against the person of the Chairman
of the Reading bench. Three Mile Cross was to be purged;
henceforth, it must behave itself, for a real live magistrate had come
to live in the midst and, until the villagers found that the Doctor’s bark
was worse than his bite they might shake with apprehension—and
“they” included the cobbler who stuck closer to his last and was not
to be tempted to anything more than a knowing wink when the
magistrate and his family came under discussion.
“Borrow a little of the only gift in which I can vie with you—the
elastic spirit of Hope”—wrote Miss Mitford to Mrs. Hofland at this
time, and in that sentence we catch a glimpse of this wonderful
woman who point blank refused to acknowledge a shadow so long
as but one streak of light were vouchsafed to her.
“This place is a mere pied à terre,” she wrote, “till we can suit
ourselves better,” and her one dread was that her father would elect
to live in Reading, to which town she had now taken a sudden and
violent dislike. “Not that I have any quarrel with the town, which, as
Gray said of Cambridge, ‘would be well enough if it were not for the
people’; but those people—their gossiping—their mistiness! Oh! you
can imagine nothing so bad. They are as rusty as old iron, and as
jagged as flints.” By which we may quite properly infer that the affairs
and dwindled fortunes of the Mitfords were being openly discussed.
As a matter of fact, they must at this time have been almost
penniless, with nothing between them and actual want but what they
could obtain by the exertions of the daughter with her pen.
Whatever the original intention of the Doctor may have been as to
the tenure of the cottage, it has to be recorded that it lasted for thirty
years, witnessing the best and most successful of Miss Mitford’s
literary efforts and her short-lived triumph as a dramatist; marking
the gradual decay and death of Mrs. Mitford, and the increasing
selfishness of the Doctor, the results of which, when he died, were
his daughter’s only inheritance.
But, lest we should be accused of painting too gloomy a picture,
let us also joyfully record that it was in this humble cottage and
among the flowers of its garden that there gathered, from time to
time, those truest friends who came from far and near to pay
homage to the brave little woman who found comfort in the simple
things of life, and was happy only when she was permitted to share
her happiness with others.
Despite the pigs which came through the hedge from the Swan
next door and “made sad havoc among my pinks and sweet-peas”;
despite, also, the pump which went dry “from force of habit,” soon
after they were installed, Miss Mitford was not long before she had
“taken root,” as she called it, and begun again her work and her
correspondence.
Haydon, the artist, sent her a picture—his study for the head of St.
Peter—a delicate compliment and, seeing that their walls were so
bare, a seasonable gift. “I am almost ashamed to take a thing of so
much consequence” wrote the pleased recipient; “but you are a very
proud man and are determined to pay me in this magnificent manner
for pleasing myself with the fancy of being in a slight degree useful to
you. Well, I am quite content to be the obliged person.”
Anxious to keep down all needless expenditure we now read of
the “discontinuance of my beloved Morning Chronicle” and of
inability to accept invitations away because of “mamma’s old
complaint in her head” and “papa’s sore throat, which he manages in
the worst possible manner, alternately overdoing it and letting it quite
alone; blistering it by gargling brandy one day, and going out in the
rain and wind all the next; so that, to talk of going out, even to you,
seems out of the question. They really can’t do without me.” On the
other hand, and remembering the mistiness, the rustiness and flinty
nature of the Reading folk, there was the pathetic plea to Sir William
Elford that he should turn aside on his journeys to or from town, to
pay the cottage and its inhabitants a visit. “We shall have both
house-room and heart-room for you, and I depend on seeing you. Do
pray come—you must come and help laugh at our strange shifts and
the curious pieces of finery which our landlord has left for the
adornment of his mansion. Did you ever see a corner cupboard?
Pray come and see us or you will break my heart—and let me know
when you are coming.”
Three months later she wrote:—“I have grown exceedingly fond of
this little place. I love it of all things—have taken root completely—
could be content to live and die here.... My method of doing nothing
seldom varies. Imprimis, I take long walks and get wet through. Item,
I nurse my flowers—sometimes pull up a few, taking them for weeds,
and vice versâ leave the weeds, taking them for flowers. Item, I do a
short job of needlework. Item, I write long letters. Item, I read all
sorts of books, long and short, new and old. Have you a mind for a
list of the most recent? Buckhardt’s Travels in Nubia, Bowdich’s
Mission to Ashantee, Dubois’ Account of India, Morier’s Second
Journey in Persia. All these are quartos of various degrees of
heaviness. There is another of the same class, La Touche’s[19] Life of
Sir Philip Sidney (you set me to reading that by your anecdote of
Queen Elizabeth’s hair). Southey’s Life of Wesley—very good.
Hogg’s Winter Evening Tales—very good indeed (I have a great
affection for the Ettrick Shepherd, have not you?). Diary of an Invalid
—the best account of Italy which I have met with since Forsythe—
much in his manner—I think you would like it. Odeleben’s Campaign
in Saxony—interesting, inasmuch as it concerns Napoleon,
otherwise so-so. The Sketch Book, by Geoffrey Crayon—quite a
curiosity—an American book which is worth reading. Mr. Milman’s
Fall of Jerusalem—a fine poem, though not exactly so fine as the
Quarterly makes out. I thought it much finer when I first read it than I
do now, for it set me to reading Josephus, which I had never had the
grace to open before; and the historian is, in the striking passages,
much grander than the poet, particularly in the account of the
portents and prophecies before the Fall. These books, together with
a few Italian things—especially the Lettere di Ortes—will pretty well
account for my time since I wrote last, and convince you of the
perfect solitude, which gives me time to indulge so much in the
delightful idleness of reading.”
 The anecdote of Queen Elizabeth’s hair to which Miss Mitford
alludes in the preceding letter, was one of which Sir William wrote in
the previous April. It was to the effect that two ladies of his
acquaintance had just paid a visit to Lord Pembroke’s family at
Wilton, and whilst there one of them desired to see the Countess of
Pembroke’s Arcadie when, in perusing it, she discovered, between
two of the leaves, a long lock of yellow hair, folded in an envelope in
which was written, in Sir Philip Sidney’s handwriting, a declaration
that the lock was “The faire Queen Elizabeth’s hair,” given him by her
Majesty. In recounting this anecdote to Mrs. Hofland, Miss Mitford
remarked that “the miraculous part of the story is, that at Wilton,
amongst her own descendants, the Arcadia should be so completely
a dead letter. I suppose it was snugly ensconced between some of
Sir Philip’s Sapphics or Dactylics, which are, to be sure, most
unreadable things.”
But, apart from this “idleness of reading,” Miss Mitford was busily
gathering material for her articles in the Lady’s Magazine, roaming
the countryside for colour. “I have already been cowslipping” she
wrote. “Are you fond of field flowers? They are my passion—even
more, I think, than greyhounds or books. This country is eminently
flowery. Besides all the variously-tinted primroses and violets in
singular profusion, we have all sorts of orchises and arums; the
delicate wood anemone; the still more delicate wood-sorrel, with its
lovely purple veins meandering over the white drooping flower; the
field-tulip, with its rich chequer-work of lilac and crimson, and the sun
shining through the leaves as through old painted glass; the ghostly
field star of Bethlehem—that rare and ghost-like flower; wild lilies of
the valley; and the other day I found a field completely surrounded
by wild periwinkles. They ran along the hedge for nearly a quarter of
a mile; to say nothing of the sculptural beauty of the white water-lily
and the golden clusters of the golden ranunculus. Yes, this is really a
country of flowers, and so beautiful just now that there is no making
up one’s mind to leave it.”

FOOTNOTES:
[19] Probably Miss Mitford meant T. Zouch’s Memoirs of Sir Philip
Sidney, published in 1809.
 CHAPTER XV

A BUSY WOMAN

This first year in the cottage at Three Mile Cross was spent in a
variety of ways by Miss Mitford. In addition to her reading, she was
devoting herself to getting the garden into trim and by taking
extended walks in the neighbourhood, particularly in exploring that
beautiful “Woodcock Lane”—happily still preserved and, possibly,
more beautiful than in Miss Mitford’s day—so called, “not after the
migratory bird so dear to sportsman and to epicure, but from the
name of a family, who, three centuries ago, owned the old manor-
house, a part of which still adjoins it.” A delightful picture of this lane,
full of the happiest and tenderest memories, is to be found in Miss
Mitford’s Recollections of a Literary Life. It is too long for quotation
here, but for its truth to Nature we can testify, for we have ourselves
wandered down its shady length, book in hand, marking and noting
the passages as this and that point of view was described, and
looking away over the fields as she must have looked—somewhat
wistfully, we may believe—to where the smoke from the chimneys at
Grazeley Court curled upwards from the trees which so effectually
hide the building itself from view. While on these walks,
accompanied by Fanchon, the greyhound and Flush, the spaniel,
she would take her unspillable ink-bottle and writing materials and,
resting awhile beneath the great trees, write of Nature as she saw it,
spread there before her. Here, undoubtedly, she wrote many of those
pictures of rural life and scenery which, at present, form the most
lasting memorial of her life and work.
 Woodcock Lane, Three Mile Cross.

The monotony—if there could be monotony in such labour—was

broken by a short, three-day’s holiday at Richmond and London
which gave her a fund of incident wherewith to amuse her friend Sir
William in lengthy letters. Of the sights she missed, two were the
pictures of Queen Caroline and Mrs. Opie, “that excellent and
ridiculous person, who is now placed in Bond Street (where she can’t
even hear herself talk) with a blue hat and feathers on her head, a
low gown without a tucker, and ringlets hanging down each shoulder.
The first I don’t care if I never see at all; for be it known to you, my
dear friend, that I am no Queen’s woman, whatever my party may
be. I have no toleration for an indecorous woman, and am
exceedingly scandalized at the quantity of nonsense which has been
talked in her defence. It is no small part of her guilt, or her folly, that
her arrival has turned conversation into a channel of scandal and
detraction on either side, which, if it continue, threatens to injure the
taste, the purity, the moral character of the nation. Don’t you agree
with me?
“I heard very little literary news. Everybody is talking of ‘Marcian
Colonna,’ Barry Cornwall’s new poem. Now ‘Barry Cornwall’ is an
alias. The poet’s real name is Procter, a young attorney, who feared
it might hurt his practice if he were known to follow this ‘idle trade.’ It
has, however, become very generally known, and poor Mr. Procter is
terribly embarrassed with his false name. He neither knows how to
keep it on or throw it up. By whatever appellation he chooses to be
called, he is a great poet. Poor John Keats is dying of the Quarterly
Review. This is a sad, silly thing; but it is true. A young, delicate,
imaginative boy—that withering article fell upon him like an east
wind. Mr. Gifford’s behaviour is very bad. He sent word that if he
wrote again his poem should be properly reviewed, which was
admitting the falsity of his first critique, and yet says that he has been
Keats’ best friend, because somebody sent him twenty-five pounds
to console him for the injustice of the Quarterly.”
Interspersed with these letters to Sir William were many kindly,
womanly epistles to Mrs. Hofland and particularly to the painter,
Haydon, who, poor man, was always having a quarrel with
somebody; sometimes with the Academy and sometimes with his
patrons. True to her sex, Miss Mitford was ever on the side of what
she considered were the weak and down-trodden, and in this class
she placed her friend Haydon. “Never apologize to me for talking of
yourself,” she wrote to him; “it is a compliment of the highest kind. It
tells me that you confide in my sympathy.”
In November public festivities to celebrate Queen Caroline’s
acquittal were held, and Three Mile Cross, not to be outdone in
demonstrative sympathy, decided to illuminate. “Think of that! an
illumination at Three Mile Cross! We were forced to illuminate.
Forced to put up two dozen of candles upon pain of pelting and
rioting and all manner of bad things. So we did. We were very
shabby though, compared with our neighbours. One, a retired
publican, just below, had a fine transparency, composed of a pocket
handkerchief with the Queen’s head upon it—a very fine head in a
hat and feathers cocked very knowingly on one side. I did not go to
Reading; the squibbery there was too much to encounter; and they
had only one good hit throughout the whole of that illustrious town. A
poor man had a whole-length transparency of the Duke of Wellington
saved from the Peace illumination, and, not knowing what to get
now, he, as a matter of economy, hung up the noble Duke again
topsy-turvy, heel upwards—a mixture of drollery and savingness
which took my fancy much. And, certainly, bad as she is, the Queen
has contrived to trip the heels of the Ministers.”
As the year progressed, Miss Mitford made another attempt at
dramatic work, devoting her energies to a tragedy on the subject of
Fiesco, the Genoese nobleman who conspired against Doria. The
idea of a play written on this theme had originated during her recent
short visit to London, where she had witnessed an “indifferent
tragedy, of which the indifferent success brought the author three or
four hundred pounds.” Schiller had, it will be remembered, already
used the subject, but this did not deter our author from trying her
‘prentice hand on it. When it was finished—she had worked very
assiduously—it was sent off to her friend Talfourd for his advice and
criticism, and in the hope that should he approve it, he would be able
to negotiate for its production at one of the theatres. To Haydon she
wrote confiding her fears and hopes. “It is terribly feeble and
womanish, of course—wants breadth—wants passion—and has
nothing to redeem its faults but a little poetry and some merit, they
say, in the dialogue. My anxiety is not of vanity. It is not fame or
praise that I want, but the power of assisting my dearest and kindest
father.” Talfourd, most anxious to be of service to his little friend—
most anxious because he knew much of the sad tragedy of the last
few years—managed to secure the interest of Macready, the actor,
who promised to consider the manuscript.
Macready’s letter to Talfourd, transcribed for the edification of Sir
William Elford, is important inasmuch as it affords some idea of that
actor’s readiness, at all times, to help any struggling author who
might appeal to him. He never forgot his own early struggles and his
fellow-feeling towards others in desperate plight made him wondrous
kind. “Mr. Macready wrote the other day to my friend and his friend
[Talfourd] who gave him my play, and this mutual friend copied his
letter for my edification. It was, in the first place, the prettiest letter I
ever read in my life—thoroughly careless, simple, unpresuming—
showing great diffidence of his own judgment, the readiest good-
nature, the kindest and most candid desire to be pleased—quite the
letter of a scholar and a gentleman, and not the least like that of an
actor. As far as regarded my tragedy, it contained much good
criticism. Mr. Macready thinks—and he is right—that there is too little
of striking incident, and too little fluctuation. Indeed, I have made my
Fiesco as virtuous and as fortunate as Sir Charles Grandison, and
he goes about prôné by everybody and setting everybody to rights
much in the same style with that worthy gentleman, only that he has
one wife instead of two mistresses. Nevertheless, the dialogue,
which is my strong part, has somehow ‘put salt upon Mr. Macready’s
tail,’ so that he is in a very unhappy state of doubt about it, and
cannot make up his mind one way or the other. The only thing upon
which he was decided was that the handwriting was illegible, and
that it must be copied for presentment to the managers. This has
been done accordingly, and Mr. Macready and they will now do
exactly what they like.”
The consideration of the manuscript was prolonged, and it was not
until the midsummer of the following year (1821), that it was finally
returned on its author’s hands as unsuitable. Meanwhile, her friends
in London had been busy in her interest and she was now working
“as hard as a lawyer’s clerk” in writing for the magazines—poetry,
criticism, and dramatic sketches. Confessing to a “natural loathing of
pen and ink which that sort of drudgery cannot fail to inspire,” she
mentions that she now has no leisure, “scarcely a moment to spare,
even for the violets and primroses.” The necessity for polish was
impressed upon her. “You would laugh if you saw me puzzling over
my prose. You have no notion how much difficulty I find in writing
anything at all readable. One cause of this is, my having been so
egregious a letter-writer. I have accustomed myself to a certain
careless sauciness, a fluent incorrectness, which passed very well
with indulgent friends, such as yourself, my dear Sir William, but will
not do at all for that tremendous correspondent, the Public. So I
ponder over every phrase, disjoint every sentence, and finally
produce such lumps of awkwardness, that I really expect, instead of
paying me for them, Mr. Colburn and Mr. Baldwin will send me back
the trash. But I will improve.... I am now occupied in dramatic
sketches for Baldwin’s Magazine—slight stories of about one act,
developed in fanciful dialogue of loose blank verse. If Mr. Baldwin
will accept a series of such articles they will be not merely extremely
advantageous to me in a pecuniary point of view (for the pay is well
up—they give fifteen guineas a sheet), but excellent exercises for my
tragedies. At the same time I confess to you that nothing seems to
me so tiresome and unsatisfactory as writing poetry. Ah! how much
better I like working flounces! There, when one had done a pattern,
one was sure that one had got on, and had the comfort of admiring
one’s work and exulting in one’s industry all the time that one was, in
fact, indulging in the most comfortable indolence. Well! courage,
Missy Mitford! (as Blackwood’s Magazine has the impudence to call
me!) Courage, mon amie!”
Nothing daunted by the failure of Fiesco, and notwithstanding the
pressure of work for the magazines, Miss Mitford was devoting all
the time she could spare to a fresh tragedy, the subject this time
being the Venetian Doge Foscari. The project was submitted to
Talfourd’s judgment and approved, and by October the finished play
was in his hands for presentation to the managers. As ill luck would
have it, Byron had been working quietly at a play on the identical
subject, and his was announced on the very day that Miss Mitford’s
Foscari was to be handed to a manager for his perusal. “I am so
distressed at the idea of a competition,” she wrote; “not merely with
his lordship’s talents, but with his great name; and the strange awe
in which he holds people; and the terrible scoffs and sneers in which
he indulges himself; that I have written to Mr. Talfourd requesting him
to consult another friend on the propriety of entirely suppressing my
play—and I heartily wish he may. If it be sent back to me unoffered, I
shall immediately begin another play on some German story.”
Talfourd decided that the play should take its chance, and in
December had the satisfaction of hearing that Macready, who had
read it, had passed it on to the manager with a strong
recommendation that it be accepted. In the construction of the play
and the development of the characters, Miss Mitford had been
guided by the assumption that, in the event of its being accepted the
actors Kemble, Young and Macready would take the leading parts.
Unfortunately, however, a little dissension between these actors just
at the critical moment, led to the secession of Charles Kemble and to
hesitancy in the case of Young, with the result that Macready was
the only one left to fulfil the author’s original purpose. The tragedy
represented much hard work, for Macready was, very properly, an
extremely critical man and before he would agree to submit the play,
had asked its author to revise one of the acts at least three times—
which she did, without demur.
Late in December of that same year she received an intimation
that the play was rejected. It was a heavy blow, for, although she had
half expected it from the outset, the prolonged negotiations had led
her to hope that her fears would not be realized; and, she was
counting much on the pecuniary advantages of its production.
Talfourd softened the blow in his own kindly way. He wrote:—“I have
with great difficulty screwed myself up to the point of informing you
that all our hopes are, for the present, cruelly blighted. Foscari has
been returned by Mr. Harris to Mr. Macready, with a note, of which
the following is an exact copy:—
‘My dear Sir,—I return you the tragedy of Foscari, and it is with
regret that I am obliged to express an opinion that it would not
succeed in representation. The style is admirably pure and chaste,
and some of the scenes would be highly effective; yet as a whole it
would be found wanting in that scale by which the public weigh our
performances of the first class. Should the ingenious author at any
time bestow the labour of revision and alteration on the tragedy, I
should be most happy to have a reperusal of it—Ever yours, H.
Harris.’ I am quite sickened at this result of all your labours and
anxieties. The only consolation I can offer is, that Mr. Macready
assures me he never knew a refusal which came so near an
acceptance; for Harris has spoken to him in even higher terms of
eulogy than he has written; and I have seen another letter of
Harris’s, about other plays, in which he puts Foscari far above all
others that he has rejected, and in point of style and writing, above
one of Shiel’s [Richard Lalor Sheil] that is to be acted. You see, he
holds open a prospect of its being reconsidered, if altered. Whether
you will adopt this suggestion is for your own decision; but certainly
this play has quite prepared the way for most respectful attention to
any piece you may send in hereafter.”