Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Textbook Fire Protection Detection Notification and Suppression Second Edition Robert C Till Ebook All Chapter PDF
Textbook Fire Protection Detection Notification and Suppression Second Edition Robert C Till Ebook All Chapter PDF
https://textbookfull.com/product/biota-grow-2c-gather-2c-cook-
loucas/
https://textbookfull.com/product/nfpa-1-fire-code-2021-edition-
national-fire-protection-association/
https://textbookfull.com/product/nfpa-820-standard-for-fire-
protection-in-wastewater-treatment-and-collection-
facilities-2016-2016th-edition-national-fire-protection-
association/
https://textbookfull.com/product/sfpe-guide-to-human-behavior-in-
fire-society-of-fire-protection-engineers/
NFPA 1912 Standard for Fire Apparatus Refurbishing 2016
National Fire Protection Association
https://textbookfull.com/product/nfpa-1912-standard-for-fire-
apparatus-refurbishing-2016-national-fire-protection-association/
https://textbookfull.com/product/nfpa-1037-standard-on-fire-
marshal-professional-quali-cations-2016-2016th-edition-national-
fire-protection-association/
https://textbookfull.com/product/methods-and-techniques-for-fire-
detection-signal-image-and-video-processing-perspectives-1st-
edition-cetin/
https://textbookfull.com/product/standpipe-systems-for-fire-
protection-1st-edition-kenneth-e-isman-auth/
Robert C. Till
J. Walter Coon
Fire
Protection
Detection, Notification, and Suppression
Second Edition
Fire Protection
Robert C. Till • J. Walter Coon
Fire Protection
Detection, Notification, and
Suppression
Second Edition
Robert C. Till J. Walter Coon
John Jay College of Criminal Justice Overland Park
New York, NY, USA Kansas, USA
This Springer imprint is published by the registered company Springer International Publishing
AG part of Springer Nature.
The registered company address is: Gewerbestrasse 11, 6330 Cham, Switzerland
For My Parents
Preface
This book is designed to educate third and fourth year fire science stu-
dents, graduate students in protection management, mechanical engineers,
architects, estimators, fire service personnel, and designers in the “nuts and
bolts” of fire protection system selection, design, and equipment.
This cohort requires knowledge of the pros and the cons of what is being
proposed and how systems should be compared to one another. It also gives
non-fire engineering practitioners a sense of proportion when they are put in
a position to select a consultant, and to give a sense of what the consultant
may be doing and how a system is being matched to the hazard.
To match fire systems to hazards requires that one understands how detec-
tion and suppression systems work, what the hazards of the occupancy or
process being protected are and understand what the ultimate goals are. Goals
may include life protection, property protection, historic occupancy protec-
tion, etc. These areas of exploration will help one to decide what system to
choose for the occupancy, and the codes and standards that need to be applied.
Automatic systems are simply systems that do not require human interven-
tion. An automatic sprinkler system will apply water to a fire without human
intervention provided that there are no elements within the system that will
cause it to fail.
The title of the first edition of this book, published in 1991 was Fire
Protection – Design Criteria, Options, Selection. The book was and still is
designed to provide a basic foundation for fire suppression, detection, and
alarm systems.
Over the last 27 years some technology has changed dramatically. For
example, the rise of the internet has changed the way devices speak to each
other in a fire alarm system. Global warming and climate change have
changed the way that gases are employed to suppress fire. The jurisdictional
individuals, agencies, and standards involved in the field have also changed
radically, with three major building codes integrated into the International
Building Code first published in 1997. Finally, knowledge of possible fire
department intervention and the time that it might require are being
integrated.
vii
viii Preface
All systems mentioned are governed by NFPA codes and standards which
are available to the general public at no cost at: https://www.nfpa.org/Codes-
and-Standards/All-Codes-and-Standards/Free-access.
FM Global data sheets are available at: http://www.fmglobal.com/
research-and-resources/fm-global-data-sheets. Finally, while direct access to
the current IBC is still an expense, access to the New York City Building
Code, based on the 2014 version of the International Building Code (but with
many modifications), is available at no cost at: https://www1.nyc.gov/site/
buildings/codes/2014-construction-codes.page#bldgs. It is an excellent
resource for educational purposes.
There are three simple steps to putting out a fire – fire detection, location,
suppression.
The book is divided such that each of these is covered by their own parts.
The reader first must become aware of what fire is and how it grows. This
stage is covered in Unwanted Fire and Fire Growth. Building inhabitants and
the fire service both need to be notified so they can act accordingly. This stage
is covered in Notification.
A major advance from the bucket brigade is the implementation of pumps
and pipes to get water to the fire. This is included in fire pumps and water
supplies. Finally, the suppression stage in general (including the fire service)
is covered in Fire Suppression Systems. Fire suppression systems usually
perform the act of both notification and suppression simultaneously, except in
the case of manual suppression, where the fire department must act to deliver
water to the fire.
A Word on Units
Time has been called the yardstick of fire control. The larger the fire is, gener-
ally the more heat and smoke are delivered in a given period of time. It is
ironic that for most cases, heat release rates are given in metric units, so it
might be more appropriate to say the time is the “meter-stick” of fire
control.
Thus, the first chapter and in other chapters presenting information on heat
release, equations are in English and metric units, while the later chapters
will present them in imperial units, as is the custom for hardware here in the
USA.
First and foremost, I would like to thank my coauthor J. Walter Coon, PE,
who I never had the chance to meet but certainly had the opportunity to learn
a great deal from. I truly appreciate the permission of his children to continue
the work.
I would like to thank Robert Fitzgerald, my good friend and PhD advisor
at WPI. I never get to complain to Fitzy about how difficult writing can be,
since he has always been writing something for as long as I have known him.
Without his inspiration this effort would not have been completed.
I would also like to thank Doug Nadeau, Chris Marrion, Fred Hart, and
Tom Derienzo for contributing photographs and for their general encourage-
ment. I would also like to thank Tom and Robbie Snelham for all the coffee.
Finally, I would like to thank Paul Drougas and Caroline Flanagan at
Springer for all their help in putting this together. My apologies to anyone I
have missed.
ix
Contents
xi
xii Contents
Miscellaneous������������������������������������������������������������������������������ 59
Water Supplies �������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 59
Tank Selection������������������������������������������������������������������������������ 59
Concrete Reservoir���������������������������������������������������������������������� 60
Embankment Fabric Reservoir���������������������������������������������������� 61
Tank Heating�������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 61
Tank Water Level ������������������������������������������������������������������������ 61
Summary������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������ 61
6 Underground Fire Mains�������������������������������������������������������������� 63
Underground Fire Mains������������������������������������������������������������������ 63
Underground Pipe Selection������������������������������������������������������������ 63
Cast Iron Pipe������������������������������������������������������������������������������ 63
Ductile Iron Pipe�������������������������������������������������������������������������� 64
Specifics for Cast Iron and Ductile Pipe�������������������������������������� 64
Friction Loss: The “C” Factor������������������������������������������������������ 64
Other Types of Underground Piping�������������������������������������������� 65
Polyvinyl Chloride Plastic Pipe (PVC)���������������������������������������� 65
Fiberglass-Reinforced Plastic Pipe���������������������������������������������� 65
Asbestos Cement Pipe������������������������������������������������������������������ 65
Steel Pipe ������������������������������������������������������������������������������������ 66
Underground Pipe Bury �������������������������������������������������������������� 66
Rodding and Thrust Blocks �������������������������������������������������������� 66
Other Considerations ������������������������������������������������������������������ 67
Hydrants�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 67
Flushing and Testing�������������������������������������������������������������������� 67
7 Equipment and Devices ���������������������������������������������������������������� 69
Equipment and Devices ������������������������������������������������������������������ 69
Control Valves������������������������������������������������������������������������������ 69
The Outside Screw and Yoke ������������������������������������������������������ 69
The Post Indicator Valve (PIV)���������������������������������������������������� 69
Important Considerations When Using the PIV�������������������������� 71
Butterfly Valve ���������������������������������������������������������������������������� 71
Pit OS&Y and Post Indicator������������������������������������������������������ 72
Check Valves�������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 72
Detector Check Valves and Full Flow Fire Meters���������������������� 72
Key Valve ������������������������������������������������������������������������������������ 73
Full Flow Fire Meters������������������������������������������������������������������ 73
Backflow Preventers�������������������������������������������������������������������� 73
8 Firefighter Intervention: Manual Fire Suppression ������������������ 75
The Fire Service: Introduction �������������������������������������������������������� 75
Established Burning to Arrival���������������������������������������������������� 75
Arrival and Size Up���������������������������������������������������������������������� 76
Manual Suppression Coordinated Operations �������������������������������� 78
Locating the Fire�������������������������������������������������������������������������� 78
Establish a Continuous Water Supply���������������������������������������������� 78
Standpipes: Minimizing Set Up Time���������������������������������������������� 78
Contents xv
Fig. 1.1 Fire Timeline. (Courtesy of the Home Fire Sprinkler Coalition)
burning, and it is known that in most fires fatali- Notification of the Fire Department
ties are due to smoke, not heat. Post flashover
fires are known to produce smoke on the order of Notification of the presence of fire, particularly
lb/s (kg/s). the fire department may be non-trivial. In the case
When a fire is ventilation controlled, the air of a protected premise fire alarm system, there
entering the compartment through whatever may be a local fire alarm, but the fire department
openings are provided will limit all combustion may not be notified until someone alerts them. In
occurring inside the compartment. At the same the era of the cell phone this can be simpler than
time, there will be combustion outside the com- it was in the past, but it is often assumed by the
partment of pyrolized fuel that was hot enough to public that if a fire alarm system is in alarm, the
burn inside the compartment, but that did not fire department has been notified.
come in contact with any oxygen until it left the Report of the fire, dispatch and the fire
compartment though a vent. This is why “tongues response itself – will likely occur in similar time
of flame” emerge from windows and doors after periods to the Fig. 1.1 graphic. For these cases
flashover has occurred. It should be noted that and others, without sprinklers or some other
these flames will also roll across the ceilings of automatic fire suppression system fire growth is
adjacent rooms inside the structure and will likely unconstricted.
result in a multi-room fire. The level of sophistication of the fire alarm
So it has been established that a pre-flashover system may be such that finding the fire once the
compartment is quite a different environment fire department has arrived is a trivial task, but in
from a post-flashover compartment (Table 1.2). some cases where no detection or limited detec-
Once FRI has occurred, unburned hot gasses tion is present, or the sophisticated fire alarm sys-
will move out of the room of origin and have the tem is experiencing some sort of fault, the fire
potential to spread from any openings to sur- may also need to be located by the fire
rounding rooms. It is much more difficult for a department.
fire the department to extinguish a fire once it has
moved beyond the room of origin. Fixed suppres-
sion systems can prevent this from happening, Influence of Fire on Humans
and therefore may prevent the destruction of an
entire structure. Fire is hazardous to humans for a number of rea-
sons, some obvious and some less so. The more
obvious hazards to humans are the physical burns
Notification of Occupants that can happen to people exposed to fire. Less
obvious are the exposure to narcotic gasses, irri-
In this case, one hopes that if the occupants are tant gasses, and the limitations on visibility that
sleeping, they will wake up upon activation of a can influence safe egress. The narcotic gasses
smoke alarm and leave the premise. This isn’t include Carbon Monoxide, Carbon Dioxide as well
always the case however, and a portion of occu- as Hydrogen Cyanide. These gases are responsi-
pants perish even in the presence of a working ble for the majority of fire fatalities. All can cause
smoke alarm. death at different concentrations. The early
Modeling Fire: Empirically and Numerically 5
detection of these gases can activate alarms or bles are not referred to as a dry chemical, but
suppression systems that can both warn occu- as dry powders.
pants of danger and suppress a fire to make it less Class K – Class K fires are fires in cooking oils
dangerous to occupants. and greases such as animal fats and vegetable
fats.
compartment fire. An order of magnitude can be noted on the graph. Examples of how this can be
noted by comparing an equation for the maxi- done are located in the next section.
mum heat release rate for a compartment with a
single opening (Hurley et al. 2015)
· Diagnostic Room Fires
Q ( Btu / s ) = 68.1A H ( English )
Actual specified fires are generally not part of
·
Q ( kW ) = 1400 A H traditional building codes. A specified fire (a
( Metric )
diagnostic or design fire) is usually introduced
Different configurations may produce differ- in “performance-based designs”. A method for
ent results, but this is the result for a single open- performance- based design is outlined in the
ing. It can easily be seen that the maximum HRR Society of Fire Protection Engineers “SFPE
in a post-flashover compartment can be on the Guide to Performance-Based Fire
order of double the HRR at flashover. Protection”(SFPE 2007). A formal introduction
of these building design methods will not be
adopted in this book; however, the concept of
ire and Time: Fire Growth
F design fire is important.
for a Single Fuel Package Multiple design fires may be introduced in order
to address the full range of potential issues that
It is important to understand how to quantify the could arise. Choosing a relatively large “diagnostic
time it takes for the fire to pass through the phases fire” to simulate what the firefighters will encoun-
listed above to achieve flashover or FRI. This is ter has some advantages. A larger fire should pro-
because the time for detector activation, particu- duce less visibility, more heat, more smoke, more
larly heat detector activation, as used standalone fatigue, and increased the rate of structural fire
or as the detector in a sprinkler head is a function attack. These characteristics will make all the
of the growth rate of the fire (Table 1.3). buildings’ architectural obstacles more difficult
The time for a single fuel package to move than they would be in a smaller fire.
through to flashover is generally quantified math- In addition, if the resources to suppress a large
ematically as an alpha t2 fire. This is for a single fire are brought to bear in an adequate time, those
fuel package such as a chair or couch. Each value same resources should be able to suppress a small
of alpha corresponds to a different fire growth fire in the same rooms of a similar building. This
rate. These rates are given the simple names slow, is similar to the concept used in structural build-
medium, and fast. Applications of these and their ing codes for floor loading. If large loads can be
relationship to detector activation is discussed handled, the smaller ones can be effectively
more in the fire alarm section, and the corre- ignored. In short, a building design that is ade-
sponding alphas are shown in Table 1.3. quate for large fires should be more than adequate
These types of fires can be “mixed and for smaller ones.
matched” with the number of fuel packages ignit- Potential disadvantages in the choice of large
ing in the course of the move toward flashover. design fires are: Worst case conditions may not
Figure 1.2, shows a fire heat release timeline be very useful for determining fire department
for 5 min. These types of fire growth curves are intervention, as in using this methodology, there
easily reproduced on spreadsheets and can be
used to determine the approximate time to flash- Table 1.3 Alpha and Heat Release Rate
over. For example, if the Babrauskas flash over Rate Alpha (kW/s2)
equation determines that a room will flash over Slow 0.002931
when the HRR reaches 2500 kW, a fast fire would Medium 0.01127
flash the room over in a little under 4 min, as Fast 0.04689
Fire and Time: Fire Growth for a Single Fuel Package 7
3,750
HRR (kW)
2,500
1,250
0
10 30 50 70 90 110 130 150 170 190 210 230 250 270 290
Time (Seconds)
may theoretically be no building left standing must also be developed. It is important that infor-
when the fire department arrives. If an unreason- mation about smoke and heat in the burning com-
ably large fire is chosen for the given scenario, partments and their neighbors is available so the
the effects of smoke, heat, visibility and potential influence of these factors on firefighter move-
for structural collapse will be overestimated, and ment can be established.
the potential of fire department intervention may For some occupancies such as office build-
be grossly underestimated. This can result in the ings, there is a large amount of generalized infor-
recommendation of a costly redesign of a pro- mation available about ventilation and fire
posed structure when none is necessary. loading. Information about the building is vital to
Large design fires have the potential to make the development and integration of the overall
detection and location a simple matter when model. Fire models such as the zone model
under real conditions this is often not the case. It CFAST can be used to develop generalized
is very important to address detection and fire design fires for individual compartment types.
location separately. The output from these programs includes infor-
mation on time to compartment flashover and
smoke movement information outside the room
ffice Building Design Fires:
O of origin.
Examples Information about different room types is pro-
vided in the work of Culver and Milke (Culver
NFPA 72 (The Alarm Code) lists many fuel pack- 1976). These studies give sizes ventilation areas
age fires in its Annex, including heat release rates and fire loadings for different office building
for furniture and other fuel packages. They are room configurations. These room types are mod-
very useful in determining the potential response eled based on their contents and content layout. If
of sprinklers and other fire detection devices. these categories can be effectively modeled, then
However, the fires described here incorporate fire any fire in an office building will be quantified.
in the room of origin but can spread outside the We will be choosing the more hazardous room
room of origin as well. layouts, as this is the most significant to firefight-
Fires must be developed for the associated ers, and measuring time for firefighter accessibil-
office building compartments for the type of ity. Design layouts are included for these rooms.
building layout that is being studied. An associated Sizes for traditional offices can be divided
model for the spread of fire to other compartments many different ways. Figure 1.3 shows the areas
8 1 Unwanted Fire and Fire Growth
Fig. 1.3 Left to right – small, medium, large and open office spaces
used for the design offices. This table also shows The time to full room involvement is one of the
the vent areas that will be used in the d evelopment most common calculations performed by fire pro-
of medium and slow fires. The vent area for fast tection engineers using computer models such as
fires is taken to be the size of an open door. CFAST. There are a number of definitions of FRI
For the purposes of demonstration, a set of including the point where upper layer gas temper-
theoretical design fires was developed for office atures reach 500–600 °C., or a radiative heat flux
compartments. In order to construct such a design at the floor level of 20 W/m2. Zone models describe
fire, it is necessary to obtain heat release rates for the boundary between the hot upper layer and a
particular fire packages. This is done so that to cooler lower layer and most account for variations
flashover for individual rooms, and fire spread in room ventilation (Table 1.4).
throughout buildings, can be modeled. It can be seen that the flashover times for these
In developing design fires, we are particularly rooms are on the order of minutes, similar to the
concerned with time from established burning to time shown in Fig. 1.1.
flashover. Established burning is defined as the
point where the dominant heat transfer mode
shifts from convection to radiation. Radiation Open Office Plans and Spreadover
feedback is assumed to occur when flames reach
a height of approximately 10 inches. After this A number of important conclusions were drawn
point, the fire grows much faster. about fires in open office spaces in Harold Nelson’s
Fire and Time: Fire Growth for a Single Fuel Package 9
review of the First Interstate Bank Fire of 1988 involved is important if persons may have to
(Nelson 1989). These conclusions include: take refuge in the building during the fire.
5. Floor to floor propagation is a potentially
1. The recognition that open arrangements in serious problem in window wall buildings.
office settings can develop to flashover. There The knowledge of flame extension from win-
is a demonstrable fire potential associated dows, particularly where petroleum based
with open office arrangements that contain polymers are involved is insufficient. A bet-
concentrated grouping of combustible work ter understanding of the relationships
areas. Where such concentrations occur in between burning rates and flame lengths is
spaces involving large floor areas and rela- needed.
tively low ceilings, there is usually sufficient 6. In this fire the duration of burning on a floor
combustion air within the space to allow a and the rate of fire propagation from floor to
developing fire to reach flashover conditions. floor were close to each other. A longer dura-
This even if no additional air is introduced tion fire or a faster floor to floor spread could
into the space. The traditional light hazard result in an unstoppable fire. Longer duration
expectations associated often associated with condition would be expected where a higher
offices do not apply in these cases. total fuel load existed such as commonly
2. High space utilization office landscape have occur with merchandising displays or exten-
the potential, even without the assistance of sive use of combustible interior finishes.
flashover, of spreading fire over large areas
producing fires of major portions. Data is available on workstation heat release
3. There is an important relationship between the rates from a paper by Madrzykowski (1996).
release of fuel from a burning array as the Using data he developed design fires were con-
result of heat impinging on it and the avail- structed for workstations with 2, 3 and 4 panels
ability of oxygen (air.) These relate to effi- respectively. Understanding that “cube farms” can
ciency of combustion. Efficiency of consist of vast areas of open office plan, it is obvi-
combustion is in turn a major determinant of ous that fire may “spread over” to other cubes
the ability to burn, room layer temperature, very rapidly, and could quickly ignite an entire
carbon monoxide production, oxygen content, floor, or even multiple floors with extension out-
fuel transport and flame length. side the building, as it did during the First
4. It must be expected that fire products will be Interstate Bank and One Meridian Plaza fires. The
spread by natural forces to remote portions of importance of sprinkler protection becomes par-
the building given sufficient time. The degree of ticularly important, as these fires can grow very
problem ensuing will be a function of the effi- rapidly over the evenly spaced, large fuel pack-
ciency of combustion of the fire, the tightness of ages that open office plans provide (Table 1.5).
the shafts and other communicating passages, It can be seen that open office plans can
the presence or absence of smoke control sys- behave similarly to compartments due to their
tems, the height of the building, and the weather large heat release rates. Spreadover across these
conditions at the time. Analysis of the potential items can result in very large fires that move
Table 1.5 Ceiling heights, number of workstation panels, and time to flashover
Type Ceiling height Fire Time to flashover
Slow fire 9′ 2 panel 570 s
Medium fire 8′ 3 panel 460 s
Fast fire 8′ 4 panel 290 s
10 1 Unwanted Fire and Fire Growth
through these open areas rapidly. Automatic sup- they are sleeping or medically impaired), and
pression in the form of sprinklers is one of the destroying property that might otherwise have
few ways of consistently dealing with the prob- been saved.
lems that these fires represent. Note that while this Figure demonstrates
response for a residential occupancy, it is demon-
strated that flashover can occur in the same order
Suppression of the Fire of magnitude (2–5 min or so) for other occupan-
cies as well. Fire department setup can change
For the purpose of discussing the fire protection dramatically based on many factors ranging from
management of buildings in 2018, there are still location of the water supply relative, the weather,
essentially two kinds of buildings, sprinklered the location of the fire and interior conditions.
and unsprinklered, and this is also described by Automatic suppression in the early stages of fire
Fig. 1.1. may be the only way of saving a structure and the
In sprinklered buildings, detection, location lives within it.
and suppression/control are handled by the sprin-
kler system. A modern functioning wet pipe sys-
tem will control or extinguish a fire before a room References
flashes over. In unsprinklered buildings this is not
the case, and the fire department and building Babrauskas, V. “Estimating Room Flashover Potential.”
Fire Technology 16.2 (1980): 94–103.
occupants can be confronted with a far different Culver, C. Survey Results for Fire Loads and Live Loads
scenario where smoke and heat are being dis- in Office Buildings. Vol. (NBS Building Science Series
charged in copious amounts by the time the fire Number 85) National Bureau of Standards, 1976.
department arrives, and a much of the building Fitzgerald, Robert W., and Brian J. Meacham. Fire
Performance Analysis for Buildings. Wiley, 2017.
may be just starting to evacuate. Hurley, Morgan J., Daniel T. Gottuk et al. SFPE Handbook
of Fire Protection Engineering. Springer, 2015.
Madrzykowski, D. “Office Work Station Heat Release
Summary Rate Study: Full Scale Vs. Bench Scale.” Interflam ‘96,
7th International Interflam Conference Proceedings.
Cambridge, England 1996.
Figure Fig. 1.1 explains an extremely important Nelson, Harold E. “An Engineering View of the Fire of
concept that this book will repeat – automatic May 4, 1988 in the First Interstate Bank Building, Los
systems can stop fire spread outside of the room Angeles, California.” NISTIR 89–4061 (1989)
Quintiere, James G. Principles of Fire Behavior, Second
of origin immediately and prevent toxic smoke Edition. 2nd ed., New York: Taylor and Francis,
from moving around a premise and impairing or 2017.
killing occupants who may or may not be aware SFPE. SFPE Engineering Guide to Performance-Based Fire
that the fire is even occurring (for example, if Protection. National Fire Protection Association, 2007.
Automatic Sprinkler Heads
2
History of the Sprinkler: 1864 during this period that Henry S. Parmelee
invented and developed the forerunner of what
In an attempt to overcome the problems caused we know today as the automatic sprinkler head.
by the clogging of holes drilled directly into the The Parmelee Number 3, was an upright sprin-
perforated piping system, and to afford better kler first used in 1875. It consisted of a perforated
water distribution, the next step in the develop- water distributor completely enclosed in a brass
ment of automatic fire suppression systems was cap which was held in place by solder. When the
the installation of crude, open sprinklers con- solder softened from the heat of fire, the cap was
nected to the piping. These open sprinklers were forced off by the water pressure, and the water
metal bulbs with numerous perforations, which discharged on the fire area.
resulted in a spray pattern. Unfortunately, these Parmelee developed this first automatic sprin-
perforations were also conducive to severe clog- kler system to protect his New Haven, Connecticut
ging, which not only prevented water discharge, piano factory, and by so doing demonstrated the
but also disrupted the discharge pattern the head first practical automatic fire protection system.
was supposed to develop. That same year, Parmelee designed a new model,
further improving it in 1878 (Fig. 2.1). In the fol-
lowing years, many improvements resulted in a
Fusible Element Sprinkler Head mass-produced supply.
A pair of ciliated excretory tubes open into the vestibule. These are
similar in structure to the "head-kidneys" of the larvae of Polychaet
worms, or to the excretory organs of adult Rotifers. Flame-cells have
been described by Davenport in the stalk of Urnatella, but it is not
known whether they are connected with the excretory tubes of the
calyx. The animals are either hermaphrodite or have separate sexes,
and the generative organs open by ducts of their own into the
vestibule. The nervous system consists of a ganglion placed
between the mouth and the anus, giving off a set of nerves, many of
which end in delicate tactile hairs placed on the tentacles or other
parts of the body.[544]
CHAPTER XVIII
POLYZOA (continued)
FRESH-WATER POLYZOA—PHYLACTOLAEMATA—OCCURRENCE—
STRUCTURE OF CRISTATELLA—DIVISION OF COLONY—MOVEMENTS OF
COLONY—RETRACTION AND PROTRUSION OF POLYPIDES IN POLYZOA—
STATOBLASTS—TABLE FOR DETERMINATION OF GENERA OF FRESH-
WATER POLYZOA—REPRODUCTIVE PROCESSES OF POLYZOA—
DEVELOPMENT—AFFINITIES—METAMORPHOSIS—BUDDING.
The tentacles are about eighty to ninety in number, and they are, as
in other Phylactolaemata, united at their bases by a delicate web.
The lophophore is horse-shoe-shaped (Fig. 236, 3) throughout the
group, with the exception of Fredericella, in which genus it is circular.
Fig. 248 shows a colony shortly after division has taken place. The
colony had moved forwards, in a direction away from its apex, for
three days in a nearly straight line, the distances moved in each day
being respectively 6, 8½, 8½ mm. These observations, for which I
am indebted to Mr. Lister, show a considerably higher speed than in
those recorded by Trembley, who observed no colony which moved
more than half an inch (12.5 mm.) in eight days.
In all these cases the egg develops inside the parent, and it was
hardly known, before the publication of the interesting researches of
M. Prouho,[572] that some of the Polyzoa lay eggs which develop
externally. In these cases a considerable number of eggs are
produced simultaneously by a single zooecium. M. Prouho further