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Fire Protection: Detection, Notification,

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Robert C. Till
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Robert C. Till
J. Walter Coon

Fire
Protection
Detection, Notification, and Suppression
Second Edition
Fire Protection
Robert C. Till • J. Walter Coon

Fire Protection
Detection, Notification, and
Suppression

Second Edition
Robert C. Till J. Walter Coon
John Jay College of Criminal Justice Overland Park
New York, NY, USA Kansas, USA

ISBN 978-3-319-90843-4    ISBN 978-3-319-90844-1 (eBook)


https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-90844-1

Library of Congress Control Number: 2018941853

© Springer International Publishing AG, part of Springer Nature 2019


First edition (c) 1991 R.S. Means Company, Inc.
This work is subject to copyright. All rights are reserved by the Publisher, whether the whole or
part of the material is concerned, specifically the rights of translation, reprinting, reuse of
illustrations, recitation, broadcasting, reproduction on microfilms or in any other physical way,
and transmission or information storage and retrieval, electronic adaptation, computer software,
or by similar or dissimilar methodology now known or hereafter developed.
The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, service marks, etc. in this
publication does not imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such names are
exempt from the relevant protective laws and regulations and therefore free for general use.
The publisher, the authors and the editors are safe to assume that the advice and information in
this book are believed to be true and accurate at the date of publication. Neither the publisher nor
the authors or the editors give a warranty, express or implied, with respect to the material
contained herein or for any errors or omissions that may have been made. The publisher remains
neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.

Printed on acid-free paper

This Springer imprint is published by the registered company Springer International Publishing
AG part of Springer Nature.
The registered company address is: Gewerbestrasse 11, 6330 Cham, Switzerland
For My Parents
Preface

While fire protection engineering should be left to the experienced professional,


those outside this discipline should have sufficient knowledge not only to under-
stand the fire protection engineer’s input, but to help make the installation produc-
tive and cost effective.
From the Foreword of the First Edition

This book is designed to educate third and fourth year fire science stu-
dents, graduate students in protection management, mechanical engineers,
architects, estimators, fire service personnel, and designers in the “nuts and
bolts” of fire protection system selection, design, and equipment.
This cohort requires knowledge of the pros and the cons of what is being
proposed and how systems should be compared to one another. It also gives
non-fire engineering practitioners a sense of proportion when they are put in
a position to select a consultant, and to give a sense of what the consultant
may be doing and how a system is being matched to the hazard.
To match fire systems to hazards requires that one understands how detec-
tion and suppression systems work, what the hazards of the occupancy or
process being protected are and understand what the ultimate goals are. Goals
may include life protection, property protection, historic occupancy protec-
tion, etc. These areas of exploration will help one to decide what system to
choose for the occupancy, and the codes and standards that need to be applied.
Automatic systems are simply systems that do not require human interven-
tion. An automatic sprinkler system will apply water to a fire without human
intervention provided that there are no elements within the system that will
cause it to fail.
The title of the first edition of this book, published in 1991 was Fire
Protection – Design Criteria, Options, Selection. The book was and still is
designed to provide a basic foundation for fire suppression, detection, and
alarm systems.
Over the last 27 years some technology has changed dramatically. For
example, the rise of the internet has changed the way devices speak to each
other in a fire alarm system. Global warming and climate change have
changed the way that gases are employed to suppress fire. The jurisdictional
individuals, agencies, and standards involved in the field have also changed
radically, with three major building codes integrated into the International
Building Code first published in 1997. Finally, knowledge of possible fire
department intervention and the time that it might require are being
integrated.

vii
viii Preface

All systems mentioned are governed by NFPA codes and standards which
are available to the general public at no cost at: https://www.nfpa.org/Codes-
and-Standards/All-Codes-and-Standards/Free-access.
FM Global data sheets are available at: http://www.fmglobal.com/
research-and-resources/fm-global-data-sheets. Finally, while direct access to
the current IBC is still an expense, access to the New York City Building
Code, based on the 2014 version of the International Building Code (but with
many modifications), is available at no cost at: https://www1.nyc.gov/site/
buildings/codes/2014-construction-codes.page#bldgs. It is an excellent
resource for educational purposes.
There are three simple steps to putting out a fire – fire detection, location,
suppression.

1. Fire and Its Detection


2. Notification of Occupants and Fire Service
• Occupants need to evacuate
• Fire service needs to find the fire
3. Manual Fire Suppression
4. Automatic Suppression Systems

The book is divided such that each of these is covered by their own parts.
The reader first must become aware of what fire is and how it grows. This
stage is covered in Unwanted Fire and Fire Growth. Building inhabitants and
the fire service both need to be notified so they can act accordingly. This stage
is covered in Notification.
A major advance from the bucket brigade is the implementation of pumps
and pipes to get water to the fire. This is included in fire pumps and water
supplies. Finally, the suppression stage in general (including the fire service)
is covered in Fire Suppression Systems. Fire suppression systems usually
perform the act of both notification and suppression simultaneously, except in
the case of manual suppression, where the fire department must act to deliver
water to the fire.

A Word on Units

Time has been called the yardstick of fire control. The larger the fire is, gener-
ally the more heat and smoke are delivered in a given period of time. It is
ironic that for most cases, heat release rates are given in metric units, so it
might be more appropriate to say the time is the “meter-stick” of fire
control.
Thus, the first chapter and in other chapters presenting information on heat
release, equations are in English and metric units, while the later chapters
will present them in imperial units, as is the custom for hardware here in the
USA.

New York, NY, USA Robert C. Till


Acknowledgments

First and foremost, I would like to thank my coauthor J. Walter Coon, PE,
who I never had the chance to meet but certainly had the opportunity to learn
a great deal from. I truly appreciate the permission of his children to continue
the work.
I would like to thank Robert Fitzgerald, my good friend and PhD advisor
at WPI. I never get to complain to Fitzy about how difficult writing can be,
since he has always been writing something for as long as I have known him.
Without his inspiration this effort would not have been completed.
I would also like to thank Doug Nadeau, Chris Marrion, Fred Hart, and
Tom Derienzo for contributing photographs and for their general encourage-
ment. I would also like to thank Tom and Robbie Snelham for all the coffee.
Finally, I would like to thank Paul Drougas and Caroline Flanagan at
Springer for all their help in putting this together. My apologies to anyone I
have missed.

ix
Contents

1 Unwanted Fire and Fire Growth��������������������������������������������������    1


What is Fire?������������������������������������������������������������������������������������    1
Fire Growth����������������������������������������������������������������������������������    1
Fire in the Room of Origin��������������������������������������������������������������    1
Stages of Fire Growth������������������������������������������������������������������    1
Full Room Involvement ��������������������������������������������������������������    3
Notification of Occupants����������������������������������������������������������������    4
Notification of the Fire Department������������������������������������������������    4
Influence of Fire on Humans������������������������������������������������������������    4
Modeling Fire: Empirically and Numerically����������������������������������    5
Fire Triangle/Tetrahedron and Suppression ��������������������������������    5
Classes of Fire: What Is Burning? ����������������������������������������������    5
Calculation of Flashover��������������������������������������������������������������    5
Fire and Time: Fire Growth for a Single Fuel Package ������������������    6
Diagnostic Room Fires����������������������������������������������������������������    6
Office Building Design Fires: Examples ������������������������������������    7
Open Office Plans and Spreadover����������������������������������������������    8
Suppression of the Fire��������������������������������������������������������������������   10
Summary������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������   10
References����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������   10
2 Automatic Sprinkler Heads����������������������������������������������������������   11
Early Automatic Suppression Systems��������������������������������������������   11
History of the Sprinkler: 1864 ��������������������������������������������������������   12
Fusible Element Sprinkler Head��������������������������������������������������   12
Parmelee Sprinkler Head ������������������������������������������������������������   12
Skepticism������������������������������������������������������������������������������������   12
The Influence of Frederick Grinnell��������������������������������������������   13
The Modern Spray Sprinkler Head��������������������������������������������������   14
Development of the Spray Sprinkler��������������������������������������������   14
Sprinkler Heads����������������������������������������������������������������������������   14
Component: The Deflector����������������������������������������������������������   14
Components: The Operating Element(s)�����������������������������������������   15
The Solder Link ��������������������������������������������������������������������������   16
Frangible Bulb Sprinkler Head����������������������������������������������������   16
Temperature Rating����������������������������������������������������������������������   16
K-Factor ��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������   16

xi
xii Contents

Development of the Large Orifice Head��������������������������������������   17


Small Orifice Head����������������������������������������������������������������������   18
Dry Pendant Sprinklers����������������������������������������������������������������   18
Sidewall Sprinklers����������������������������������������������������������������������   19
Decorative Sprinklers������������������������������������������������������������������   20
Old Style Versus New Style Sprinkler Head��������������������������������   21
Special Heads����������������������������������������������������������������������������������   21
Large Drop Sprinkler ������������������������������������������������������������������   22
Early Suppression Fast Response (ESFR) Sprinkler ������������������   22
On-Off Sprinkler��������������������������������������������������������������������������   22
Corrosion-Resistant Sprinklers����������������������������������������������������   22
Rack Sprinklers����������������������������������������������������������������������������   23
CMDA (Standard Spray) ������������������������������������������������������������   23
CMSA (Large Drop)��������������������������������������������������������������������   24
Sprinkler Accessories������������������������������������������������������������������   24
Other Common Characteristics of Spray Sprinkler ��������������������   24
Summary������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������   25
References����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������   25
3 Other Detection and Alarm Devices��������������������������������������������   27
Detection and Alarm Systems����������������������������������������������������������   27
Alarm Initiating Devices������������������������������������������������������������������   27
Manual Pull Stations��������������������������������������������������������������������   27
Thermal Detection Systems ��������������������������������������������������������   27
Pilot Head Systems: Sprinklers Themselves��������������������������������   29
Continuous Line Detector������������������������������������������������������������   29
Protectowire Type Detector����������������������������������������������������������   29
Rate of Rise Detector ������������������������������������������������������������������   29
Ionization Versus Photoelectric Spot Detection��������������������������   31
Ionization Detector Operation������������������������������������������������������   31
Photoelectric Detector Operation������������������������������������������������   31
Linear Beam Smoke Detector������������������������������������������������������   32
Rate Compensation Detector ������������������������������������������������������   33
Duct Detectors ����������������������������������������������������������������������������   34
Flame Detectors ��������������������������������������������������������������������������   34
Air Aspirating Smoke Detection Systems������������������������������������   37
4 Notification ������������������������������������������������������������������������������������   39
History of Notification ��������������������������������������������������������������������   39
The Telegraph������������������������������������������������������������������������������   39
Fire Alarm������������������������������������������������������������������������������������   39
The Influence of John Gamewell ������������������������������������������������   40
Telephone Systems����������������������������������������������������������������������   40
911 System������������������������������������������������������������������������������������ 40
Internet and Addressable Systems ����������������������������������������������   41
Notification System��������������������������������������������������������������������������   41
Fire Alarm Systems����������������������������������������������������������������������   41
Fire Alarm Control Unit������������������������������������������������������������������   41
Conventional FACU ��������������������������������������������������������������������   41
Contents xiii

Addressable FACU����������������������������������������������������������������������   41


Analog Addressable System��������������������������������������������������������   42
Supervision����������������������������������������������������������������������������������   42
Other Issues����������������������������������������������������������������������������������   42
Types of Fire Alarm Systems ����������������������������������������������������������   43
Local Alarm System��������������������������������������������������������������������   43
Auxiliary Alarm System��������������������������������������������������������������   43
Remote Alarm������������������������������������������������������������������������������   43
Proprietary Alarm System������������������������������������������������������������   44
Central Station ����������������������������������������������������������������������������   44
References����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������   44
5 Fire Pumps and Water Supplies ��������������������������������������������������   45
Early Methods of Suppression of Fires and Conflagrations������������   45
Fire Pumps ��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������   45
General Criteria����������������������������������������������������������������������������   46
Horizontal Fire Pumps ��������������������������������������������������������������������   47
Suction and Discharge ����������������������������������������������������������������   47
Pump Suction ������������������������������������������������������������������������������   47
Suction and Discharge Piping������������������������������������������������������   48
Circulation Relief Valve��������������������������������������������������������������   49
Main Relief Valve������������������������������������������������������������������������   49
Pump Test����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������   50
Pump Test Design������������������������������������������������������������������������   50
Valve Supervision������������������������������������������������������������������������   52
Automatic Air Release ����������������������������������������������������������������   52
Diesel Fuel System����������������������������������������������������������������������   52
Pump Rotation ��������������������������������������������������������������������������������   52
Engine Exhaust����������������������������������������������������������������������������   52
Ventilation������������������������������������������������������������������������������������   53
Diesel Engine Cooling ����������������������������������������������������������������   53
Reliable Power Supply to Electric Drive Fire Pumps����������������������   53
Diesel Engine Exhaust ����������������������������������������������������������������   53
Diesel Engine Cooling System����������������������������������������������������   53
Booster Pumps ����������������������������������������������������������������������������   54
Fire Pumps in a Bypass��������������������������������������������������������������������   54
Pump House ��������������������������������������������������������������������������������   54
Coupling Guards��������������������������������������������������������������������������   54
Jockey Pump Controller��������������������������������������������������������������   54
Controller ����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������   55
Pressure Considerations ��������������������������������������������������������������   55
Controller Cabinet������������������������������������������������������������������������   55
Controller Alarm and Signal Devices����������������������������������������������   55
Weekly Diesel Drive Pump Test��������������������������������������������������   56
Fire Pump Controller Alarm Signal Operations��������������������������   57
Diesel Engine Batteries����������������������������������������������������������������   57
Vertical Turbine Fire Pumps��������������������������������������������������������   57
Flushing and Testing��������������������������������������������������������������������   57
Fire Pump Field Acceptance Test������������������������������������������������   57
xiv Contents

Miscellaneous������������������������������������������������������������������������������   59
Water Supplies ��������������������������������������������������������������������������������   59
Tank Selection������������������������������������������������������������������������������   59
Concrete Reservoir����������������������������������������������������������������������   60
Embankment Fabric Reservoir����������������������������������������������������   61
Tank Heating��������������������������������������������������������������������������������   61
Tank Water Level ������������������������������������������������������������������������   61
Summary������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������   61
6 Underground Fire Mains��������������������������������������������������������������   63
Underground Fire Mains������������������������������������������������������������������   63
Underground Pipe Selection������������������������������������������������������������   63
Cast Iron Pipe������������������������������������������������������������������������������   63
Ductile Iron Pipe��������������������������������������������������������������������������   64
Specifics for Cast Iron and Ductile Pipe��������������������������������������   64
Friction Loss: The “C” Factor������������������������������������������������������   64
Other Types of Underground Piping��������������������������������������������   65
Polyvinyl Chloride Plastic Pipe (PVC)����������������������������������������   65
Fiberglass-Reinforced Plastic Pipe����������������������������������������������   65
Asbestos Cement Pipe������������������������������������������������������������������   65
Steel Pipe ������������������������������������������������������������������������������������   66
Underground Pipe Bury ��������������������������������������������������������������   66
Rodding and Thrust Blocks ��������������������������������������������������������   66
Other Considerations ������������������������������������������������������������������   67
Hydrants��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������   67
Flushing and Testing��������������������������������������������������������������������   67
7 Equipment and Devices ����������������������������������������������������������������   69
Equipment and Devices ������������������������������������������������������������������   69
Control Valves������������������������������������������������������������������������������   69
The Outside Screw and Yoke ������������������������������������������������������   69
The Post Indicator Valve (PIV)����������������������������������������������������   69
Important Considerations When Using the PIV��������������������������   71
Butterfly Valve ����������������������������������������������������������������������������   71
Pit OS&Y and Post Indicator������������������������������������������������������   72
Check Valves��������������������������������������������������������������������������������   72
Detector Check Valves and Full Flow Fire Meters����������������������   72
Key Valve ������������������������������������������������������������������������������������   73
Full Flow Fire Meters������������������������������������������������������������������   73
Backflow Preventers��������������������������������������������������������������������   73
8 Firefighter Intervention: Manual Fire Suppression ������������������   75
The Fire Service: Introduction ��������������������������������������������������������   75
Established Burning to Arrival����������������������������������������������������   75
Arrival and Size Up����������������������������������������������������������������������   76
Manual Suppression Coordinated Operations ��������������������������������   78
Locating the Fire��������������������������������������������������������������������������   78
Establish a Continuous Water Supply����������������������������������������������   78
Standpipes: Minimizing Set Up Time����������������������������������������������   78
Contents xv

Class I Standpipe������������������������������������������������������������������������������   79


Water Supply��������������������������������������������������������������������������������   79
Pressure Requirements����������������������������������������������������������������   79
Class II Standpipe����������������������������������������������������������������������������   79
Water Supply��������������������������������������������������������������������������������   80
Pressure Requirements����������������������������������������������������������������   80
1–1/2″ Hose Stations��������������������������������������������������������������������   81
Class III Standpipe��������������������������������������������������������������������������   81
Standpipe Water Supply��������������������������������������������������������������   82
Types of Standpipes ������������������������������������������������������������������������   82
Hose Station Distribution������������������������������������������������������������   83
Roof Hose Stations����������������������������������������������������������������������   85
Standpipe Zoning ������������������������������������������������������������������������   85
Combined Standpipe and Sprinkler Riser����������������������������������������   86
Water Supply��������������������������������������������������������������������������������   86
Set Up Time: Firefighting Tasks������������������������������������������������������   86
Set Up Time: Firefighter Factors�����������������������������������������������������   87
Set Up Time: Location of Fire Within a Structure��������������������������   87
Interior Attack����������������������������������������������������������������������������������   87
Size of a Fire that Can Be Extinguished������������������������������������������   87
Average First Alarm Crews��������������������������������������������������������������   88
References����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������   88
9 Sprinkler Systems and Their Types ��������������������������������������������   89
Water Agent Suppression Systems��������������������������������������������������   89
Wet Pipe Sprinkler System��������������������������������������������������������������   89
Advantages and Disadvantages����������������������������������������������������   91
Wet Pipe System Alarm ��������������������������������������������������������������   91
Water Damage������������������������������������������������������������������������������   91
Initiating the Alarm��������������������������������������������������������������������������   92
Water Flow Indicator�������������������������������������������������������������������   92
Alarm Valve ��������������������������������������������������������������������������������   94
Water Motor Alarm����������������������������������������������������������������������   95
Pressure Switch����������������������������������������������������������������������������   95
Retard Chamber ��������������������������������������������������������������������������   95
Alarm Valve Trim������������������������������������������������������������������������   96
Fire Department Pumper Connection����������������������������������������������   97
Main Control Valve����������������������������������������������������������������������   98
Inspector’s Test��������������������������������������������������������������������������������   99
Discharge ������������������������������������������������������������������������������������ 100
Location �������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 100
Wet Pipe System Drainage���������������������������������������������������������� 100
Dry Pipe Sprinkler System�������������������������������������������������������������� 101
Advantages and Disadvantages of Dry Pipe Systems������������������ 102
Differential Dry Pipe Valves�������������������������������������������������������� 103
Low Differential Dry Pipe Valve�������������������������������������������������� 103
Dry System Air Supply���������������������������������������������������������������� 104
Optional Devices�������������������������������������������������������������������������� 105
xvi Contents

Pressurized Nitrogen Supply�������������������������������������������������������� 106


Dry Valve Intermediate Chamber������������������������������������������������ 106
Dry System Fire Department Pumper Connection���������������������� 106
Quick Opening Devices ������������������������������������������������������������������ 106
Accelerators �������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 106
Exhausters������������������������������������������������������������������������������������ 107
Dry Pipe System Drainage���������������������������������������������������������� 108
Pipe Support�������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 108
Refrigerated Areas ���������������������������������������������������������������������� 108
Special Conditions ���������������������������������������������������������������������� 108
Maintenance Considerations�������������������������������������������������������� 108
Drainage Capacities �������������������������������������������������������������������� 108
Drum-Drip Drain ������������������������������������������������������������������������ 109
Low Points ���������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 109
Dry System Design Features������������������������������������������������������������ 109
Calculating the Area of Application�������������������������������������������� 109
Location of Dry Valves���������������������������������������������������������������� 110
Water Columning ������������������������������������������������������������������������ 110
Deluge Systems�������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 111
Pre-action Systems�������������������������������������������������������������������������� 113
The Pre-Action Valve������������������������������������������������������������������ 114
Detection System ������������������������������������������������������������������������ 114
Protection of Equipment������������������������������������������������������������������ 116
Supervising the Piping System with Air�������������������������������������� 116
Use of Preaction Systems������������������������������������������������������������ 116
Pre-action System Design Features �������������������������������������������� 117
Types of Pre-action Systems������������������������������������������������������������ 118
Basic Pre-action System: Single Interlock���������������������������������� 118
Double Interlock�������������������������������������������������������������������������� 118
Non-interlock ������������������������������������������������������������������������������ 119
Water Spray System ������������������������������������������������������������������������ 119
Extinguishment���������������������������������������������������������������������������� 120
Controlled Burning���������������������������������������������������������������������� 120
Exposure Protection �������������������������������������������������������������������� 121
Fire Protection���������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 121
Electrical Conductivity���������������������������������������������������������������� 121
Water Spray Versus Sprinkler Systems���������������������������������������� 121
Design Considerations ���������������������������������������������������������������� 122
Nozzle Selection�������������������������������������������������������������������������� 122
Configuration of Equipment�������������������������������������������������������� 123
Water Supply�������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 123
Water Mist Systems ������������������������������������������������������������������������ 124
Extinguishing Method������������������������������������������������������������������ 124
Electrical Conductivity���������������������������������������������������������������� 124
Design Considerations ���������������������������������������������������������������� 124
Water Supply�������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 124
References���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 124
Contents xvii

10 Hydraulic Calculations of Sprinkler Systems ���������������������������� 125


Hydraulic Calculations�������������������������������������������������������������������� 125
Design Criteria ���������������������������������������������������������������������������� 125
Flow Data������������������������������������������������������������������������������������ 126
Flow Test�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 127
Approximate Calculated Demand������������������������������������������������ 129
Computer Versus Hand Calculations ���������������������������������������������� 129
Necessity of Hydraulic Calculations������������������������������������������������ 130
Summary������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������ 130
11 Foam Systems �������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 147
History: Foam Systems�������������������������������������������������������������������� 147
Use and Calculation of Foam���������������������������������������������������������� 148
Proportioning ���������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 149
Selecting Proportioning Systems and Devices���������������������������� 149
Balanced Pressure Proportioning���������������������������������������������������� 150
Reserve Systems������������������������������������������������������������������������������ 150
Direct Orifice Proportioning������������������������������������������������������������ 151
Detection Systems���������������������������������������������������������������������������� 151
Jockey Pump������������������������������������������������������������������������������������ 152
Diaphragm Pressure Proportioning�������������������������������������������������� 152
Water Supply������������������������������������������������������������������������������������ 152
High Expansion Foam���������������������������������������������������������������������� 153
High Expansion Foam Generators ���������������������������������������������� 153
High Expansion Foam Fire Suppression�������������������������������������� 154
Blessing and Curse���������������������������������������������������������������������� 154
High Expansion Foam Uses�������������������������������������������������������� 154
Sizing ������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������ 155
Advantages���������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 155
Activation������������������������������������������������������������������������������������ 155
Air Supply������������������������������������������������������������������������������������ 155
Types of Foam – Properties Performance���������������������������������������� 155
Protein Foam�������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 156
Fluoroprotein Foam (FP) ������������������������������������������������������������ 156
Aqueous Film Forming Foam (AFFF)���������������������������������������� 156
Alcohol-Resistant Foam Concentrate (AR-AFFF)���������������������� 156
Medium Expansion Foam������������������������������������������������������������ 156
High Expansion Foam������������������������������������������������������������������ 156
12 Dry-Agent Automatic Suppression Systems�������������������������������� 159
Dry Agent Suppression Systems������������������������������������������������������ 159
Carbon Dioxide Systems������������������������������������������������������������������ 159
Local Application Systems���������������������������������������������������������� 160
Other Considerations ������������������������������������������������������������������ 160
Temperatures�������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 160
Grounding������������������������������������������������������������������������������������ 160
Total Flooding Systems�������������������������������������������������������������������� 161
Hazards of Total Flooding Carbon Dioxide�������������������������������� 161
Discharge Time Delay������������������������������������������������������������������ 161
xviii Contents

Re-Ignition ���������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 161


Choosing the Time Delay������������������������������������������������������������ 162
Extended Discharge �������������������������������������������������������������������� 162
Other Considerations ������������������������������������������������������������������ 163
Carbon Dioxide and System Criteria ���������������������������������������������� 163
High Pressure Systems�������������������������������������������������������������������� 163
Maintenance Considerations for High Pressure�������������������������� 164
Reserve Cylinders������������������������������������������������������������������������ 165
How the System Works���������������������������������������������������������������� 165
Design of the Piping System�������������������������������������������������������� 166
Terminal Pressures ���������������������������������������������������������������������� 166
Discharge Nozzles����������������������������������������������������������������������� 166
Thumbnail Calculation���������������������������������������������������������������� 167
Low Pressure Carbon Dioxide Systems������������������������������������������ 167
The Storage Tank and Refrigeration�������������������������������������������� 167
Pipes and Fittings������������������������������������������������������������������������ 168
How the System Works���������������������������������������������������������������� 168
Dual Purpose Carbon Dioxide Units�������������������������������������������� 168
Inerting an Area with Carbon Dioxide���������������������������������������� 169
Carbon Dioxide Hose Stations���������������������������������������������������� 169
The Detection System and Air Leakage�������������������������������������� 170
Carbon Dioxide System Design������������������������������������������������������ 170
Local Application System Design������������������������������������������������ 170
Rate-By-Area Method������������������������������������������������������������������ 170
Rate-By-Volume Method ���������������������������������������������������������������� 172
Special Considerations���������������������������������������������������������������� 173
Total Flooding System Design���������������������������������������������������� 173
General Design Notes������������������������������������������������������������������ 175
Clean Agents-Replacing Halon�������������������������������������������������������� 175
Types of Clean Agents ���������������������������������������������������������������� 176
Greenhouse Gases and the Ozone Layer ������������������������������������ 176
Global Warming Potential������������������������������������������������������������ 176
Naming Conventions�������������������������������������������������������������������� 177
Inert Agents���������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 177
Halocarbon Agents���������������������������������������������������������������������� 177
NOAEL and LOAEL and the Need for Precise Design�������������� 178
Quantities of Clean Agents���������������������������������������������������������� 178
Halon Systems and Halon Phase Out���������������������������������������������� 181
Use of Halon 1301 �������������������������������������������������������������������������� 181
Need for Precise Design�������������������������������������������������������������� 181
Alarm Systems ���������������������������������������������������������������������������� 182
Rapid Discharge Rate������������������������������������������������������������������ 182
Storage of Halon������������������������������������������������������������������������������ 183
Control Switches for Storage ������������������������������������������������������ 183
Placement of Halon Cylinders ���������������������������������������������������� 183
Storage Conditions���������������������������������������������������������������������� 183
Estimating Approximate Amounts���������������������������������������������� 184
Partial Total Flooding Halon 1301 Systems�������������������������������� 184
Dry Chemical Systems�������������������������������������������������������������������� 185
Contents xix

Classification of Dry Chemicals�������������������������������������������������� 185


Safety to Personnel���������������������������������������������������������������������� 186
Dry Chemical System Design������������������������������������������������������ 186
Tests �������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 186
Local Application Dry Chemical Systems���������������������������������� 187
Dry Chemical Hand Hose Systems���������������������������������������������� 187
Pre-Engineered Dry Chemical Systems�������������������������������������� 188
References���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 188
13 Regulatory Agencies, Authorities and Organizations ���������������� 189
Regulatory Agencies and Authorities���������������������������������������������� 189
National Fire Protection Association ���������������������������������������������� 189
National Electric Code�������������������������������������������������������������������� 191
FM Global���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 191
Building Codes�������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 192
Types of Buildings: General�������������������������������������������������������� 194
New Versus Existing Buildings���������������������������������������������������� 194
Fire Marshal and Fire Prevention Bureau���������������������������������������� 195
Other Authorities Having Jurisdiction �������������������������������������������� 196
Water Department���������������������������������������������������������������������������� 196
Summary������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������ 197
14 Fire Suppression System Specifications �������������������������������������� 199
Construction Specification Standards���������������������������������������������� 199
References���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 200
Applicable Standards ���������������������������������������������������������������������� 200
Design Criteria �������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 201
Hydraulic Calculation Specifications���������������������������������������������� 202
Acceptable Manufacturers �������������������������������������������������������������� 202
Equipment and Material������������������������������������������������������������������ 203
Sprinkler Heads�������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 203
Testing���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 205
Summary������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������ 205
Reference ���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 205
Unwanted Fire and Fire Growth
1

or total involvement of the compartment or


What is Fire? enclosed space.

Once a room has flashed over, it will serve as a


We can’t discuss manual and automatic fire sup- source of smoke and heat to ignite surrounding
pression systems without first discussing fire. rooms and move smoke throughout a structure.
This chapter answers the question “what is fire?” While a single room fire is relatively simple for a
and how does it grow. This it contrasts with the fire department to extinguish, multiple room fires
actions of occupants and the fire service. Fire is become more, sometimes far more complex.
defined by Quintiere (2017) as a “chemical reac- Large fuel sources such as open office plans
tion that involves the evolution of light and do not have barriers to contain the fire, but large
energy in sufficient amounts to be perceptible”. fires can quickly result from “spreadover”.
The concept of flashover and its importance to
any building fire are also examined.

Fire in the Room of Origin


Fire Growth
A determination of the proper detection or sup-
Figure 1.1, courtesy of the Home Fire Sprinkler pression device to use depends on a basic knowl-
Coalition, shows a fire timeline, in this case for a edge of the function of the different systems, the
residential occupancy. hazard characteristics, and the stages of fire
The type of fire we are of course, concerned growth. For the purpose of discussion, the stages
with are unwanted fires as shown in the Figure. of development are summarized in Table 1.1
The growing fire is shown in the figure starting as adopted from Fitzgerald and Meacham (2017).
the orange line that transitions to purple at time
1 min 30 s. The fire is seen to transition to flash-
over at about 3–5 min. Flashover is defined by Stages of Fire Growth
the NFPA 921 2017 (Guide for Fire and Explosion
Investigations) as: The table refers to the following stages of fire
A transition phase in the development of a com- growth:
partment fire in which surfaces exposed to thermal
radiation reach ignition temperature more or less 1. Preburning
simultaneously and fire spreads rapidly throughout
the space, resulting in full room involvement (FRI) 2. Initial Burning
3. Vigorous Burning

© Springer International Publishing AG, part of Springer Nature 2019 1


R. C. Till, J. W. Coon, Fire Protection, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-90844-1_1
2 1 Unwanted Fire and Fire Growth

Fig. 1.1 Fire Timeline. (Courtesy of the Home Fire Sprinkler Coalition)

Table 1.1 Fire Timeline


Fire in the Room of Origin 3

4. Interactive Burning klers may activate – depending on the height of


5. Remote Burning the room and the location of the detector.
6. Full Room Involvement (FRI) Interactive burning is a time in fire growth
where flames are beginning to touch the ceiling.
Preburning refers to the time from when over- The heat release rate when flames touch the ceil-
heat point to ignition point. It is important in the ing is generally 800 kW to 1 MW and flames will
fire detection realm as certain detectors are able just be beginning to roll over on the ceiling when
to sense it via the gases that may be produced, the fire moves from the Enclosure Point to the
and any smoldering. This may go on for a long ceiling point.
period. The flame has now mushroomed across the
These four stages from preburning to initial ceiling and some areas remote from the initial
burning are: ignition may experience auto-ignition. The room
moves into flashover.
1. The incipient stage, where invisible products Finally, the fire moves to full room involve-
of combustion are produced. At this stage, ment. This will occur due to flashover or
smoke is not visible, nor has the heat of com- spreadover.
bustion developed. This entire process (up to flashover) is shown
2. The smoldering stage occurs when the com- as the fire growth “curve” in Fig. 1.1.
bustion has developed to the point where com- The potential hazards should be thoroughly
bustion products are visible as smoke, but evaluated in order to determine the anticipated
flame and heat are not yet a factor. combustion stages and how quickly a fire will
3. The flame stage is an intermediate stage where pass through the various stages. This information
considerable heat is not yet being produced by is integral to the selection of the proper and most
the combustion, although this stage very efficient detector/suppression for the hazard area.
quickly moves into the next, the heat stage. In A fire that has achieved established burning, as
this stage there may be a clean (laminar) shown in the table above, can them grow through
flame, but little or no smoke. up to a point of full room involvement (FRI). One
4. The heat stage combines all the elements of of the main benefits of suppression systems is
combustion invisible products as well as visi- that, if they are designed properly, the fire will be
ble smoke, flame, and heat. controlled, and FRI will not occur.

Initial burning is the time when the first small


flames grow into established burning (EB) – Full Room Involvement
about 19 Btu/s (20 kW) – also referred to as the
radiation point. Human beings will not survive flashover. Even in
Vigorous burning is the period of time when a full firefighter turnout gear, humans will be sub-
fire moves from established burning until it is ject to fatal levels of heat and radiation.
about as high as a person (379 Btu/s – 400 kW). When a compartment has flashed over, the fire
It should be noted that once a fire is as high as a has changed from a fuel-controlled fire to a
person’s head, a non-firefighter should consider ventilation-­controlled fire. This means that any
leaving the area and abandoning any attempt to air entering the compartment at this point will
use a fire extinguisher. The fire is generally devel- allow an equal amount of smoke (by mass) to
oping very rapidly at this point, and an unpro- leave the compartment. The quantity of smoke
tected individual would be in great danger, produced post flashover can be extremely large
particularly if they are untrained in the use of fire depending on the remaining contents in the room,
extinguishers. It should also be noted that in this and the amount of ventilation. It is generally very
realm in which heat detectors, including sprin- sooty due to the lack of oxygen at the point of
4 1 Unwanted Fire and Fire Growth

Table 1.2 Pre and post flashover


Pre-flashover Post flashover
Mass of unburned fuel through door Low High
Heat release rate in room Regulated by fuel Regulated by
ventilation
Heat release of door jet None High

burning, and it is known that in most fires fatali- Notification of the Fire Department
ties are due to smoke, not heat. Post flashover
fires are known to produce smoke on the order of Notification of the presence of fire, particularly
lb/s (kg/s). the fire department may be non-trivial. In the case
When a fire is ventilation controlled, the air of a protected premise fire alarm system, there
entering the compartment through whatever may be a local fire alarm, but the fire department
openings are provided will limit all combustion may not be notified until someone alerts them. In
occurring inside the compartment. At the same the era of the cell phone this can be simpler than
time, there will be combustion outside the com- it was in the past, but it is often assumed by the
partment of pyrolized fuel that was hot enough to public that if a fire alarm system is in alarm, the
burn inside the compartment, but that did not fire department has been notified.
come in contact with any oxygen until it left the Report of the fire, dispatch and the fire
compartment though a vent. This is why “tongues response itself – will likely occur in similar time
of flame” emerge from windows and doors after periods to the Fig. 1.1 graphic. For these cases
flashover has occurred. It should be noted that and others, without sprinklers or some other
these flames will also roll across the ceilings of automatic fire suppression system fire growth is
adjacent rooms inside the structure and will likely unconstricted.
result in a multi-room fire. The level of sophistication of the fire alarm
So it has been established that a pre-flashover system may be such that finding the fire once the
compartment is quite a different environment fire department has arrived is a trivial task, but in
from a post-flashover compartment (Table 1.2). some cases where no detection or limited detec-
Once FRI has occurred, unburned hot gasses tion is present, or the sophisticated fire alarm sys-
will move out of the room of origin and have the tem is experiencing some sort of fault, the fire
potential to spread from any openings to sur- may also need to be located by the fire
rounding rooms. It is much more difficult for a department.
fire the department to extinguish a fire once it has
moved beyond the room of origin. Fixed suppres-
sion systems can prevent this from happening, Influence of Fire on Humans
and therefore may prevent the destruction of an
entire structure. Fire is hazardous to humans for a number of rea-
sons, some obvious and some less so. The more
obvious hazards to humans are the physical burns
Notification of Occupants that can happen to people exposed to fire. Less
obvious are the exposure to narcotic gasses, irri-
In this case, one hopes that if the occupants are tant gasses, and the limitations on visibility that
sleeping, they will wake up upon activation of a can influence safe egress. The narcotic gasses
smoke alarm and leave the premise. This isn’t include Carbon Monoxide, Carbon Dioxide as well
always the case however, and a portion of occu- as Hydrogen Cyanide. These gases are responsi-
pants perish even in the presence of a working ble for the majority of fire fatalities. All can cause
smoke alarm. death at different concentrations. The early
Modeling Fire: Empirically and Numerically 5

detection of these gases can activate alarms or bles are not referred to as a dry chemical, but
suppression systems that can both warn occu- as dry powders.
pants of danger and suppress a fire to make it less Class K – Class K fires are fires in cooking oils
dangerous to occupants. and greases such as animal fats and vegetable
fats.

 odeling Fire: Empirically


M
and Numerically Calculation of Flashover

Fire Triangle/Tetrahedron It is possible to calculate the heat release rate at


and Suppression flashover. It should be noted that a Watt is the
metric unit of energy commonly used to denote
The concept of the fire triangle was developed to the heat release per unit time used for fires.
provide a simple model of fire suppression. The Specifically, a Watt is a Joule/Second. A Joule is
fire triangle has three sides, the elimination of the amount of heat necessary to raise a gram of
any one of which will cause a fire to be extin- water about 0.24 (almost a quarter) of a degree
guished. The three sides are Heat, Oxygen and Celsius. This small-scale definition isn’t particu-
Fuel. larly helpful to us, as we will generally be con-
The fire tetrahedron contains the three sides of cerned about thousands (kilowatts) and even
the fire triangle with an added fourth “dimen- millions (megawatts) when we are discussing
sion”. The fourth dimension of the fire tetrahe- fires.
dron is chemical chain reactions. It was added to The 2016 NFPA glossary defines flashover as
explain the supression characteristics of some “a stage in the development of a contained fire in
powdered suppressants such as sodium bicarbon- which all exposed surfaces reach ignition tem-
ate and Purple K, as well as the characteristics of perature more or less simultaneously and fire
halon gas, all discussed in later chapters. spreads rapidly throughout the space”. As dis-
cussed later, upper layer temperatures at flash-
over can be 900–1200 °F(500–600 °C), and the
Classes of Fire: What Is Burning? radiative heat flux at the floor is roughly 1.9 Btu/
s-ft2 (20 kW/m2), sufficient to cause paper to
Fire can be divided into different classes. This ignite.
structure helps identify what means can be used A simple equation (there are others) for deter-
to suppress the fire. mining the necessary heat release rate (HRR) for
flashover was determined by Babrauskas (1980) as:
Class A combustibles are ordinary combustibles ·
such as wood, paper, cloth, rubber, and some Q ( Btu / s ) = 36.5 A H ( English )
plastics. These are basically the types of fires
·
we encounter in most buildings. Q ( kW ) = 750 A H ( Metric )
Class B combustibles are flammable liquids,
paints, grease, solvents, etc. These types of Where A is the area of the opening in sq. ft (sq.
fires are generally encountered in commercial m) and the square root of H is the square root of
situations. the height of
·
the opening in ft (m). Using this
Class C is not combustible, but indicates that the equation, Q , the HRR at flashover, is roughly
agent most be electrically nonconductive, and 1990 Btu/s (2100 kW) for a room with a standard
can therefore be safely discharged on energized door, roughly 6.56′ (2 m) high and 3.28′ (1 m)
electrical equipment, devices, and wiring. wide. Note that this calculation applies to a com-
Class D refers to combustible metals such as partment with one opening.
magnesium, sodium, and potassium. Agents It should also be noted that flashover is NOT
used for extinguishment of Class D combusti- the maximum heat release rate that can occur in a
6 1 Unwanted Fire and Fire Growth

compartment fire. An order of magnitude can be noted on the graph. Examples of how this can be
noted by comparing an equation for the maxi- done are located in the next section.
mum heat release rate for a compartment with a
single opening (Hurley et al. 2015)
· Diagnostic Room Fires
Q ( Btu / s ) = 68.1A H ( English )
Actual specified fires are generally not part of
·
Q ( kW ) = 1400 A H traditional building codes. A specified fire (a
( Metric )
diagnostic or design fire) is usually introduced
Different configurations may produce differ- in “performance-based designs”. A method for
ent results, but this is the result for a single open- performance-­ based design is outlined in the
ing. It can easily be seen that the maximum HRR Society of Fire Protection Engineers “SFPE
in a post-flashover compartment can be on the Guide to Performance-Based Fire
order of double the HRR at flashover. Protection”(SFPE 2007). A formal introduction
of these building design methods will not be
adopted in this book; however, the concept of
 ire and Time: Fire Growth
F design fire is important.
for a Single Fuel Package Multiple design fires may be introduced in order
to address the full range of potential issues that
It is important to understand how to quantify the could arise. Choosing a relatively large “diagnostic
time it takes for the fire to pass through the phases fire” to simulate what the firefighters will encoun-
listed above to achieve flashover or FRI. This is ter has some advantages. A larger fire should pro-
because the time for detector activation, particu- duce less visibility, more heat, more smoke, more
larly heat detector activation, as used standalone fatigue, and increased the rate of structural fire
or as the detector in a sprinkler head is a function attack. These characteristics will make all the
of the growth rate of the fire (Table 1.3). buildings’ architectural obstacles more difficult
The time for a single fuel package to move than they would be in a smaller fire.
through to flashover is generally quantified math- In addition, if the resources to suppress a large
ematically as an alpha t2 fire. This is for a single fire are brought to bear in an adequate time, those
fuel package such as a chair or couch. Each value same resources should be able to suppress a small
of alpha corresponds to a different fire growth fire in the same rooms of a similar building. This
rate. These rates are given the simple names slow, is similar to the concept used in structural build-
medium, and fast. Applications of these and their ing codes for floor loading. If large loads can be
relationship to detector activation is discussed handled, the smaller ones can be effectively
more in the fire alarm section, and the corre- ignored. In short, a building design that is ade-
sponding alphas are shown in Table 1.3. quate for large fires should be more than adequate
These types of fires can be “mixed and for smaller ones.
matched” with the number of fuel packages ignit- Potential disadvantages in the choice of large
ing in the course of the move toward flashover. design fires are: Worst case conditions may not
Figure 1.2, shows a fire heat release timeline be very useful for determining fire department
for 5 min. These types of fire growth curves are intervention, as in using this methodology, there
easily reproduced on spreadsheets and can be
used to determine the approximate time to flash- Table 1.3 Alpha and Heat Release Rate
over. For example, if the Babrauskas flash over Rate Alpha (kW/s2)
equation determines that a room will flash over Slow 0.002931
when the HRR reaches 2500 kW, a fast fire would Medium 0.01127
flash the room over in a little under 4 min, as Fast 0.04689
Fire and Time: Fire Growth for a Single Fuel Package 7

Fig. 1.2 Fire growth 5,000


timeline Slow Medium Fast

3,750

HRR (kW)
2,500

1,250

0
10 30 50 70 90 110 130 150 170 190 210 230 250 270 290
Time (Seconds)

may theoretically be no building left standing must also be developed. It is important that infor-
when the fire department arrives. If an unreason- mation about smoke and heat in the burning com-
ably large fire is chosen for the given scenario, partments and their neighbors is available so the
the effects of smoke, heat, visibility and potential influence of these factors on firefighter move-
for structural collapse will be overestimated, and ment can be established.
the potential of fire department intervention may For some occupancies such as office build-
be grossly underestimated. This can result in the ings, there is a large amount of generalized infor-
recommendation of a costly redesign of a pro- mation available about ventilation and fire
posed structure when none is necessary. loading. Information about the building is vital to
Large design fires have the potential to make the development and integration of the overall
detection and location a simple matter when model. Fire models such as the zone model
under real conditions this is often not the case. It CFAST can be used to develop generalized
is very important to address detection and fire design fires for individual compartment types.
location separately. The output from these programs includes infor-
mation on time to compartment flashover and
smoke movement information outside the room
 ffice Building Design Fires:
O of origin.
Examples Information about different room types is pro-
vided in the work of Culver and Milke (Culver
NFPA 72 (The Alarm Code) lists many fuel pack- 1976). These studies give sizes ventilation areas
age fires in its Annex, including heat release rates and fire loadings for different office building
for furniture and other fuel packages. They are room configurations. These room types are mod-
very useful in determining the potential response eled based on their contents and content layout. If
of sprinklers and other fire detection devices. these categories can be effectively modeled, then
However, the fires described here incorporate fire any fire in an office building will be quantified.
in the room of origin but can spread outside the We will be choosing the more hazardous room
room of origin as well. layouts, as this is the most significant to firefight-
Fires must be developed for the associated ers, and measuring time for firefighter accessibil-
office building compartments for the type of ity. Design layouts are included for these rooms.
building layout that is being studied. An associated Sizes for traditional offices can be divided
model for the spread of fire to other compartments many different ways. Figure 1.3 shows the areas
8 1 Unwanted Fire and Fire Growth

Fig. 1.3 Left to right – small, medium, large and open office spaces

Table 1.4 Office areas, vent sizes and time to flashover


Type Size Floor area (Sq. Ft) Vent area (Medium and slow fire) Time to flashover
Small office 10′ × 11′ 110 80 Sq. ft 150–230 s
Medium office 20′ × 16′ 320 160 Sq. ft 160–280 s
Large office 30′ × 16′ 480 240 Sq. ft 150–230 s
Open office 2 panel - - ~570 s

used for the design offices. This table also shows The time to full room involvement is one of the
the vent areas that will be used in the d­ evelopment most common calculations performed by fire pro-
of medium and slow fires. The vent area for fast tection engineers using computer models such as
fires is taken to be the size of an open door. CFAST. There are a number of definitions of FRI
For the purposes of demonstration, a set of including the point where upper layer gas temper-
theoretical design fires was developed for office atures reach 500–600 °C., or a radiative heat flux
compartments. In order to construct such a design at the floor level of 20 W/m2. Zone models describe
fire, it is necessary to obtain heat release rates for the boundary between the hot upper layer and a
particular fire packages. This is done so that to cooler lower layer and most account for variations
flashover for individual rooms, and fire spread in room ventilation (Table 1.4).
throughout buildings, can be modeled. It can be seen that the flashover times for these
In developing design fires, we are particularly rooms are on the order of minutes, similar to the
concerned with time from established burning to time shown in Fig. 1.1.
flashover. Established burning is defined as the
point where the dominant heat transfer mode
shifts from convection to radiation. Radiation Open Office Plans and Spreadover
feedback is assumed to occur when flames reach
a height of approximately 10 inches. After this A number of important conclusions were drawn
point, the fire grows much faster. about fires in open office spaces in Harold Nelson’s
Fire and Time: Fire Growth for a Single Fuel Package 9

review of the First Interstate Bank Fire of 1988 involved is important if persons may have to
(Nelson 1989). These conclusions include: take refuge in the building during the fire.
5. Floor to floor propagation is a potentially
1. The recognition that open arrangements in serious problem in window wall buildings.
office settings can develop to flashover. There The knowledge of flame extension from win-
is a demonstrable fire potential associated dows, particularly where petroleum based
with open office arrangements that contain polymers are involved is insufficient. A bet-
concentrated grouping of combustible work ter understanding of the relationships
areas. Where such concentrations occur in between burning rates and flame lengths is
spaces involving large floor areas and rela- needed.
tively low ceilings, there is usually sufficient 6. In this fire the duration of burning on a floor
combustion air within the space to allow a and the rate of fire propagation from floor to
developing fire to reach flashover conditions. floor were close to each other. A longer dura-
This even if no additional air is introduced tion fire or a faster floor to floor spread could
into the space. The traditional light hazard result in an unstoppable fire. Longer duration
expectations associated often associated with condition would be expected where a higher
offices do not apply in these cases. total fuel load existed such as commonly
2. High space utilization office landscape have occur with merchandising displays or exten-
the potential, even without the assistance of sive use of combustible interior finishes.
flashover, of spreading fire over large areas
producing fires of major portions. Data is available on workstation heat release
3. There is an important relationship between the rates from a paper by Madrzykowski (1996).
release of fuel from a burning array as the Using data he developed design fires were con-
result of heat impinging on it and the avail- structed for workstations with 2, 3 and 4 panels
ability of oxygen (air.) These relate to effi- respectively. Understanding that “cube farms” can
ciency of combustion. Efficiency of consist of vast areas of open office plan, it is obvi-
combustion is in turn a major determinant of ous that fire may “spread over” to other cubes
the ability to burn, room layer temperature, very rapidly, and could quickly ignite an entire
carbon monoxide production, oxygen content, floor, or even multiple floors with extension out-
fuel transport and flame length. side the building, as it did during the First
4. It must be expected that fire products will be Interstate Bank and One Meridian Plaza fires. The
spread by natural forces to remote portions of importance of sprinkler protection becomes par-
the building given sufficient time. The degree of ticularly important, as these fires can grow very
problem ensuing will be a function of the effi- rapidly over the evenly spaced, large fuel pack-
ciency of combustion of the fire, the tightness of ages that open office plans provide (Table 1.5).
the shafts and other communicating passages, It can be seen that open office plans can
the presence or absence of smoke control sys- behave similarly to compartments due to their
tems, the height of the building, and the weather large heat release rates. Spreadover across these
conditions at the time. Analysis of the potential items can result in very large fires that move

Table 1.5 Ceiling heights, number of workstation panels, and time to flashover
Type Ceiling height Fire Time to flashover
Slow fire 9′ 2 panel 570 s
Medium fire 8′ 3 panel 460 s
Fast fire 8′ 4 panel 290 s
10 1 Unwanted Fire and Fire Growth

through these open areas rapidly. Automatic sup- they are sleeping or medically impaired), and
pression in the form of sprinklers is one of the destroying property that might otherwise have
few ways of consistently dealing with the prob- been saved.
lems that these fires represent. Note that while this Figure demonstrates
response for a residential occupancy, it is demon-
strated that flashover can occur in the same order
Suppression of the Fire of magnitude (2–5 min or so) for other occupan-
cies as well. Fire department setup can change
For the purpose of discussing the fire protection dramatically based on many factors ranging from
management of buildings in 2018, there are still location of the water supply relative, the weather,
essentially two kinds of buildings, sprinklered the location of the fire and interior conditions.
and unsprinklered, and this is also described by Automatic suppression in the early stages of fire
Fig. 1.1. may be the only way of saving a structure and the
In sprinklered buildings, detection, location lives within it.
and suppression/control are handled by the sprin-
kler system. A modern functioning wet pipe sys-
tem will control or extinguish a fire before a room References
flashes over. In unsprinklered buildings this is not
the case, and the fire department and building Babrauskas, V. “Estimating Room Flashover Potential.”
Fire Technology 16.2 (1980): 94–103.
occupants can be confronted with a far different Culver, C. Survey Results for Fire Loads and Live Loads
scenario where smoke and heat are being dis- in Office Buildings. Vol. (NBS Building Science Series
charged in copious amounts by the time the fire Number 85) National Bureau of Standards, 1976.
department arrives, and a much of the building Fitzgerald, Robert W., and Brian J. Meacham. Fire
Performance Analysis for Buildings. Wiley, 2017.
may be just starting to evacuate. Hurley, Morgan J., Daniel T. Gottuk et al. SFPE Handbook
of Fire Protection Engineering. Springer, 2015.
Madrzykowski, D. “Office Work Station Heat Release
Summary Rate Study: Full Scale Vs. Bench Scale.” Interflam ‘96,
7th International Interflam Conference Proceedings.
Cambridge, England 1996.
Figure Fig. 1.1 explains an extremely important Nelson, Harold E. “An Engineering View of the Fire of
concept that this book will repeat – automatic May 4, 1988 in the First Interstate Bank Building, Los
systems can stop fire spread outside of the room Angeles, California.” NISTIR 89–4061 (1989)
Quintiere, James G. Principles of Fire Behavior, Second
of origin immediately and prevent toxic smoke Edition. 2nd ed., New York: Taylor and Francis,
from moving around a premise and impairing or 2017.
killing occupants who may or may not be aware SFPE. SFPE Engineering Guide to Performance-Based Fire
that the fire is even occurring (for example, if Protection. National Fire Protection Association, 2007.
Automatic Sprinkler Heads
2

New England was at the center of the textile mill


 arly Automatic Suppression
E industry. These operations were housed in large,
Systems multi-story, wooden structures.
The textile mills contained machinery driven
Automatic sprinkler heads were the first practi- by pulley and belting systems, plus primitive
cal, widely used, heat detectors. Their history is heating and lighting systems which provided a
fascinating. source of ignition. Once ignition occurred, it
The earliest piping system intending to serve could readily feed not only on the wooden con-
as a sprinkler system had fittings resembling struction, but also the lint and fabric products
salt shakers installed in the piping. A cord and inside. Since these buildings were constructed
weight arrangement controlled the operation of prior to the age of fire protection engineering and
the water supply valve, which was normally modern construction requirements, when a fire
kept in the closed position. The water supply did break out and was not immediately extin-
was stored in a tank above the piping arrange- guished, it would spread rapidly through unpro-
ment, thereby effecting static pressure on the tected openings to other floors. The loss was
water supply pipe. In the event of a fire, the cord usually total. The need for an efficient automatic
in the fire area burned through, thereby releas- fire extinguishing system became painfully obvi-
ing the weights and opening the valve. While ous and economically prudent.
the concept was sound, there were several Perforated piping systems appeared to be the
defects. For example, the cords sometimes most practical answer. The customary installa-
stretched and lowered the weights, allowing the tion consisted of manually operated control
valve to leak. In other cases, when the system valves serving risers for each floor. Because of
was called upon to function, the valve, (lacking this design, however, the water damage was usu-
modem gasket and lubricating material) after ally severe. For example, a small fire in one
standing inoperative over a long period of time- corner of a 15,000 or 20,000 square foot floor
would stick and fail to open. area meant flooding the entire floor with water. In
In 1852, the first perforated piping system was many cases, the area over the fire might never
installed in America at the Locks and Canals receive water because perforations would be
Company in Lowell, Massachusetts. At that time clogged with paint, sediment, and corrosion.

© Springer International Publishing AG, part of Springer Nature 2019 11


R. C. Till, J. W. Coon, Fire Protection, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-90844-1_2
12 2 Automatic Sprinkler Heads

History of the Sprinkler: 1864 during this period that Henry S. Parmelee
invented and developed the forerunner of what
In an attempt to overcome the problems caused we know today as the automatic sprinkler head.
by the clogging of holes drilled directly into the The Parmelee Number 3, was an upright sprin-
perforated piping system, and to afford better kler first used in 1875. It consisted of a perforated
water distribution, the next step in the develop- water distributor completely enclosed in a brass
ment of automatic fire suppression systems was cap which was held in place by solder. When the
the installation of crude, open sprinklers con- solder softened from the heat of fire, the cap was
nected to the piping. These open sprinklers were forced off by the water pressure, and the water
metal bulbs with numerous perforations, which discharged on the fire area.
resulted in a spray pattern. Unfortunately, these Parmelee developed this first automatic sprin-
perforations were also conducive to severe clog- kler system to protect his New Haven, Connecticut
ging, which not only prevented water discharge, piano factory, and by so doing demonstrated the
but also disrupted the discharge pattern the head first practical automatic fire protection system.
was supposed to develop. That same year, Parmelee designed a new model,
further improving it in 1878 (Fig. 2.1). In the fol-
lowing years, many improvements resulted in a
Fusible Element Sprinkler Head mass-produced supply.

In London, England, in 1864, Major A Stewart


Harrison developed the first fusible element Skepticism
sprinkler head. Harrison’s device consisted of a
hollow brass sphere that contained a large num- New inventions are always greeted by suspicion.
ber of counter-sunk holes plugged with solder. Parmelee’s invention was no exception. Would it
When the solder melted from the heat of the fire, work after standing idle for years? Wouldn’t
the water was discharged. As with previously water damage be severe if the head operated
described methods, the small holes frequently because of a small fire? If the head or the piping
clogged with sediment, making the head at least leaked, would the system be capable of control-
partially inoperative. In addition, the Harrison ling a fire of any proportion? Was the expense of
head had a rubber valve which had a very short installation justified? These questions that were
life, and once inoperative, was useless. asked in 1878 are still being asked of the systems
There is no record of a patent in Major that are available today. But between 1878 and
Harrison’s name for this device, and apparently it 1882, the Providence Steam and Gas Pipe
was never installed in a system. Perhaps this was Company sold and installed over 200,000 of
because of the defects that appeared in the exper- these crude, but remarkably efficient, sprinkler
imental models. Nevertheless, Harrison’s sprin- heads – a testimony to their performance record.
kler represents the first automatic application of By this time, Factory Mutual Insurance
water from an individual head. But certainly the Company (FM) had compiled records clearly
reports of this idea influenced future sprinkler indicating the proficiency of automatic sprinkler
head development. protection in the facilities they insured. From
1877 to 1888, their records indicated a total fire
loss in unsprinklered facilities of $5,707,000, the
Parmelee Sprinkler Head result of 759 fires, or $7500 per fire. By compari-
son, there had been 206 fires in sprinkled proper-
It is impossible to say just how much influence ties during their 10-year span, with a total dollar
the Harrison head concept had on the consider- loss of $224,480, or $1080 per fire. These statis-
able amount of sprinkler head experimentation tics convinced insurance companies of the
that was performed from 1874 to 1878. It was dependability of automatic sprinkler protection.
Another random document with
no related content on Scribd:
organ; f, foot-gland; g, ganglion; gn, generative organs; o, orifice
of vestibule; oe, oesophagus; s, stomach; t, retracted tentacles.

In Pedicellina the plane of the lophophore is at right angles to the


stalk, which is separated from its calyx by a marked constriction. In
Loxosoma the lophophore is set obliquely,[542] and there is no
constriction at the base of the calyx. In Urnatella we find an
intermediate condition, the lophophore resembling that of Loxosoma,
while the constriction at the base of the calyx is similar to that of
Pedicellina. Since the latter is known to pass in its development[543]
through a stage with an oblique lophophore, it may be presumed that
Loxosoma is a more archaic form than Pedicellina. In other respects,
the structure of the Entoprocta is very constant, whatever the genus.

A pair of ciliated excretory tubes open into the vestibule. These are
similar in structure to the "head-kidneys" of the larvae of Polychaet
worms, or to the excretory organs of adult Rotifers. Flame-cells have
been described by Davenport in the stalk of Urnatella, but it is not
known whether they are connected with the excretory tubes of the
calyx. The animals are either hermaphrodite or have separate sexes,
and the generative organs open by ducts of their own into the
vestibule. The nervous system consists of a ganglion placed
between the mouth and the anus, giving off a set of nerves, many of
which end in delicate tactile hairs placed on the tentacles or other
parts of the body.[544]

CHAPTER XVIII

POLYZOA (continued)

FRESH-WATER POLYZOA—PHYLACTOLAEMATA—OCCURRENCE—
STRUCTURE OF CRISTATELLA—DIVISION OF COLONY—MOVEMENTS OF
COLONY—RETRACTION AND PROTRUSION OF POLYPIDES IN POLYZOA—
STATOBLASTS—TABLE FOR DETERMINATION OF GENERA OF FRESH-
WATER POLYZOA—REPRODUCTIVE PROCESSES OF POLYZOA—
DEVELOPMENT—AFFINITIES—METAMORPHOSIS—BUDDING.

Fresh-water Polyzoa.—Although the Gymnolaemata are ordinarily


marine animals, fresh-water examples from this Order are not
altogether wanting. The Ctenostomata among the typically marine
groups show the most tendency to stray into fresh-water.

Alcyonidium and Bowerbankia (Fig. 238) flourish in estuaries, while


Victorella and Paludicella (Fig. 250) are only known as fresh or
brackish water forms. Victorella was named after the Victoria Docks
in London, where it was first found; more recently it has also been
discovered in other parts of England and on the Continent.[545]

The systematic position of the genera Hislopia and Norodonia,[546]


which have been described from fresh water of India and China
respectively, is at present uncertain. The undoubted Cheilostome
Membranipora has, however, a British representative (M.
monostachys), which occurs in brackish water, in ditches on the
coast of East Anglia. It is there known to form "friable, irregularly-
shaped, sponge-like masses," which grow on water-plants.[547]

The Entoprocta, as we have seen, are represented in fresh water by


the genus Urnatella.

The Phylactolaemata are an exclusively fresh-water group, and


they are believed by Kraepelin[548] to have been derived from the
Ctenostomata. Many of their special peculiarities can, with great
probability, be regarded as adaptations to a fresh-water existence.
This is particularly clear in the all but universal habit of dying down in
the winter, and in the occurrence of the so-called statoblasts (Fig.
251), which are hard-shelled reproductive bodies, absolutely
restricted to the Phylactolaemata, and capable of resisting the
winter's cold and even a certain amount of drying up.
Phylactolaemata have indeed been recorded from the tropics; but it
is not yet sufficiently clear how they there behave in these respects.
F. Müller[549] has found these animals in Brazil, where they are said
to be more common at certain periods of the year than at others.
Stuhlmann has found them in Tropical Africa (Victoria Nyanza, etc.);
[550] and Meissner[551] has discovered the sessile statoblasts of
Plumatella on the shells preserved in the Berlin Museum, of species
of the Mollusc Aetheria from various localities in Africa. Fresh-water
representatives of a considerable number of other groups of animals
agree with the Phylactolaemata in the possession of reproductive
bodies which are protected by hard coats. Such, for instance, are the
ephippian ova of Daphnia—bodies which have an extraordinary
external similarity to statoblasts—the gemmules of Spongillidae, the
winter-eggs of Rhabdocoels and Rotifers, and the cysts of Protozoa.
The evolution of these bodies in so many widely different cases may
have been due to the selection of variations calculated to minimise
the dangers attendant on the drying up of the water in summer, or on
its freezing in winter.

The Phylactolaemata are by no means uncommon, although they


can seldom be found without a careful search. Their presence may
often be detected by taking advantage of the property of the free
statoblasts of rising to the top of the water, where they can be
discovered by skimming the surface with a fine hand-net.

The colonies themselves are usually found attached to water-plants,


roots of trees or stones. Most of them flourish best in a zone not
more than two feet below the surface. Certain species show a
preference for floating leaves, such as those of water-lilies, where
they are not liable to be dried up by alterations in the level of the
water. Some forms (e.g. Plumatella, Fig. 246) are, however, able to
withstand being dried for some time. Most species prefer shady
places, and accordingly settle on the lower sides of leaves and
sticks. Others (e.g. Cristatella, Fig. 247) have no objection to the
direct rays of the sun. Most forms prefer still water, but one or two
are found in running water.

Fredericella is a common constituent of the deep-water fauna of


Swiss Lakes (down to over forty fathoms); and reaches there a size
considerably larger than the shallow-water form of the same species.
Paludicella is common at thirteen fathoms. These two genera, with
Plumatella, have been found in absolute darkness, under a pressure
of 2½-5½ atmospheres, in the Hamburg aqueduct. The Polyzoa and
other organisms growing in the water-supply of Hamburg were
accused of being concerned in the spreading of cholera, during the
recent epidemic, by choking up the water-pipes, and creating
obstructions which formed a favourable nidus for the development of
cholera-germs.

The colony may take the form of a series of delicate, branching


tubes (Plumatella, Fredericella), of more massive aggregations of
parallel tubes (as in the Alcyonelloid forms of Plumatella), or of
gelatinous masses of varying size (Lophopus, Cristatella).

Fig. 246.—A, Plumatella (Alcyonella) fungosa Pall., Naples (fresh


water), small part of a mass, natural size; B, Plumatella repens L.,
R. Yare, on the leaf of a water-lily, natural size.

Cristatella mucedo (Fig. 247) is remarkable for its power of moving


from place to place; it consists of an elongated mass of greenish,
gelatinous substance, which, in its fully developed state, may reach
a length of eight inches or more, with a transverse diameter of three-
eighths of an inch. It has a flattened sole on which it crawls, while the
graceful plumes of its numerous polypides protrude as a delicate
fringe from its upper side.

The tentacles are about eighty to ninety in number, and they are, as
in other Phylactolaemata, united at their bases by a delicate web.
The lophophore is horse-shoe-shaped (Fig. 236, 3) throughout the
group, with the exception of Fredericella, in which genus it is circular.

In some Phylactolaemata the polypide has been observed to


interlace its tentacles, so that the plume becomes a kind of cage, in
which the more active Infusoria are imprisoned until their struggles
have so far weakened them that they are swept into the mouth by
the action of the cilia of the tentacles.[552]

Fig. 247.—Cristatella mucedo Cuv. (a small colony), R. Yare, above


Norwich, × 24.

Around the edge of the Cristatella is found a zone of budding tissue,


which gives rise continuously to new individuals. Now, whereas in
Gymnolaemata the growing edge gives rise to zooecia, whose
cavities become completely cut off from that of the older ones; in
Phylactolaemata the partitions between the zooecia are never
completed. The body-cavity of Cristatella is thus a continuous space,
interrupted at the margin only by vertical septa (see Fig. 247), which
represent the partitions between the zooecia of other forms.

The body-wall consists of two epithelial layers of ectoderm and


mesoderm, between which is a layer of muscular fibres. Parts of the
epithelium lining the body-cavity are ciliated. Into the common body-
cavity hang the polypide-buds at the edge of the colony, and the
mature polypides in the more central regions. There are usually
three rows of polypides on either side of the middle line, in the
neighbourhood of which is an area devoid of polypides, but
containing "brown bodies" and statoblasts. The polypides nearest to
the middle line pass in succession into the condition of "brown
bodies," while young buds near the margin grow up coincidently to
form new polypides.

The movement of the colony is in the direction of the long axis,


although either end may go first. Sir John Dalyell records an
observation[553] on a specimen (about one inch long) which was
artificially divided into two halves. The two halves "receded from
each other as if by common consent," and were nearly an inch apart
in twenty hours.

An observation made at Cambridge on a small colony of about 7


mm. in greatest length gave the following results. The colony moved
13 mm. (nearly twice its own length) in 8¼ hours: in the next 40
hours it moved 20 mm. ( ⅘ inch); while in the following 24 hours it
moved only 6 mm. Large colonies change their place only with
reluctance.

The locomotive power possessed by Cristatella is not unique among


Phylactolaemata. Lophopus, the first fresh-water Polyzoon of which
any description was published, was originally described by Trembley
in 1744 under the name of the "Polype à pannache." Trembley
observed the spontaneous division of the colony, followed by the
gradual separation from one another of the daughter-colonies.[554]
The power of dividing spontaneously is also possessed by colonies
of Cristatella and of Pectinatella.

The colonies of Lophopus are surrounded by an excessively hyaline


ectocyst, and are usually triangular, as shown by Fig. 248. When
division is about to occur, the base of the triangle becomes indented,
and the indentation travels towards the apex in such a way as to
bisect the triangle. The two halves diverge from one another during
the process, so that before division is complete, they are looking, in
some cases, in opposite directions. After a time the narrow
connection breaks, and two new colonies are formed.

Fig. 248 shows a colony shortly after division has taken place. The
colony had moved forwards, in a direction away from its apex, for
three days in a nearly straight line, the distances moved in each day
being respectively 6, 8½, 8½ mm. These observations, for which I
am indebted to Mr. Lister, show a considerably higher speed than in
those recorded by Trembley, who observed no colony which moved
more than half an inch (12.5 mm.) in eight days.

The genus Pectinatella also has some power of locomotion. This


magnificent Polyzoon occurs in masses several feet in length (as
much as six feet in P. gelatinosa from Japan[555]), and four to eight
inches in thickness. The greater part of P. magnifica[556] consists of
a thick, opaline, and gelatinous ectocyst, the upper surface of which
is covered by hundreds of rosette-like colonies, which increase in
number by division. The masses are thus aggregations of colonies,
which secrete a common basal ectocyst. The latter decays in the
autumn; and the separate rosettes, or groups of them, may thus be
set free, being found as floating masses, which may again attach
themselves to a solid object till the time of their death. Pectinatella
has not yet been recorded in England, although, considering the
ease with which statoblasts are transported, it is by no means
improbable that it will eventually be recorded as a British genus. It is
at present known to inhabit America, Japan, and Hamburg.
Fig. 248.—Lophopus crystallinus Pall., Cambridge, showing the rate of
movement. The colony and the distances moved are × 2.

It is by no means certain what is the mechanism by which movement


takes place in the above cases. The ectocyst of Cristatella is
confined to the base of the colony, and there forms a thin slimy film,
which lubricates the surface over which the animal moves. It has
been stated[557] that progression is produced in the following way.
The polypides are withdrawn by means of retractor muscles, which
originate from the septa and inner surface of the sole. Thus at each
retraction of any polypide, the muscle pulls on a portion of the sole.
Should the expanded polypides place themselves in a suitable
position, the movement will be in the direction of the resultant of the
forces due to the separate retractor muscles; while it is probable that
their cilia assist in the onward movement. It should be noted that it is
definitely stated that a colony in which all the polypides are retracted
can alter its position,[558] although even then the retractor muscles
might still contract to some extent.

The movement probably depends on several causes. It must


probably be conceded that the sole itself has some effect on this
process. Its outer cells are contractile, and have the power of raising
themselves from the underlying ectocyst. They may then again
attach themselves, and this new attachment does not always take
place in exactly the same place as the former one. Any movement of
the muscles of the sole, or of the retractor muscles, will thus shift the
skin to a new place.[559]
Protrusion of the Polypide.—While it is perfectly clear that
retraction is principally performed by the great retractor muscles
acting directly on the polypide, it is less easy to explain the converse
movement. There can, however, be little doubt that protrusion is
effected by the pressure of the fluid of the body-cavity, caused in
large part by contractions of the common body-wall.

Now since, in Cristatella, the body-cavity is a continuous space, any


pressure on the fluid must act uniformly on all its contents. The
cause which determines the protrusion of a polypide is thus to a
large extent the relaxation of the sphincter-muscle which surrounds
its orifice, aided by special muscles which dilate the orifice. Any
polypide which is retracted while the pressure of the fluid in the
body-cavity is sufficient to keep other polypides protruded, must
therefore keep either its retractor-muscles or its sphincter in a state
of contraction in order to remain in that position. And as a matter of
fact, Cristatella and Lophopus differ from most other Polyzoa in the
readiness with which they expand their tentacles, after they have
been induced to retract themselves by mechanical irritation.

Plumatella and other forms have a chitinous ectocyst, which,


however, is sticky when it is first formed. By virtue of this property,
the branches become attached to the leaf on which the colony is
growing, and may have their natural transparency obscured by
taking up foreign bodies. The stiffness of the ectocyst naturally
involves some modification of the process by which the polypides
are protruded. In some cases, this is effected by the separation of
the endocyst from the ectocyst in the lower parts of the tube. The
muscles of the body-wall can thus press on the fluid of the body-
cavity without being restrained by the inflexible ectocyst. In other
cases, the tube of ectocyst is rendered flexible by the presence of a
thin line along one side where the chitin is deficient.
Fig. 249.—Plumatella repens L., R. Yare, × 30. a, Anus; b, polypide-
bud; c, caecum of stomach; d, duplicature; e, epistome (see p.
476); f, funiculus; g, ganglion; m, retractor muscle; p, parieto-
vaginal muscles; ph, pharynx; s, statoblasts attached to f.

The upper end of the retracted tentacle-sheath is connected with the


body-wall by bands known as the parieto-vaginal muscles (Fig. 249,
p). These serve not only to dilate the orifice when protrusion is
commencing, but also to prevent the polypide from being forced out
too far. They are arranged in such a way that a circular fold, the
duplicature (d), is never turned inside out, even in the state of
complete protrusion of the polypide.

The mechanism of the protrusion of the polypide in the


Gymnolaemata is in many cases obscure. The body-wall is not
muscular in this group, in some forms of which, however, short
strands known as the parietal muscles (Fig. 234, p) pass across the
body-cavity from one point to another of the zooecium. As doubts
have been thrown on the function of these muscles in causing
protrusion, it will be worth while to refer to the detailed and
convincing statements of Farre,[560] relating to this point.
Farre's observations were made on certain transparent Ctenostomes
(Bowerbankia and Farrella). He states that the parietal muscles
"were distinctly seen to contract whenever the protrusion of the
animal took place, and to become relaxed again upon its retiring into
its cell." Their contraction may indent the outline of the ectocyst, or
may cause the separation of the endocyst from the ectocyst. The
endocyst is then drawn into longitudinal lines at the origin and
insertion of these fibres. It is further suggested that some part is
played in the process by the muscular walls of the alimentary canal,
which is a good deal bent in the retracted condition. The effort to
straighten itself is believed to have some share in forcing out the
polypide. The flexible, membranous character of the "aperture" (see
p. 524) in Membranipora (Fig. 256, A) is said by Nitsche[561] to be an
arrangement for the protrusion of the polypides; the parietal muscles
passing from the lateral walls of the zooecium to the upper
membranous wall, which is accordingly depressed by their
contraction.

Although it is hardly possible to doubt the accuracy of Farre's


observations, which have, moreover, been confirmed by Hincks, it is
by no means certain that this is the whole explanation in all cases.
Oka,[562] for instance, states that protrusion of the polypide in
Phylactolaemata can be effected in a branch whose body-wall has
been cut open. Pergens[563] believes that the diaphragm (Fig. 234,
d) acts as a pump, introducing water from the tentacle-sheath into
the body-cavity, into which it is said by him to open, and so forcing
out the polypide. It is probable that many of the forms which have a
stiff, unyielding ectocyst possess special arrangements for
introducing water in some way into the space bounded by the
ectocyst,[564] and so forcing out the polypide. Such, for instance,
may be the median pore which occurs beneath the orifice in
Microporella (Fig. 241, A, mp), and in certain other cases.

Reproduction of Phylactolaemata.—Sexual reproduction takes


place in Cristatella from June to August. The spermatozoa are
ordinarily produced on the funiculus. The ovaries usually occur on
the inner side of the common wall of the colony, not far below the
orifice of a polypide. Each ovary matures a single egg, which
develops in situ, the free larva leaving the colony by the orifice of
one of the degenerated polypides.

A second method of reproduction takes place by means of the


statoblasts, which are developed on the funiculus (Fig. 249).
According to Verworn,[565] each statoblast arises from a single cell of
the funiculus; and on this view, the statoblast is, as supposed by the
earlier observers, a special kind of winter-egg. According to more
recent researches,[566] the funiculus consists of a central axis,
formed from the ectoderm, and of an outer sheath of mesoderm-
cells; the statoblast is developed from the two kinds of cells of which
the funiculus is composed, and is consequently comparable in its
mode of origin to an ordinary bud. Its special peculiarities are: its
origin as an internal bud, its possession of a chitinous shell, and the
fact that it is destined to leave the parent colony, and to develop,
after a period of rest, into a new colony. Germination takes place by
the formation of a polypide-bud inside the statoblast, which finally
splits along its equator into two halves. The contents emerge as a
young colony which possesses at least one fully-formed polypide.

Remarkable structures known as "hibernacula" occur in the fresh-


water Ctenostomes, Paludicella and Victorella. These bodies are in
the former (Fig. 250, B) specially modified external buds, which
persist through the winter when the rest of the colony dies down. At
the close of winter the shell splits into two halves, exactly as takes
place in the statoblasts, and a young colony emerges. It is possible
that the statoblasts may have been evolved from a hibernaculum,
which was at first produced externally, but has become modified in
such a way as to acquire an internal mode of origin.[567]

The simplest known statoblast is that of Fredericella (Fig. 251, A),


which differs from that of other Phylactolaemata in having no ring of
air-cells. In Plumatella, the statoblast (Fig. 251, B) has a broad
equatorial ring of air-cells, which enable it to float at the surface of
the water on the decay of the parent tubes. In some species, certain
statoblasts which are produced in the adherent parts of the colony
remain attached to the substratum. These "sessile statoblasts" may
have no trace of the ring of air-cells; but the fact that many sessile
statoblasts have rudiments of this structure suggests that they are a
secondary modification of the floating statoblast. In Lophopus (Fig.
251, C) the ring of air-cells is very broad, and is pointed at each end;
while in Cristatella (Fig. 251, D) and in Pectinatella the statoblast is
circular, and possesses an armature of hooked spines. That of
Cristatella, measures about .75 mm. in its greatest length.
Fig. 250.—Paludicella ehrenbergi van Beneden, × about 3. A, Part of a
colony with expanded polypides; B, remains of part of a colony
which has produced hibernacula or winter-buds (h); z, zooecium.
(From Kraepelin.)

Kraepelin has suggested that the above order of increasing


complexity of the statoblasts corresponds with the order in which the
genera to which they respectively belong would be placed, on the
assumption that the Phylactolaemata have been derived from the
Ctenostomata. Thus, in Fredericella, the form of the lophophore is
circular, as in the Gymnolaemata. The number of the tentacles is
comparatively small (20-24). The arborescent form of the colony
resembles that of many Ctenostomes, and the zooecia are more or
less cut off from one another by incomplete septa.

In Plumatella, the lophophore has become horse-shoe-shaped, and


the tentacles are more numerous (38-60). In general form and in the
arrangement of the septa this genus resembles Fredericella, with
which it may easily be confused.

In Cristatella we have the most highly modified of all the


Phylactolaemata. The individuality of the zooecium is here
subordinated to that of the colony as a whole. The branched
arrangement of the zooecia is greatly obscured. The body-cavities
have become completely confluent, although rudiments of the septa
still exist. The ectocyst has been lost, with the exception of the basal
layer of the colony. The tentacles are more numerous (80-90); and in
accordance with the increase in the elaboration of the genus, its
statoblasts belong to the most complicated type known.
Fig. 251.—Statoblasts of Phylactolaemata. A, Fredericella sultana
Blum., × 38; B, Plumatella repens L., × 38; C, Lophopus
crystallinus Pall., × 28; D, Cristatella mucedo Cuv., × 28. (A, from
Allman; B-D, from Kraepelin.)

The production of floating statoblasts may seem a strange


adaptation to the conditions of fresh-water life, since it might be
assumed, a priori, that these structures would be specially liable to
be frozen during the winter. The following experiments made by
Braem[568] show, however, that the germinating power of the
statoblasts is improved by a certain amount of frost. A number of
statoblasts were taken; half of these were placed in water, which was
then frozen; and these were found to germinate readily when
afterwards exposed to suitable conditions. The other half were not
subjected to the action of frost; and these could not be made to
germinate, even although the water had been cooled to a point
slightly above the freezing point. It thus appears that the buoyancy,
so far from being a risk, is a means of exposing the statoblast to the
conditions which are most favourable to its later development.

Braem supposes that the beneficial action of frost is due to a


lowering of the vital energy of the statoblast. As in the case of
reproductive bodies known in many other fresh-water organisms, the
statoblast germinates only after a period of rest. Although this period
is often shortened by a lowering of the temperature, it can also be
induced by the exclusion of air, as in an experiment during which the
statoblasts were enclosed in airtight tubes. The respiratory
processes were thereby lessened, and the germinating power was
materially improved.
Since the development of the statoblasts depends largely on the
temperature, the first warm weather in early spring will probably
induce the germination of those which are floating; and the young
colony, leaving the protection of the statoblast, will become
susceptible to frost. But even if the first-formed colonies are killed off
by a subsequent frost, other statoblasts which have remained in the
mud during the winter are disentangled from time to time, and
germinate on reaching the surface.

Distribution.—The protective value of the shell is also shown by the


fact that the statoblast may be kept for some months in a dry
condition without losing its power of germination. There can be little
doubt that the capability of withstanding desiccation enables the
species to enlarge its area of distribution. It is asserted that fresh-
water Polyzoa decrease in abundance in proportion to the distance
from the mouth of the river in which they are found. The current will
naturally tend to bring together the statoblasts from the Polyzoa
growing in the upper waters.

Nothing is more surprising than the wide geographical distribution of


the Phylactolaemata. The European genera are all recorded from
North America. Fredericella, Plumatella, and Lophopus are further
recorded from Australia; while Plumatella is known to occur also in
Malacca, the Philippine Islands, India, Japan, Africa, and South
America, It is even stated that some of the Australian species are
identical with those found in Europe.

Some of the fresh-water Polyzoa are extremely variable, and


observers are by no means agreed in deciding whether certain well-
known forms are to be regarded as varieties or as species. While
certain genera, such as Cristatella and Lophopus, are comparatively
constant in their form, Plumatella is excessively variable. Plumatella
has a number of species greater than that of any other form, and the
genus has a wider distribution than any other. This greater variation
of species of the dominant genus is in complete accordance with the
general law enunciated by Darwin that "wide-ranging, much diffused,
and common species vary most."

While the ordinary forms of Plumatella consist of branching colonies,


which are either completely adherent to their substratum, or grow in
a more or less erect manner, another habit which is assumed by this
genus is so different from the first that it has been considered to
mark a distinct genus, Alcyonella. The Alcyonelloid form (Fig. 246, A)
consists of closely packed tubes which stand more or less at right
angles to their substratum, which they may cover with a dense mass
an inch thick, and with a superficial area of several square inches.
But in spite of this difference, it is possible that A. fungosa is only a
variety of an ordinary Plumatella form. Whether this is so or not, a
typical Plumatella may in places take on an Alcyonelloid habit; and
parts of an Alcyonella may become so lax in growth as to resemble a
Plumatella.

The British genera of fresh-water Polyzoa may be distinguished from


one another by means of the following table:—

1. Zooecia perfectly distinct from one another. Lophophore


circular. Statoblasts absent
2
Colony formed of branching tubes composed of confluent
zooecia
3
Colony gelatinous, not obviously formed of branching tubes.
Lophophore horse-shoe shaped
4

2. Colony consisting of a stolon from which new zooecia


originate. These may give rise to new stolons, or directly to
new zooecia
Victorella
Branches composed entirely of club-shaped zooecia, each of
which may give off two zooecia near its upper end
Paludicella (Fig. 250)

3. Tubes hyaline or opaque, usually containing numerous oval


statoblasts (Fig. 251, B), most of which have a ring of air-
cells. Lophophore horse-shoe shaped.
(a) Tubes divergent Plumatella (Fig. 246, B)
(b) Tubes parallel with one another
Alcyonella form of Plumatella (Fig. 246, A)
Tubes cylindrical, usually dark brown. Statoblasts
(Fig. 251, A) few, without air-cells. Lophophore circular
Fredericella

4. Colony hyaline, usually divided into three or four short lobes.


Ectocyst thick. Statoblasts (Fig. 251, C) pointed at each end,
with a broad ring of air-cells
Lophopus (Fig. 248)
Colony slug-shaped, crawling on a flattened sole. Ectocyst
rudimentary. Statoblasts (Fig. 251, D) circular, with marginal
hooks
Cristatella (Fig. 247)
Colonies consisting of small rosettes, many of which are
attached to a thick basal layer of hyaline ectocyst.
Statoblasts circular, with marginal hooks. (Not recorded as
British)
Pectinatella

Reproductive Processes of Polyzoa in general.

In studying the reproductive processes of Polyzoa, we have to deal


with two very distinct phenomena; firstly, with the development of
eggs; and secondly, with the formation of buds.

The process of budding usually does no more than increase the


number of individuals in a colony which already exists, and is seldom
responsible for the commencement of a new colony. In Loxosoma,
however, the buds break off and lead an independent existence; and
in the Phylactolaemata a large proportion of the colonies have their
origin in the statoblasts. In certain cases, again, new colonies may
be formed by the detachment of parts of an old one, as by the fission
of Cristatella and Lophopus, or by the breaking up of a richly-
branched species into several colonies by the decay of the proximal
parts.

We may then in the majority of cases look to an embryo for the


foundation of a new colony. The embryo develops into a larva,
which, after a period in which it swims freely, settles down, and is
metamorphosed into the first zooecium. This primary individual forms
the starting-point of a colony, and often differs to a considerable
extent from the other zooecia which arise from it. In Cyclostomata,
for instance, the proximal end of the primary zooecium permanently
retains the disc-like shape assumed by the young larva when it first
fixed itself. The primary zooecium may be recognised with equal
ease in many Cheilostomata, and may differ from its successors by
possessing a richer development of marginal spines, or in other
respects.

Reproductive Organs.—Eggs and spermatozoa are commonly


found in the same colony, either in different individuals, or else in the
same zooecium (see Fig. 234, p. 469). In some cases, the zooecium
first develops spermatozoa, and later eggs. The Entoprocta have a
more marked separation of the sexes than obtains in other Polyzoa.
The genus Loxosoma is perhaps always dioecious (i.e. with separate
sexes). Pedicellina is sometimes found with ovaries and testes in the
same individual, sometimes with these organs in different
individuals; and it is not clear whether a given species always
behaves alike in these respects.

The reproductive organs of the Entoprocta open by ducts of their


own into the vestibule. In the Ectoprocta they are developed in the
body-cavity, and they have no ducts.
The fate of the ripe egg differs widely in different cases. In the
Entoprocta it develops in a kind of brood-pouch formed from part of
the vestibule. The fact that in Pedicellina (Fig. 243) the embryos
grow largely during their development, shows that nutritive material
must be supplied to them from the parent. There is reason to believe
that the epithelium of the brood-pouch is responsible for this
process. The eggs are also known to develop at the expense of
nutritive substances prepared by the parent in the ovicells of the
Cyclostomata. In other cases, as in some species of Alcyonidium,
the egg is large, and its copious yolk doubtless supplies a large part
of the material required for development.

In the Ectoprocta, development takes place in a variety of places. In


most Cheilostomata a single egg passes into the globular ovicell,
which is formed above the orifice of many of the zooecia. In certain
Ctenostomata,[569] Phylactolaemata,[570] and Cyclostomata,[571] the
ripe egg is taken up by a rudimentary polypide-bud, which is
specially formed for the purpose. In the Ctenostomata and in the
fresh-water Polyzoa these buds, if present, are found in ordinary
zooecia which do not become modified externally in any special way.
In the Cyclostomata (Crisia), on the contrary, the formation of the
polypide-bud is intimately bound up with the development of the
ovicell. The number of the zooecia which produce eggs that are
capable of development is greatly restricted in this group. The
ovicell, which contains numerous embryos, is not merely a portion of
a zooecium, as in the Cheilostomata; but it is probably to be
regarded as a modification of the entire fertile zooecium or zooecia.
These take on an appearance widely differing from that of the
ordinary zooecia, and in course of time give rise to the ovicells (see
Fig. 237).

In all these cases the egg develops inside the parent, and it was
hardly known, before the publication of the interesting researches of
M. Prouho,[572] that some of the Polyzoa lay eggs which develop
externally. In these cases a considerable number of eggs are
produced simultaneously by a single zooecium. M. Prouho further

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