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Guangtao Zhai
Jun Zhou
Xiaokang Yang (Eds.)

Communications in Computer and Information Science 815

Digital TV
and Wireless Multimedia
Communication
14th International Forum, IFTC 2017
Shanghai, China, November 8–9, 2017
Revised Selected Papers

123
Communications
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Digital TV
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Revised Selected Papers

123
Editors
Guangtao Zhai Xiaokang Yang
Shanghai Jiao Tong University Jiao Tong University
Shanghai Shanghai
China China
Jun Zhou
Shanghai Jiao Tong University
Shanghai
China

ISSN 1865-0929 ISSN 1865-0937 (electronic)

Communications in Computer and Information Science
ISBN 978-981-10-8107-1 ISBN 978-981-10-8108-8 (eBook)
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 Preface

The present book includes extended and revised versions of papers selected from the
14th International Forum of Digital TV and Wireless Multimedia Communication
(IFTC 2017), held in Shanghai, China, during November 8–9, 2017.
IFTC is a summit forum in the field of digital TV and multimedia communication.
The 2017 forum was co-hosted by SIGA, the China International Industry Fair 2017
(CIIF 2017), and co-sponsored by Shanghai Jiao Tong University (SJTU) and the
IEEE BTS Chapter of Shanghai Section. The 14th IFTC served as an international
bridge for the exchange of the latest research advances in digital TV and wireless
communication around the world as well as the relevant policies of industry authorities.
The forum also aims to promote technology, equipment, and applications in the field of
digital TV and multimedia by comparing the characteristics, frameworks, significant
techniques and their maturity, and by analyzing the performance of various applications
in terms of scalability, manageability, and portability and discussing the interfaces
among various networks and platforms.
The conference program included invited talks delivered by six distinguished
speakers from China, Switzerland, and Hong Kong SAR, as well as oral sessions of 11
papers and a poster session of 35 papers. The topics of these papers range from
audio/image processing to image and video compression as well as telecommunica-
tions. This book contains 46 papers selected from IFTC 2017. We would like to thank
the authors for contributing their novel ideas and visions that are recorded in this book.

November 2017 Guangtao Zhai

Jun Zhou
Xiaokang Yang
 Organization

General Co-chairs
Xiaokang Yang Shanghai Jiao Tong University, China
Ping An Shanghai University, China
Guangtao Zhai Shanghai Jiao Tong University, China

Program Chairs
Jun Zhou Shanghai Jiao Tong University, China
Jia Wang Shanghai Jiao Tong University, China
Jiantao Zhou University of Macau, SAR China
Liquan Shen Shanghai University, China

International Liaisons
Weisi Lin Nanyang Technological University, Singapore
Patrick Le Callet Nantes University, France
Byeungwoo Jeon Sungkyunkwan University, South Korea
Lu Zhang INSA de Rennes, France

Finance Chairs
Yi Xu Shanghai Jiao Tong University, China
Lianghui Ding Shanghai Jiao Tong University, China

Publications Chairs
Yue Lu ECNU, China
Qiudong Sun Shanghai Second Polytechnic University, China

Award Chairs
Changwen Chen SUY Buffalo, USA
Wenjun Zhang Shanghai Jiao Tong University, China

Publicity Chairs
Xiangyang Xue Fudan University, China
Dingxiang Lin Shanghai Institute of Visual Art, China
VIII Organization

Industrial Program Chairs

Yiyi Lu China Telecom Shanghai Branch, China
Yongjun Fei Giant Interactive Group Inc., China
Guozhong Wang Shanghai University, China

Arrangements Chairs
Cheng Zhi SIGA, China
(Secretary-General)
Xiao Wei Shanghai Jiao Tong University, China
 Contents

Image Processing

Text Extraction from Mail Images with Complex Background . . . . . . . . . . . 3

Qingqing Wang, Xiao Tu, Shujing Lu, and Yue Lu

A Quantitative Analysis System of Pulmonary Nodules CT Image for Lung

Cancer Risk Classification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
Vanbang Le, Yu Zhu, Dawei Yang, Bingbing Zheng, and Xiaodong Ren

A Fast Fabric Image Matching and Retrieval Algorithm Based

on Locality-Sensitive Hashing and Visual Word . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
Xueqin Zhang, Yuanyuan Liu, and Yifan Wei

Research on Surface Color Difference of Solar Cells Based

on Support Vector Machine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
Jing Zhang and Tangyou Liu

Video Background Modeling Algorithm of Low Complexity

Based on the Minimum Second Derivative . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
Anlun Zhang, Guowei Teng, Guozhong Wang, and Haiwu Zhao

Human Pose Estimation via Deep Part Detection. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55

Xiangyang Wang, Jiacheng Hu, Yusu Jin, Zhi Liu, Xiaoqiang Zhu,
Qiuyu Zhu, and Haiwu Zhao

Polarization Based Invisible Barcode Display . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67

Qi Chen and Yuanchun Chen

Security Thread Detection in Passport Using Improved

Template Matching . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78
Lei Wang, Menghan Hu, Duo Li, Zhaohui Che,
and Xiaoliang Zhang

Joint Denoising and Enhancement for Low-Light Images

via Retinex Model. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91
Mading Li, Jiaying Liu, Wenhan Yang, and Zongming Guo

Terahertz Security Image Quality Assessment by No-reference

Model Observers. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100
Menghan Hu, Xiongkuo Min, Wenhan Zhu, Yucheng Zhu, Zhaodi Wang,
Xiaokang Yang, and Guang Tian
X Contents

Spatial-Temporal Recurrent Residual Networks for Video

Super-Resolution. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115
Wenhan Yang, Jiaying Liu, and Zongming Guo

Depth Image Denoising via Collaborative Graph Fourier Transform . . . . . . . 128

Rong Chen, Xianming Liu, Deming Zhai, and Debin Zhao

How to Efficiently Identify Real and Pseudo 4K Video Contents?. . . . . . . . . 138

Maoshen Liu, Junfei Qiao, Li Wu, and Huiqing Zhang

Design of Embedded Intelligent Video Processing Device

Based on TMS320DM368 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147
Lixin Shi, Yang Li, Bin Fu, Mengxiang Zhang, and Jianling Hu

Machine Learning

Reverberation Level Recognition by Formants Based on 10-Fold

Cross Validation of GMM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 161
Sai Ma, Haiyan Li, Hui Zhang, and Xi Xie

Pedestrian Detection Using ACF Based Fast R-CNN . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 172

Lixue Zhuang, Yi Xu, and Bingbing Ni

Deep Face Recognition Using Adaptively-Weighted Verification

Loss Function. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 182
Fan Qiu, Weiyao Lin, Xin Liu, Haoyang Yu, and Hongkai Xiong

Exudate Detection in Fundus Images via Convolutional Neural Network . . . . 193

Guo Li, Shibao Zheng, and Xinzhe Li

The Statistic Modeling of Eye Movement Viewing S3D Images . . . . . . . . . . 203

Chi Zhang, Jun Zhou, and Shoucheng Zhu

Weld Defect Images Classification with VGG16-Based Neural Network . . . . 215

Bin Liu, Xiaoyun Zhang, Zhiyong Gao, and Li Chen

Hardware Implementation and Optimization of Tiny-YOLO Network . . . . . . 224

Jing Ma, Li Chen, and Zhiyong Gao

Offline Handwritten Chinese Character Recognition Based on New

Training Methodology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 235
Weike Luo and Guangtao Zhai

Video Saliency Detection by 3D Convolutional Neural Networks . . . . . . . . . 245

Guanqun Ding and Yuming Fang

Bit-Depth Enhancement via Convolutional Neural Network . . . . . . . . . . . . . 255

Jing Liu, Wanning Sun, and Yutao Liu
 Contents XI

Quality Assessment

Subjective Evaluation of Light Field Images for Quality

Assessment Database . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 267
Liang Shan, Ping An, Deyang Liu, and Ran Ma

Selection of Good Display Mode for Terahertz Security Image

via Image Quality Assessment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 277
Zhaodi Wang, Menghan Hu, Wenhan Zhu, Xiaokang Yang,
and Guang Tian

Fast Noisy Image Quality Assessment Based on Free-Energy Principle . . . . . 290

Yadan Zhao, Yutao Liu, Feng Jiang, Xianming Liu, and Debin Zhao

No-Reference Quality Index for View Synthesis Based on Multi-scale

Texture Naturalness. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 300
Yu Zhou, Leida Li, Xiaoping Yuan, and Jiansheng Qian

Compression-Based Quality Predictor of 3D-Synthesized Views . . . . . . . . . . 310

Sanyi Li, Junfei Qiao, Maoshen Liu, and Li Wu

Social Media

Research on Sparse Problem of Personalized Recommendation System . . . . . 323

Maocai Dong, Yuan Zhang, and Jinyao Yan

Cold-Start Group Profiling with a Clustering-Coupled Topic Model . . . . . . . 334

Zhijian Jiang, Yanfeng Wang, Weiyuan Chen, Xie Wang, Ya Zhang,
Jianping Mei, and Zhuowei Huang

Predicting Relative Popularity via an End-to-End Multi-modality Model . . . . 343

Hongxiang Cai, Ya Zhang, Yanfeng Wang, Xie Wang, Jianping Mei,
and Zhuowei Huang

Telecommunications

Low Latency MPEG-DASH System Over HTTP 2.0 and WebSocket . . . . . . 357
Xiaona Wu, Cheng Zhao, Rong Xie, and Li Song

Performance Enhancement of NAND Flash Using Unequal

Error Protection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 368
Dawei Lu, Yiling Xu, Hao Chen, Zhiqian Jiang, Wenjun Zhang,
and Ning Liu

A Perceptual Optimization Approach to Adaptive HTTP Streaming . . . . . . . . 381

Huaying Xue, Yuan Zhang, Jinyao Yan, and Dejun Cai
XII Contents

Dynamic Multi-tree Switching for Multimedia Multicast

in an OpenFlow-Based Fat-Tree Network. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 392
Liyue Zhu, Yongyi Ran, Long Sun, and Han Hu

Video Surveillance

Current Situation and Research on Consumer Video Surveillance

Standards at Home and Abroad. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 409
Yi Cheng, Weicheng Guo, and Tao Du

Bidirectional Markov Chain Monte Carlo Particle Filter for Articulated

Human Motion Tracking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 418
Anan Yu, Chuanzhen Li, Long Ye, Jingling Wang, and Qin Zhang

An Adaptive Multi-scale Tracking Method Based on Kernelized

Correlation Filter. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 429
Qiling Xu and Hua Yang

Virtual Reality

Rhombic Mapping Scheme for Panoramic Video Encoding . . . . . . . . . . . . . 443

Chengjia Wu, Haiwu Zhao, and Xiwu Shang

Research of the Ear Reconstruction Based on the Poisson Image Blending . . . 454
Yang Li, Qiangqing Zhang, Bicheng Wang, Xiang Li, and Jianling Hu

An Efficient 3-D Mapping Algorithm for RGB-D SLAM. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 466

Jiadong Yu, Zhixiang You, Ping An, and Jie Xia

Indoor Localization System for Individuals with Visual Impairment. . . . . . . . 478

Yi Zeng, Duo Li, and Guangtao Zhai

Construction of an Indoor Topological Map of a Robot Based on Prunable

Self-Organizing Map . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 492
Cheng Li, Xiao-gang Ruan, Ke Gu, and Xiao-qing Zhu

Computer Vision

Nest Detection Using Coarse-to-Fine Searching Strategy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 503

Nianwang Wan, Zhenyu Duan, Yongdong Hua, Qingbin Wang,
and Weihai Li
 Contents XIII

Image Compression

A Deep Learning Based Perceptual Bit Allocation Scheme

on Conversational Videos for HEVC k-Domain Rate Control . . . . . . . . . . . . 515
Lisha Zhu, Guozhong Wang, Guowei Teng, Zhenglong Yang,
and Liliang Zhang

Author Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 525

Image Processing
 Text Extraction from Mail Images
with Complex Background

Qingqing Wang1(B) , Xiao Tu2 , Shujing Lu2 , and Yue Lu1,2

1
Department of Computer Science and Technology, East China Normal University,
Shanghai 200062, China
qqwang0723@163.com, ylu@cs.ecnu.edu.cn
2
ECNU-SRI Joint Lab for Pattern Analysis and Intelligent,
Shanghai Research Institute of China Post Group, Shanghai 200062, China

Abstract. A novel method is proposed for text extraction from mail

images with complex background. Firstly, wavelet transform and Lapla-
cian operator are applied to generate the features of regions which are
obtained by dividing input image with sliding window. Then, support
vector machine (SVM) is utilized to classify these regions into texts and
non-texts according to the features. Bootstrap strategy is used to build
the training database. Finally, connected components analysis (CCA)
is employed to merge text regions into text candidates which can be
processed by following steps to get the delivery address. Experimental
results involving 534 mail images show the effectiveness and robustness
of the proposed method, and comparison results with other methods
demonstrate the advantages of the selected features.

Keywords: Text extraction · Mail images · Wavelet transform · SVM

1 Introduction
Text extraction is of great importance in the community of pattern recogni-
tion. It has been studied for decades and continues to be attractive because
of its applications in broad fields, such as content-based image analysis, image
retrieval, text detection in video frames and scene images and so on. Several
approaches have been well developed, including CCA-based methods [20], edge-
based methods [9,19], texture-based methods [13], and learning-based methods
[8,16]. Particularly, text detection in scene images has attracted intensive atten-
tions in recent years [2,6,7,11,17]. Among these methods, the Maximally Stable
Extremal Region (MSER) based ones [4,10,12,18] achieved the best performance
before 2015, but afterwards, the deep learning based ones [1,3,5] play a dominate
role in these field. However, these methods are not suitable for mail images. The
existing methods usually detect all of the text in images, but in mail images,
only a certain kind of texts is the target. For example, the extraction of forward-
ing address in mail images is the first step of automatic address recognition,
which is significantly important for the automation of post system. Besides, the
c Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2018
G. Zhai et al. (Eds.): IFTC 2017, CCIS 815, pp. 3–11, 2018.
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-10-8108-8_1
4 Q. Wang et al.

MSER and deep learning based methods don’t work well in mail images due to
the resolution and blur problems. Other challenges of text extraction in mail
images are presented as follows: (1) the image resources include many kinds of
mail images such as envelope mails, flat mails, and parcel mails etc. and the
data is rare; (2) some of them have backgrounds like magazine or book covers
and plastic bags with printed patterns. Text extraction is greatly interfered by
these complicated backgrounds; (3) texts in background need to be pruned as
many as possible; (4) an effective method must be robust for size, alignment,
skew, font and hand-writing text because forwarding addresses in mail images
are some kind of arbitrary. Directed by these requirements, a novel method is
proposed for text extraction from mail images with complex background.

2 Proposed Method

We propose a wavelet transform and SVM based method in this paper to extract
text from mail images. Firstly, the 2D wavelet transform is utilized to extract
features from pathes of the input images. Then SVM classifier is used to classify
them into text or non-text. Finally, the connected component analysis is per-
formed to locate target text areas. The flowchart of proposed method is shown
in Fig. 1.

2.1 Feature Extraction

Firstly, a series of regions are obtained by dividing input mail image with a sliding
window of size 50 by 50. Then 2D wavelet transform is executed on each region
respectively. As a result, one low-frequency sub band S closed to the original
image and three high-frequency sub bands HH (diagonal), HL (vertical), and
LH (horizontal) are obtained as shown in Fig. 2. Next, HE is calculated as the
enhanced high-frequency sub band as:

HEij = α HL2ij + LHij 2 + HH 2
ij (1)

where α ≥ 1 is the enhancement coefficient, and we set it to 1.1 in this work.

Laplacian operator is used to detect edge points in HE and the filter is as shown
in equation ⎡ ⎤
0 1 0
∇ = ⎣1 −4 1⎦ (2)
0 1 0
Let t denote the computational result which corresponds to the gradient amplitude
of pixel (i, j). If t > T is satisfied, the pixel is regarded as an edge point. Here T
is a threshold and t is defined as

t = |4 ∗ f (i, j) − f (i − 1, j) − f (i + 1, j) − f (i, j + 1) − f (i, j − 1)| (3)

Text Extraction from Mail Images with Complex Background 5

Fig. 1. Flowchart of the proposed method

Fig. 2. Result of wavelet transform

6 Q. Wang et al.

The following features are extracted from S:

– min(s(i, j)). The minimum pixel of a text region should be in an apposite

range;
– max(s(i, j)) − min(s(i, j)). This feature indicates that the contrast between
text
and background is in a certain range;
– N1 s(i, j). This feature demonstrates the energy of current region.

In high-frequency sub band, HE is divided into four equal parts and the num-
ber of edge points of each part is evaluated respectively. Resultantly, another four
features are obtained. Totally, seven features are picked up for region classification.

2.2 Classification with SVM

The SVM classifier is used in our work. As we all know, SVM is statistics-based
and in the theory of structural risk minimization and has been proved to be
effective in text classification, especially in small sample database case. In order
to build a comprehensive and tractable database of text and non-text patterns,
the strategy of bootstrap proposed by Sung and Poggio [14] is used. We firstly
select some positive and negative samples according a rate of about 5:1 from the

Fig. 3. Flowchart of the bootstrap strategy

 Text Extraction from Mail Images with Complex Background 7

training set. These samples are used to train a primal SVM classifier, which is
then used to classify the rest of training samples. Next, the misclassified samples
are picked out and used to train the primal SVM classifier. This procedure is
repeated until the classification accuracy become steady. The procedure is shown
in Fig. 3. At first the training set is composed of 342 positive samples and 63
negative samples, which achieve a classification accuracy of 72%. And finally
881 positive samples and 1401 negative samples are included in the training
set, and the accuracy is elevated to 81%. The Radial Basis Function (RBF)
kernel is used for SVM since it achieves the best performance when comparing
to other kernel functions. Some important parameters such as c, which is used to
trade off misclassification of training examples against simplicity of the decision
surface, and γ, which can be seen as the inverse of the radius of influence of
samples selected as support vectors, are chosen by the well-known ten-fold cross-
validation, as shown in Fig. 4. The classification result of SVM is shown in Fig. 5.

Fig. 4. Ten-fold cross-validation for parameter selecting

2.3 Connected Component Analysis (CCA)

The run-based CCA method [15] is used to merge connected text regions. In
this method, only one-pass scan is needed to find all the runs and represent
their relationships with trees. The input images are scanned from up to bottom,
8 Q. Wang et al.

Fig. 5. Classification result of SVM

Fig. 6. Connected runs. (a)1-1 connected (b)1-n connected (c)n-1 connected

 Text Extraction from Mail Images with Complex Background 9

Fig. 7. Extraction results

and there are three connection types for runs between two adjacent lines, which
is described in Fig. 6. Finally, each tree corresponds to a connected
 component.
If connected components A and B satisfy A ∩ B = ∅ & A B < T , where
T is a threshold, they will be grouped together, and the final extraction results
are shown in Fig. 7.

3 Experiments
The following conditions are defined for an accurately extracted mail image:

– All the texts belonging to address are located;

– Rectangles containing address texts are restrain the address texts exactly;
– One address text should belong to only one rectangle.
10 Q. Wang et al.

And the extraction rate is defined as

number of accurately extracted images
ER = (4)
total number of tested images
Experiments are conducted on five kinds of mail images to evaluate the per-
formance of the proposed method, including white envelopes with stickers
(addresses are written or printed on the stickers), white envelopes without
stickers (addresses are directly written or printed on the the envelope), yellow
envelopes with stickers, flat mails and packages. In this mail images, backgrounds
of the flat mails and packages are the most complex, which is shown in the last
row of Fig. 6.
The extraction results are listed in Table 1. As we can see, our method is
capable of extracting address texts from mail images with complex background.
Furthermore, the proposed method is robust to size, alignment, skew, font and
hand-writing texts. We also compare the proposed wavelet-Laplacian based fea-
ture with Sobel, Robert, Laplacian and Canny in Table 2. As is shown, our
wavelet-Laplacian method gives a extraction rate of 84%, which is higher than
those given by other resolutions. The result may be caused by the fact that
wavelet-Laplacian gives more details for text and less details for non-text, while
other resolutions give fine details for both text and non-text.

Table 1. Recognition accuracies (%) on the cropped datasets

Type of mail images (amount) Accurately ER (extraction rate)

extracted images
White envelope with sticker (91) 87 95.60%
White envelope without sticker (50) 41 82%
Yellow envelope with sticker (71) 69 97.18%
Flat mails (290) 238 82.07%
Packages (32) 31 96.87%
Total (534) 466 87.27%

Table 2. Performance comparison of methods for edge points extraction

Proposed method Robert Laplacian Sobel Canny

ER 84% 78% 78% 77% 4%

4 Conclusions
A new approach combining the advantages of wavelet, SVM and CCA is proposed
to extract text from mail images with complex background. Gray level informa-
tion and edge information are extracted from the low and high frequency sub
bands of wavelet, respectively. Then, SVM and CCA are used to predict text
location in the mail images. Experimental results on five kinds of mail images
demonstrate the effectiveness and robustness of the proposed method.
 Text Extraction from Mail Images with Complex Background 11

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 A Quantitative Analysis System of Pulmonary Nodules
CT Image for Lung Cancer Risk Classification

Vanbang Le1, Yu Zhu1 ✉ , Dawei Yang2, Bingbing Zheng1, and Xiaodong Ren1
( )

1
School of Information Science and Engineering,
East China University of Science and Technology, Shanghai, China
lebang2018@gmail.com, zhuyu@ecust.edu.cn, 1130072360@qq.com,
13248255186@163.com
2
Department of Pulmonary Medicine, Shanghai Respiratory Research Institute,
ZhongShan Hospital, Fudan University, Shanghai, China
yang_dw@hotmail.com

Abstract. To improve the classification performance for lung nodule, we

proposed a lung nodule CT image feature extraction method. The approach
designed multi-directional distribution features to represent nodules in different
risk stages effectively. First, the reference map is constructed using integral
image, and then K-Means approach is performed to clustering the reference map
and calculate its label map. The density distribution map of lung nodule image
was generated after calculate the gray scale density distribution level for each
pixel. An exponential function was designed to weighting the angular histogram
for each components of the distribution map. Then, quantitative measurement
was performed by Random Forest classifier. The evaluation dataset is the lung
CT database which provided by Shanghai Zhongshan Hospital (ZSDB), the
nodule risk categories were AAH, AIS, MIA, and IA. In the result the AUCs are
0.9771, 0.9917, 0.9590, 0.9971, and accuracy are 0.7478, 0.9167, 0.7450, 0.9567
for AAH, AIS, MIA and IA respectively. The experiments show that the proposed
method performs well and is effective to improve the classification performance
of pulmonary nodules.

Keywords: Lung CT image · Gray scale density distribution · Angular histogram

Exponential weighting · Nodule classification

1 Introduction

CT (Computerized Tomography) imaging can significantly improve the clinical diag‐

nosis rate of lung cancer patients [1]. Improving the level of early diagnosis and iden‐
tification of small lung adenocarcinoma has been always an important topic for imaging
studies. In the field of clinical medicine, ground-glass opacity (GGO) grows to ground-
glass nodule (GGN) and appears as a tiny cloudy region in the CT image [2]. By meas‐
uring the tiny region of GGN at a high resolution, the area can be divided into three
types: pure GGN (pGGN), mixed GGN (mGGN) or so-called part-solid nodule (PSN)

© Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2018

G. Zhai et al. (Eds.): IFTC 2017, CCIS 815, pp. 12–24, 2018.
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-10-8108-8_2
 A Quantitative Analysis System of Pulmonary Nodules CT Image 13

and solid nodule (SN). When the pGGN showed a clear edge density, translucent, non-
solid nodules at the opposite edge are less clear than the part-solid nodule with regard
to the low-energy region [3].
The quantitative methods are mainly used a combination of image features and
classifiers for the classification and recognition of lung nodules. There are several
features, namely 2D shape-based, 3D shape based [4], context feature [5], density distri‐
bution feature [6]; the common classifiers are ANN [7], CNN [8], deep learning [9].
Lee et al. [10] performed a quantitative analysis of preoperative CT imaging metrics
to distinguish invasive adenocarcinoma from AIS, MIA, and proved that 75th percentile
CT attenuation value and entropy feature as independent predictors, and with a ROC
curve of 0.780. Most of the previous work did not consider the prediction as Atypical
Adenomatous Hyperplasia (AAH) with other categories for lung adenocarcinomas. For
the diversity and complexity of GGNs, more effective and quantitative CT image feature
expressions are essential for the prediction of lung nodules histopathological diagnosis.
Maldonado et al. [6] proposed the CT value density distribution calculation
method, firstly, collecting the image block set (block sizes as 9 × 9) from nodule CT
images, then using Affinity propagation clustering approach to classified the corre‐
lation matrix of image block set. After that, scanning the testing nodule image, calcu‐
lating the density level for pixels and exporting the feature vector were implemented
respectively. Finally, through analysis the components of feature vector, the differ‐
ence categories of pulmonary nodules was recognized. Foley et al. [11] also used CT
density distribution features to characterize the nodule image for 264 and 294 cases
of Mayo Clinic cohort and National lung screening trial study, respectively. The cate‐
gories of dataset are AIS, MIA, and IA. The results shown Sensitivity of 95.4% (95%
CI: 75.1%–99.7%) and specificity of 96.8% (95% CI: 82%–99.8%), and a sensitivity
of 98.7% (95% CI: 91.8%–99.9%) and specificity of 63.6% (95% CI: 31.6%–87.6%)
in the training and independent validation set.
In 2011, the International Association for the Study of Lung Cancer (IASLC), the
American Thoracic Society (ATS) and the European Respiratory Society (ERS)
proposed a new international multidisciplinary classification system for lung adenocar‐
cinoma [4]. According to the classification criteria, we organized a structured Chinese
lung CT dataset provided by Shanghai ZhongShan Hospital (ZSDB) in this paper. There
are 595 PET/CT sets in ZSDB dataset with the pathological definition. These nodules
(4 mm < diameter < 32 mm) are divided into four categories: Atypical Adenomatous
Hyperplasia (AAH); Adenocarcinoma In Situ (AIS); Minimally Invasive Adenocarci‐
noma (MIA); and Invasive Adenocarcinoma (IA), while the degree of risk of these
classes is increasing. Early classification of lung adenocarcinomas from AAH to IA will
have great significance for clinical auxiliary diagnosis and have great significance in
improving the 5-year survival rate.
To optimize the lung adenocarcinoma classification effect and improve the clin‐
ical significance, this article proposes an effective lung CT image density distribu‐
tion features. First, we conducted lesion segmentation based on unsupervised clus‐
tering for ZSDB database. Then, we proposed a nodule image feature of weighted
gray scale angular density distribution. The remainder of this paper is organized as
follows: In Sect. 2, we introduce the materials preparation briefly. In Sect. 3, we
14 V. Le et al.

formulate the proposed framework of weighted gray scale angular density distribu‐
tion feature extraction, which includes unsupervised feature representation and
pattern recognition models. In Sect. 4, we present the experimental results according
with the process in Sect. 3 and show the analysis of the results. Section 5 concludes
the paper.

2 The Lung CT Dataset Provided by Shanghai ZhongShan

Hospital (ZSDB)

In ZSDB database contains four categories as AAH, AIS, MIA and IA nodule classes,
the sample number per class are 92, 157, 158, and 188 samples, respectively. The dataset
was collected from radiology data of 350 patients. All nodules have been pathologically
defined by four clinical experts in Shanghai Zhongshan Hospital. These nodules
(4 mm < major length diameter < 32 mm) are divided into four categories: AAH, IAS,
MIA, and IA. In ZSDB, the edges for each lung nodule was marked by clinician of
Shanghai Zhongshan hospital and saved as XML files. The imaging parameters of ZSDB
are the following: Electric parameters as 500 mA, 120 kV, the size of the image as
512 × 512; Type: PET/CTQSZLXX; Protocol: 10.1 CT CHEST; Pixel Spacing:
0.703125 mm; Slice Thickness: 0.625 mm. In ZSDB, the database informations are
shown in Table 1.

Table 1. The information of ZSDB

Classes Sample Ages (Years, Y) Gender (Male, F; Gray scale (HU) Diameter (mm)
number Female, F)
AAH 092 63.5 ± 8.5 F:M = 25%:75% −810.95 to −6.24 4.12 to 13.93
AIS 157 57 ± 21 F:M = 67%:33% −869.56 to −453.33 4.82 to 20.88
MIA 158 56 ± 22 F:M = 77%:23% −845.01 to 33.61 4.05 to 30.75
IA 188 58 ± 27 F:M = 51%:49% −450.63 to 18.87 5.57 to 31.67

3 Methods

The frame work of the proposed method was shown in Fig. 1.

 A Quantitative Analysis System of Pulmonary Nodules CT Image 15

Reference map

K-Means Clustering
K=10

Label map

Nodule Density
images distribution map

Angular
histogram

Exponential
Weighting

Weighted gray scale

angular density
distribution feature

Nodule
classification

Fig. 1. The frame work of the proposed method

3.1 Lung Nodule Image Feature Extraction

3.1.1 Reference Map Construction and Labeling
We proposed an image gray scale density distribution calculation method based on
reference map. The Reference map was defined by an integration image, with sizes of
(w, h) and its value ranged from −824 to 176 (HU). The value range was set up by
manually. There are consulted the opinion of radiologist. The minimal and maximal
could be the value of the ranged for lung nodule image. In which the value of upper left
point is stand for the lowest value (−824 HU), and the maximum value (176 HU) was
located at the lower right point. After that, K-Means (K = 10) method was performed
the clustering process for the reference map. Figure 2 shows the visualization of refer‐
ence map, the histogram image, and the label map.
16 V. Le et al.

-824

-772 -706

-554
-663

-471 -381

-172
-282
-41
176

A B C

Fig. 2. Reference map and label map. (A) Reference map; (B) The histogram of reference map.
The horizontal and vertical are the gray scale levels and the corresponding density distribution in
reference map. This curve appears the exponential distribution. (C) The categories resulted from
clustering process and its HU value range. The colors of Lime Green, Dark Green, Cyan, Dodger
Blue, Navy, Yellow, Peru, Red, Magenta and Purple described the difference classes from 1 to
10, respectively. (Color figure online)

3.1.2 The Gray Scale Density Distribution Map of Lung Nodule Image
We used the reference map and the label map to calculate the density distribution level
for pixels of nodule image. For each testing pixel in nodule image, we selected neigh‐
bourhood as a testing image block, and then find the matching area in the reference map.
The distance d(Block, Matched) from the testing window to the matching area is
minimum. The distance follows the equation:

d(Block, Matched) = min‖Block − Matched‖2 (1)

Where Block, Matched are the same sizes of matrices, which are testing image block
and matched region in reference map, respectively. The respond location in label map
of Matched area (the pixels location and the points of matched area have a one-to-one
correspondence) will be within a category region, or in cross-region of two categories,
which the labels are continuous value. Therefore, we calculated the round value of the
average value of the correspond region as the density distribution level of the testing
pixels.
The density distribution map of nodule image (D) is follows:

D(i, j) = {gi,j |i ∈ [0, w], j ∈ [0, h]} (2)

Where gi,j is the gray scale density distribution level of the non-zero pixel in nodule
image (zero pixels result as −1). These values described the difference solidly degree
of the pixels in lung nodule image.

3.1.3 Extraction the Gray Scale Angular Density Distribution Feature

Based on Exponential Weighting
In Sects. 3.1.1 and 3.1.2, we proposed a 10-level grey scale density distribution map to
describe nodule images. This type of feature map is insufficient to reflect the directional
 A Quantitative Analysis System of Pulmonary Nodules CT Image 17

distribution information for solid or partly solid elements in a lung nodule. However,
the elemental directional distribution of a nodule is also important to more effective
features. To solve this problem, we propose an angular density distribution feature based
on exponential weighting. The calculation steps are as follows:
Step 1: Calculate the centroid of the nodule image, then translate the location of the
pixels to the centre of the lung nodule image.
Step 2: Split the grey scale density distribution map D into a 10 sub-label map. Trans‐
form the location of the pixels in a sub-label map from plan coordinates to angular
coordinates.
Step 3: Extract the exponential-weighted grey scale angular density distribution
feature for the sub-label map;
Step 4: Sequence the components that are exported from the sub-label maps in Step
3 to generate the feature vector of the lung nodule image.

360
We defined the angle step as 𝜃 and the bin number as B = . The dimension of
the feature vector is 𝜃

360
dims = × K = B × 10 (3)
𝜃
Choosing the number of bins is also directly related to the nodule size. When the bin
spacing is too small, the number of pixels in the bins is rather small and will reduce the
distinction between the bins, so we chose minimum angle step to evaluate the proposed
method as 30.
( )
The local centre x, y of the nodule image is:
( ∑h ∑w )
x=1
x(Lx,y > 0) y=1
y(Lx,y > 0)
(̄x, ȳ ) = ∑ , ∑ (4)
(Lx,y > 0) (Lx,y > 0)

where L is label map, which the value ranged is from 1 to 10. The new centroid after
translation to the centre of the nodule image will be used as the original point to calculate
the density distribution for all bins.
We resolved D into 10 sub-label maps (S). An example for the transformation to the
angular coordinate system of the local (x, y) in the sub-label map k is shown in Fig. 3.
After translation of the image centroid (̄x, ȳ ), the local pixel (x, y) was transformed to
(r, 𝛼). In this example, the angle step is 𝜃 = 30o and bins = 12.
Another random document with
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people’s bad treatment of us, and that she must prevent her Traders
from killing us with their measles, and from telling us lies to make us
do bad conduct to Missi! If they come to us and talk as before, our
hearts are very dark and may again lead us to bad conduct to Missi.”
After this little parley, the Commodore invited us all on board,
along with the Chiefs. They saw about three hundred brave marines
ranked up on deck, and heard a great cannon discharged. For all
such efforts to impress them and open their eyes, I felt profoundly
grateful; but too clearly I knew and saw that only the grace of God
could lastingly change them!
They were soon back to their old arguments, and were heard
saying to one another, “If no punishment is inflicted on the
Erromangans for murdering the Missi there, we fear the bad conduct
of the Tannese will continue.”
No punishment was inflicted at Erromanga, and the Tannese were
soon as bold and wicked as ever. For instance, while the Man-of-war
lay in the Harbour, Nowar kept himself closely concealed; but no
sooner had she sailed than the cowardly fellow came out, laughing at
the others, and protesting that he was under no promise and was free
to act as he pleased! Yet in the hour of danger he generally proved to
be our friend; such was his vacillating character. Nor was Miaki very
seriously impressed. Mr. Mathieson shortly thereafter sent his boat
round to me, being again short of European food. On his crew
leaving her to deliver their message to me, some of Miaki’s men at
once jumped into the boat and started off round the island in search
of kava. I went to Miaki, to ask that the boat might be brought back
soon, but on seeing me he ran for his club and aimed to strike me. I
managed to seize it, and to hold on, pleading with God and talking
with Miaki, till by the interference of some friendly Natives his wrath
was assuaged a little. Returning home, I sent food overland to keep
them going till the boat returned, which she did in about eight days.
Thus light and shadow pursued each other, the light brightening for
a moment, but upon the whole the shadows deepening.
 CHAPTER X.
FAREWELL SCENES.

The War Fever.—Forced to the War Council.—A Truce among the

Chiefs.—Chiefs and People.—The Kiss of Judas.—The Death of
Ian.—The Quivering Knife.—A War of Revenge.—In the Thick
of the Battle.—Tender Mercies of the Wicked.—Escape for Life.
—The Loss of All.—Under the Tomahawk.—Jehovah is
Hearing.—The Host Turned Back.—The War against
Manuman.—Traps Laid.—House Broken Up.—War against our
Friends.—A Treacherous Murderer.—On the Chestnut Tree.—
Bargaining for Life.—Five Hours in a Canoe.—Kneeling on the
Sands.—Faimungo’s Farewell.—“Follow! Follow!”—A Race for
Life.—Ringed Round with Death.—Faint yet Pursuing.—Out of
the Lion’s Jaws.—Brothers in Distress.—Intervening Events.—
A Cannibal’s Taste.—Pillars of Cloud and of Fire.—Passing by
on the other Side.—Kapuku and the Idol Gods.—A Devil Chief.
—In Perils Oft.—Through Fire and Water.—“Sail O! Sail O!”—
Let Me Die.—In Perils on the Sea.—Tannese Visitors.—The
Devil Chief of Tanna.—Speckled and Spotted.—Their Desired
Haven.—“I am Left Alone.”—My Earthly All.—Eternal Hope.—
Australia to the Rescue.—For my Brethren’s Sake.—A New
Holy League.—The Uses of Adversity.—The Arm-Chair Critics
Again.—Concluding Note.—Prospectus of Part Second.

A time of great excitement amongst the Natives now prevailed. War,

war, nothing but war was spoken of! Preparations for war were being
made in all the villages far and near. Fear sat on every face, and
armed bands kept watching each other, as if uncertain where the war
was to begin or by whom. All work was suspended, and that war
spirit was let loose which rouses the worst passions of human nature.
Again we found ourselves the centre of conflict, one party set for
killing us or driving us away; the other wishing to retain us, while all
old bitter grievances were also dragged into their speeches.
Miaki and Nouka said, “If you will keep Missi and his Worship,
take him with you to your own land, for we will not have him to live
at the Harbour.”
Ian, the great Inland Chief, rose in wrath and said, “On whose land
does the Missi live, yours or ours? Who fight against the Worship
and all good, who are the thieves and murderers, who tell the lies,
you or we? We wish peace, but you will have war. We like Missi and
the Worship, but you hate them and say, ‘Take him to your own
land!’ It is our land on which he now lives; it is his own land which he
bought from you, but which our fathers sold Missi Turner long ago.
The land was not yours to sell; it was really ours. Your fathers stole it
from us long ago by war; but we would not have asked it back, had
you not asked us to take Missi away. Now we will defend him on it,
and he will teach us and our people in our own land!”
So meeting after meeting broke into fiery speech, and separated
with many threats.
To the next great meeting I was invited, but did not go, contenting
myself with a message pleading that they should live at peace and on
no account go to war with each other. But Ian himself came for me.
I said, “Ian, I have told you my whole heart. Go not to that
meeting. I will rather leave the island or die, than see you going to
war about me!”
He answered, “Missi, come with me, come now!”
I replied, “Ian, you are surely not taking me away to kill me? If you
are, my God will punish it.”
His only reply was, “Follow me, follow me quickly.”
I felt constrained to go.
He strode on before me till we reached the great village of his
ancestors. His followers, armed largely with muskets as well as
native weapons, filled one half the Village Square or dancing ground.
Miaki, Nouka, and their whole party sat in manifest terror upon the
other half. Marching into the centre, he stood with me by his side,
and proudly looking round, exclaimed,—
 “Missi, these are my men and your friends! We are met to defend
you and the Worship.” Then pointing across to the other side, he
cried aloud, “These are your enemies and ours! The enemies of the
Worship, the disturbers of the peace on Tanna! Missi, say the word,
and the muskets of my men will sweep all opposition away, and the
Worship will spread and we will all be strong for it on Tanna. We will
not shoot without your leave; but if you refuse they will kill you and
persecute us and our children, and banish Jehovah’s Worship from
our land.”
I said, “I love all of you alike. I am here to teach you how to turn
away from all wickedness, to worship and serve Jehovah, and to live
in peace. How can I approve of any person being killed for me or for
the Worship? My God would be angry at me and punish me, if I did!”
He replied, “Then, Missi, you will be murdered and the Worship
destroyed.”
I then stood forth in the middle before them all and cried, “You
may shoot or murder me, but I am your best friend. I am not afraid
to die. You will only send me the sooner to my Jehovah God, whom I
love and serve, and to my dear Saviour Jesus Christ, who died for me
and for you, and who sent me here to tell you all His love. If you will
only love and serve Him and give up your bad conduct, you will be
happy. But if you kill me, His messenger, rest assured that He will in
His own time and way punish you. This is my word to you all; my
love to you all!”
So saying, I turned to leave; and Ian strode sullenly away and
stood at the head of his men, crying,—
“Missi, they will kill you! they will kill us, and you will be to
blame!”
Miaki and Nouka, full of deceit, now cried out,—
“Missi’s word is good! Let us all obey it. Let us all worship.”
An old man, Sirawia, one of Ian’s under-chiefs, then said,—
“Miaki and Nouka say that the land on which Missi lives was
theirs; though they sold it to him, and he has paid them for it, they
all know that it was ours, and is yet ours by right; but if they let Missi
live on it in peace, we will all live at peace, and worship Jehovah. And
if not, we will surely claim it again.”
 Miaki and his party hereon went off to their plantations, and
brought a large present of food to Ian and his men as a peace-
offering. This they accepted; and the next day Ian and his men
brought Miaki a return present and said,—
“You know that Missi lives on our land? Take our present, be
friends, and let him live quietly and teach us all. Yesterday you said
his word was good, obey it now, else we will punish you and defend
the Missi.”
Miaki accepted the token, and gave good promises for the future.
Ian then came to the hill-top near our house, by which passed the
public path, and cried aloud in the hearing of all,—
“Abraham, tell Missi that you and he now live on our land. This
path is the march betwixt Miaki and us. We have this day bought
back the land of our fathers by a great price to prevent war. Take of
our bread-fruits and also of our cocoa-nuts what you require, for you
are our friends and living on our land, and we will protect you and
the Worship!”
For some time things moved on quietly after this. An inland war,
however, had continued for months. As many as ten men, they said,
were sometimes killed in one day and feasted on by the warriors.
Thousands had been thereby forced down from the mountains, and
sought protection under Ian and his people. All the people claiming
connection with his Tribe were called Naraimini; the people in the
Volcano district were called the Kaserumini; and the Harbour Tribes
were the Watarenmini; and so on all over the island. In such
divisions, there might be from two to twenty Chiefs and Villages
under one leader, and these stood by each other for purposes
defensive and offensive. Now Nouka and Miaki had been frustrated
in all their plans to get the Inland and the Harbour people involved
in the war, as their own followers were opposed to it. In violation of
his promises, however, Nouka invited all the men who wished to go
to the war to meet him one morning, and only one appeared! Nouka,
in great wrath, marched off to the war himself, but, as no one
followed, he grew faint-hearted, and returned to his own village. On
another morning, Miaki summoned all his fighting men; but only his
own brother and six lads could be induced to accompany him, and
with these he started off. But the enemy, hearing of his coming, had
killed two of his principal allies the night before, and Miaki, learning
this, turned and fled to his own house, and was secretly laughed at by
his tribe.
Next day, Nouka came to me professing great friendship and
pleading with me to accompany him and Miaki to talk with the
Kaserumini, and persuade them to give up the war. He was annoyed
and disappointed when I refused to go. Nowar and others informed
me, two days thereafter, that three persons had died in that district,
that others were sick, and that the Heathen there had resolved to kill
me in revenge as the cause of all. As Nouka’s wife was one of the
victims, this scheme was concocted to entrap me. I was warned on no
account to leave my house at night for a considerable time, but to
keep it locked up and to let no one in after dark. The same two men
from that district who had tried to kill Mr. Johnston and me, were
again appointed and were watching for Abraham and me, lurking
about in the evenings for that purpose. Again I saw how the Lord had
preserved me from Miaki and Nouka! Truly all are safe who are in
God’s keeping; and nothing can befall them, except for their real
good and the glory of their Lord.
Chafed at the upsetting of all their plans and full of revenge, Nouka
and Miaki and their allies declared publicly that they were now going
to kill Ian by sorcery, i.e., by Nahak, more feared by the poor
Tannese than the field of battle. Nothing but the grace of God and
the enlightenment of His Spirit through the Scriptures, has ever
raised these Natives above that paralyzing superstition. But, thank
God, there are now, while I write this (1887), about twelve thousand
in the New Hebrides who have been thus enlightened and lifted out
of their terrors, for the Gospel is still, as of old, the power of God
unto salvation! Strange to say, Ian became sick shortly after the
Sacred Men had made the declaration about their Nahak-sorcery. I
attended him, and for a time he recovered, and appeared very
grateful. But he soon fell sick again. I sent him and the Chief next
under him a blanket each; I also gave shirts and calico to a number of
his leading men. They wore them and seemed grateful and pleased.
Ian, however, gradually sank and got worse. He had every symptom
of being poisoned, a thing easily accomplished, as they know and use
many deadly poisons. His sufferings were very great, which
prevented me from ascribing his collapse to mere superstitious
terror. I did all that could be done; but all thought him dying, and of
course by sorcery. His people were angry at me for not consenting
before to their shooting of Miaki; and Miaki’s people were now
rejoicing that Ian was being killed by Nahak.
One night, his brother and a party came for me to go and see Ian,
but I declined to go till the morning for fear of the fever and ague. On
reaching his village, I saw many people about, and feared that I had
been led into a snare; but I at once entered into his house to talk and
pray with him, as he appeared to be dying. After prayer, I discovered
that I was left alone with him, and that all the people had retired
from the village; and I knew that, according to their custom, this
meant mischief. Ian said,—

“SUDDENLY HE DREW ... A LARGE BUTCHER-LIKE KNIFE.”

“Come near me, and sit by my bedside to talk with me, Missi.”
I did so, and while speaking to him he lay as if lost in a swoon of
silent meditation. Suddenly he drew from the sugar-cane leaf thatch
close to his bed, a large butcher-like knife, and instantly feeling the
edge of it with his other hand, he pointed it to within a few inches of
my heart and held it quivering there, all a-tremble with excitement. I
durst neither move nor speak, except that my heart kept praying to
the Lord to spare me, or if my time was come to take me home to
Glory with Himself. There passed a few moments of awful suspense.
My sight went and came. Not a word had been spoken, except to
Jesus; and then Ian wheeled the knife around, thrust it into the
sugar-cane leaf, and cried to me,—
“Go, go quickly!”
Next moment I was on the road. Not a living soul was to be seen
about the village. I understood then that it had been agreed that Ian
was to kill me, and that they had all withdrawn so as not to witness
it, so that when the Man-of-war came to inquire about me Ian would
be dead, and no punishment could overtake the murderer. I walked
quietly till quite free of the village, lest some hid in their houses
might observe me. Thereafter, fearing that they, finding I had
escaped, might overtake and murder me, I ran for my life a weary
four miles till I reached the Mission House, faint, yet praising God
for such a deliverance. Poor Ian died soon after, and his people
strangled one of his wives and hanged another, and took out the
three bodies together in a canoe and sank them in the sea.
Miaki was jubilant over having killed his enemy by Nahak; but the
Inland people now assembled in thousands to help Sirawia and his
brother to avenge that death on Miaki, Nouka and Karewick. These,
on the other hand, boasted that they would kill all their enemies by
Nahak-sorcery, and would call up a hurricane to destroy their
houses, fruit trees, and plantations. Miaki and a number of his men
also came to the Mission House; but, observing his sullen
countenance, I asked kindly after his wife who was about to be
confined, and gave a blanket, a piece of calico, and a bit of soap as a
present for the baby. He seemed greatly pleased, whispered
something to his men, and peaceably withdrew. Immediately after
Miaki’s threat about bringing a storm, one of their great hurricanes
actually smote that side of the island and laid everything waste. His
enemies were greatly enraged, and many of the injured people united
with them in demanding revenge on Miaki. Hitherto I had done
everything in my power to prevent war, but now it seemed inevitable,
and both parties sent word that if Abraham and I kept to the Mission
House no one would harm us. We had little faith in any of their
promises, but there was no alternative for us.
On the following Saturday, 18th January, 1862, the war began.
Musket after musket was discharged quite near us, and the bush all
round rang with the yell of their war-cry, which if once heard will
never be forgotten. It came nearer and nearer, for Miaki fled, and his
people took shelter behind and around our house. We were placed in
the heart of danger, and the balls flew thick all around us. In the
afternoon Ian’s brother and his party retired, and Miaki quickly sent
messengers and presents to the Inikahimini and Kaserumini
districts, to assemble all their people and help him “to fight Missi
and the Tannese who were friends of the Worship.” He said,—
“Let us cook his body and Abraham’s, and distribute them to every
village on this side of the island!”
Yet all the while Miaki assured me that he had sent a friendly
message. The war went on, and poor Nowar the Chief protected us,
till he had a spear broken into his right knee. The enemy would have
carried him off to feast on his body; but his young men, shouting
wildly his name and battle-cry, rushed in with great impetuosity and
carried their wounded Chief home in triumph. The Inland people
now discharged muskets at my house and beat against the walls with
their clubs. They smashed in the door and window of our store-room,
broke open boxes and casks, tore my books to pieces and scattered
them about, and carried off everything for which they cared,
including my boat, mast, oars, and sails. They broke into Abraham’s
house and plundered it; after which they made a rush at the
bedroom, into which we were locked, firing muskets, yelling, and
trying to break it in. A Chief, professing to be sorry for us called me
to the window, but on seeing me he sent a tomahawk through it,
crying,—
“Come on, let us kill him now!”
I replied, “My Jehovah God will punish you; a Man-of-war will
come and punish you, if you kill Abraham, his wife, or me.”
He retorted, “It’s all lies about a Man-of-war! They did not punish
the Erromangans. They are afraid of us. Come on, let us kill them!”
He raised his tomahawk and aimed to strike my forehead, many
muskets were uplifted as if to shoot, so I raised a revolver in my right
hand and pointed it at them. The Rev. Joseph Copeland had left it
with me on a former visit. I did not wish it, but he insisted upon
leaving it, saying that the very knowledge that I had such a weapon
might save my life. Truly, on this occasion it did so. Though it was
harmless, they fell back quickly. My immediate assailant dropped to
the ground, crying,—
“Missi has got a short musket! He will shoot you all!”
After lying flat on the ground for a little, they all got up and ran to
the nearest bush, where they continued yelling about and showing
their muskets. Towards nightfall they left, loaded with the plunder of
the store and of Abraham’s house. So God once more graciously
protected us from falling into their cruel hands.
In the evening, after they left, I went to Miaki and Nouka. They
professed great sorrow at what had taken place, and pretended to
have given them a present of food not to do us further injury. But
Nowar informed us that, on the contrary, they had hired them to
return and kill us next morning and plunder everything on the
Mission premises. Miaki, with a sneer, said,—
“Missi, where was Jehovah to-day? There was no Jehovah to-day
to protect you. It’s all lies about Jehovah. They will come and kill
you, and Abraham, and his wife, and cut your bodies into pieces to be
cooked and eaten in every village upon Tanna.”
I said, “Surely, when you had planned all this, and brought them to
kill us and steal all our property, Jehovah did protect us, or we would
not have been here!”
He replied, “There was no Jehovah to-day! We have no fear of any
Man-of-war. They dare not punish us. They durst not punish the
Erromangans for murdering the Gordons. They will talk to us and
say we must not do so again, and give us a present. That is all. We
fear nothing. The talk of all Tanna is that we will kill you and seize all
your property to-morrow.”
I warned him that the punishment of a Man-of-war can only reach
the body and the land, but that Jehovah’s punishment reached both
body and soul in Time and in Eternity.
He replied: “Who fears Jehovah? He was not here to protect you
to-day!”
 “Yes,” I said, “my Jehovah God is here now. He hears all we say,
sees all we do, and will punish the wicked and protect His own
people.”
After this, a number of the people sat down around me, and I
prayed with them. But I left with a very heavy heart, feeling that
Miaki was evidently bent on our destruction.
I sent Abraham to consult Nowar, who had defended us till
disabled by a spear in the right knee. He sent a canoe by Abraham,
advising me to take some of my goods in it to his house by night, and
he would try to protect them and us. The risk was so great, we could
only take a very little. Enemies were on every hand to cut off our
flight, and Miaki, the worst of all, whose village had to be passed in
going to Nowar’s. In the darkness of the Mission House, we durst not
light a candle for fear of some one seeing and shooting us. Not one of
Nowar’s men durst come to help us. But in the end it made no
difference, for Nowar and his men kept what was taken there as their
portion of the plunder. Abraham, his wife, and I waited anxiously for
the morning light. Miaki, the false and cruel, came to assure us that
the Heathen would not return that day. Yet, as daylight came in,
Miaki himself stood and blew a great conch not far from our house. I
ran out to see why this trumpet-shell had been blown, and found it
was the signal for a great company of howling armed savages to rush
down the hill on the other side of the bay and make straight for the
Mission House. We had not a moment to lose. To have remained
would have been certain death to us all, and also to Matthew, a
Teacher just arrived from Mr. Mathieson’s Station. Though I am by
conviction a strong Calvinist, I am no Fatalist. I held on while one
gleam of hope remained. Escape for life was now the only path of
duty. I called the Teachers, locked the door, and made quickly for
Nowar’s village. There was not a moment left to carry anything with
us. In the issue, Abraham, his wife, and I lost all our earthly goods,
and all our clothing except what we had on. My Bible, the few
translations which I had made into Tannese, and a light pair of
blankets I carried with me.
To me the loss was bitter, but as God had so ordered it, I tried to
bow with resignation. All my deceased wife’s costly outfit, her piano,
silver, cutlery, books, etc., with which her dear parents had provided
her, besides all that I had in the world; also a box worth £56, lately
arrived, full of men’s clothing and medicine, the gift of my dear
friends, Samuel Wilson, Esq., and Mrs. Wilson, of Geelong. The
Sandal-wood Traders bought all the stolen property for tobacco,
powder, balls, caps, and shot. One Trader gathered together a
number of my books in a sadly torn and wasted condition and took
them to Aneityum, demanding £10 from Dr. Geddie for his trouble.
He had to pay him £7 10s., which I repaid to him on my second
return to the Islands. This, by way of digression, only to show how
white and black Heathenism meet together.
Let us return to the morning of our flight. We could not take the
usual path along the beach, for there our enemies would have quickly
overtaken us. We entered the bush in the hope of getting away
unobserved. But a cousin of Miaki, evidently secreted to watch us,
sprang from behind a bread-fruit tree, and swinging his tomahawk,
aimed it at my brow with a fiendish look. Avoiding it, I turned upon
him and said in a firm bold voice,—
“If you dare to strike me, my Jehovah God will punish you. He is
here to defend me now!”
The man, trembling, looked all round as if to see the God who was
my defender, and the tomahawk gradually lowered at his side. With
my eye fixed upon him, I gradually moved backwards in the track of
the Teachers, and God mercifully restrained him from following me.
On reaching Nowar’s village unobserved, we found the people
terror-stricken, crying, rushing about in despair at such a host of
armed savages approaching. I urged them to ply their axes, cut down
trees, and blockade the path. For a little they wrought vigorously at
this; but when, so far as eye could reach, they saw the shore covered
with armed men rushing on towards their village, they were
overwhelmed with fear, they threw away their axes and weapons of
war, they cast themselves headlong on the ground, and they knocked
themselves against the trees as if to court death before it came. They
cried,—
“Missi, it’s of no use! We will all be killed and eaten to-day! See
what a host are coming against us.”
Mothers snatched up little children and ran to hide in the bush.
Others waded as far as they could into the sea with them, holding
their heads above the water. The whole village collapsed in a
condition of indescribable terror. Nowar, lame with his wounded
knee, got a canoe turned upside-down and sat upon it where he could
see the whole approaching multitude. He said,—
“Missi, sit down beside me, and pray to our Jehovah God, for if He
does not send deliverance now, we are all dead men. They will kill us
all on your account, and that quickly. Pray, and I will watch!”
They had gone to the Mission House and broken in the door, and
finding that we had escaped, they rushed on to Nowar’s village. For,
as they began to plunder the bedroom, Nouka said,—
“Leave everything. Missi will come back for his valuable things at
night, and then we will get them and him also!”
So he nailed up the door, and they all marched for Nowar’s. We
prayed as one can only pray when in the jaws of death and on the
brink of Eternity. We felt that God was near, and omnipotent to do
what seemed best in His sight. When the savages were about three
hundred yards off, at the foot of a hill leading up to the village,
Nowar touched my knee, saying,—
“Missi, Jehovah is hearing! They are all standing still.”
Had they come on they would have met with no opposition, for the
people were scattered in terror. On gazing shorewards, and round
the Harbour, as far as we could see, was a dense host of warriors, but
all were standing still, and apparently absolute silence prevailed. We
saw a messenger or herald running along the approaching multitude,
delivering some tidings as he passed, and then disappearing in the
bush. To our amazement, the host began to turn, and slowly marched
back in great silence, and entered the remote bush at the head of the
Harbour. Nowar and his people were in ecstasies, crying out,—
“Jehovah has heard Missi’s prayer! Jehovah has protected us and
turned them away back.”
We were on that day His trusting and defenceless children; would
you not, had you been one of our circle, have joined with us in
praising the Lord God for deliverance from the jaws of death? I know
not why they turned back; but I have no doubt it was the doing of
God to save our lives.
We learned that they all assembled in a cleared part of the bush
and there held a great wrangling palaver. Nouka and Miaki advised
them first to fight Manuman and his people. They said,—
 “His brother, the Sacred Man Kanini, killed Ian by Nahak. He is a
friend of Missi and of the Worship. He also sent the hurricane to
destroy us. They have plenty of yams and pigs. Let us fight and
plunder them, and when they are out of the way, we will be strong to
destroy Missi and the Worship.”
On this the whole mass went and attacked Manuman’s first village,
where they murdered two of his men, two women, and two children.
The inhabitants fled, and all the sick, the feeble, and the children
who fell into their hands were reported to us to be murdered, cooked,
and eaten. Led on by Miaki, they plundered and burned seven
villages.
About mid-day, Nouka and Miaki sent their cousin Jonas, who had
always been friendly to me, to say that I might return to my house in
safety, as they were now carrying the war inland. Jonas had spent
some years on Samoa, and been much with Traders in Sydney, and
spoke English well; but we felt they were deceiving us. That night,
Abraham ventured to creep near the Mission House, to test whether
we might return, and save some valuable things, and get a change of
clothing. The house appeared to stand as when they nailed up the
door. But a large party of Miaki’s allies at once enclosed Abraham,
and, after asking many questions about me, they let him go since I
was not there. Had I gone there, they would certainly that night have
killed me. Again, at midnight, Abraham and his wife and Matthew
went to the Mission House, and found Nouka, Miaki, and Karewick
near by, concealed in the bush among the reeds. Once more they
enclosed them, thinking I was there too, but Nouka, finding that I
was not, cried out,—
“Don’t kill them just now! Wait till Missi comes.”
Hearing this, Matthew slipped into the bush and escaped.
Abraham’s wife waded into the sea, and they allowed her to get away.
Abraham was allowed to go to the Mission House, but he too crept
into the bush, and after an anxious waiting they all came back to me
in safety. We now gave up all hope of recovering anything from the
house.
Towards morning, when Miaki and his men saw that I was not
coming back to deliver myself into their hands, they broke up my
house and stole all they could carry away. They tore my books, and
scattered them about. They took away the type of my printing-press,
to be made into bullets for their muskets. For similar uses they
melted down the zinc lining of my boxes, and everything else that
could be melted. What they could not take away, they destroyed. I lay
on the ground all night, concealed in an outhouse of Nowar’s, but it
was a sleepless and anxious night, not only to me and my
Aneityumese, but also to Nowar and his people.
Next day, the attack was renewed by the three Chiefs on the
district of my dear friend Manuman. His people fled; the villages
were burned; all who came in their way were killed, and all food and
property carried away. At night they returned to keep watch over
Nowar and me. When darkness was setting in, Miaki sent for me to
go and speak with him, but Nowar and the Aneityumese were all so
opposed to it that I did not go. Messages were sent to Nowar,
threatening to kill him and his people for protecting me, and great
excitement prevailed.
Another incident added horror to the memories of this day. A
savage from Erromanga, living with Nowar, had gone to the war that
day. He got near a village unobserved, climbed into a tree, and
remained there watching. After mid-day, Kamkali, a true friend of
mine, the Chief of his village, came home wearied from the war, got
his blanket, stealthily crept into a quiet place in the bush, rolled
himself up, and lay down to sleep; for, according to their custom, the
leading warriors in times of conflict seldom sleep in their own
houses, and seldom twice in the same place even in the bush, for fear
of personal danger. The Erromangan, having watched till he was
sound asleep, crept to where he lay, raised his club and smashed in
his skull. He told, when he came home, how the blood ran from nose,
mouth, and ears, with a gurgling sound in his throat, and after a few
convulsive struggles all was over! And the people around Nowar
praised him for his deed. Cocoa-nuts were brought for him to drink,
and food was presented before him in large quantities, as to one who
had done something noble. For safety, he was put into the same
house where I had to sit, and even Nowar honoured him. I watched
for the workings of a natural man’s conscience under the guilt of
murder. When left alone, he shook every now and then with
agitation, and started round with a terrified gaze. He looked the
picture of a man who felt that he had done to his neighbour what he
would not have liked another to do to him. I wonder if that
consciousness ever dies out, in the lowest and worst, that last voice of
God in the soul?
That very night, Nowar declared that I must leave his village before
morning, else he and his people would be killed for protecting me.
He advised me, as the sea was good, to try for Mr. Mathieson’s
Station; but he objected to my taking away any of my property—he
would soon follow with it himself! But how to sail? Miaki had stolen
my boat, mast, sails, and oars, as also an excellent canoe made for
me and paid for by me on Aneityum; and he had threatened to shoot
any person that assisted me to launch either the one or the other.
The danger, however, was so great that Nowar said,—
“You cannot remain longer in my house! My son will guide you to
the large chestnut tree in my plantation in the bush. Climb up into it,
and remain there till the moon rises.”
Being entirely at the mercy of such doubtful and vacillating
friends, I, though perplexed, felt it best to obey. I climbed into the
tree, and was left there alone in the bush. The hours I spent there live
all before me as if it were but of yesterday. I heard the frequent
discharging of muskets, and the yells of the savages. Yet I sat there
among the branches, as safe in the arms of Jesus! Never, in all my
sorrows, did my Lord draw nearer to me, and speak more soothingly
in my soul, than when the moonlight flickered among these chestnut
leaves, and the night air played on my throbbing brow, as I told all
my heart to Jesus. Alone, yet not alone! If it be to glorify my God, I
will not grudge to spend many nights alone in such a tree, to feel
again my Saviour’s spiritual presence, to enjoy His consoling
fellowship. If thus thrown back upon your own soul, alone, all, all
alone, in the midnight, in the bush, in the very embrace of death
itself, have you a Friend that will not fail you then?
Gladly would I have lingered there for one night of comparative
peace! But, about midnight, Nowar sent his son to call me down from
the tree, and to guide me to the shore where he himself was, as it was
now time to take to sea in the canoe. Pleading for my Lord’s
continuing presence, I had to obey. My life and the lives of my
Aneityumese now hung upon a very slender thread, and was almost
equally at risk from our friends so-called, and from our enemies. Had
I been a stranger to Jesus and to prayer, my reason would verily have
given way, but my comfort and joy sprang up out of these: “I will
never leave thee, nor forsake thee; lo, I am with you alway!” Pleading
these promises, I followed my guide. We reached the beach, just
inside the Harbour, at a beautiful white sandy bay on Nowar’s
ground, from which our canoe was to start. A good number of the
Natives had assembled there to see us off. Arkurat, having got a large
roll of calico from me for the loan of his canoe, hid it away, and then
refused the canoe, saying that if he had to escape with his family he
would require it. He demanded, for the loan of his canoe, an axe, a
sail for his canoe, and a pair of blankets. As Karis had the axe and
another had the quilt, I gave the quilt to him for a sail, and the axe
and blankets for the canoe. In fact, these few relics of our earthly all
at Nowar’s were coveted by the savages and endangered our lives,
and it was as well to get rid of them altogether. He cruelly proposed a
small canoe for two; but I had hired the canoe for five, and insisted
upon getting it, as he had been well paid for it. As he only laughed
and mocked us, I prepared to start and travel overland to Mr.
Mathieson’s Station. He then said,—
“My wrath is over! You may take it and go.”
We launched it, but now he refused to let us go till daylight. He
had always been one of my best friends, but now appeared bent on a
quarrel, so I had to exercise much patience with him and them.
Having launched it, he said I had hired the canoe but not the
paddles. I protested,—
“Surely you know we hired the paddles too. What could we do
without paddles?”
But Arkurat lay down and pretended to have fallen asleep, snoring
on the sand, and could not be awaked. I appealed to Nowar, who only
said—
“That is his conduct, Missi, our conduct!”
I replied, “As he has got the blankets which I saved to keep me
from ague and fever, and I have nothing left now but the clothes I
have on, surely you will give me paddles.”
Nowar gave me one. Returning to the village, friends gave me one
each till I got other three. Now Arkurat started up, and refused to let
us go. A Chief and one of his men, who lived on the other side of the
island near to where we were going, and who was hired by me to go
with us and help in paddling the canoe, drew back also and refused
to go. Again I offered to leave the canoe, and walk overland if
possible, when Faimungo, the Chief who had refused to go with us,
came forward and said,—
“Missi, they are all deceiving you! The sea is so rough, you cannot
go by it; and if you should get round the weather point, Miaki has
men appointed to shoot you as you pass the Black Rocks, while by
land all the paths are guarded by armed men. I tell you the truth,
having heard all their talk. Miaki and Karewick say they hate the
Worship, and will kill you. They killed your goats, and stole all your
property yesterday. Farewell!”
The Teachers, the boy, and I now resolved to enter the canoe and
attempt it, as the only gleam of hope left to us. After Faimungo came,
the man to whom the canoe belonged had withdrawn from us, it
having transpired that Miaki would not attack us that night, as other
game had attracted his savage eyes. My party of five now embarked
in our frail canoe; Abraham first, I next, Matthew after me, the boy at
the steering paddle, and Abraham’s wife sitting in the bottom, where
she might hold on while it continued to float. For a mile or more we
got away nicely under the lee of the island, but when we turned to go
south for Mr. Mathieson’s Station, we met the full force of wind and
sea, every wave breaking over and almost swamping our canoe. The
Native lad at the helm paddle stood up crying,—
“Missi, this is the conduct of the sea! It swallows up all who seek
its help.”
I answered, “We do not seek help from it but from Jehovah Jesus.”
Our danger became very great, as the sea broke over and lashed
around us. My faithful Aneityumese, overcome with terror, threw
down their paddles, and Abraham said,—
“Missi, we are all drowned now! We are food for the sharks. We
might as well be eaten by the Tannese as by fishes; but God will give
us life with Jesus in heaven!”
I seized the paddle nearest me; I ordered Abraham to seize another
within his reach; I enjoined Matthew to bail the canoe for life, and
the lad to keep firm in his seat, and I cried,—
“Stand to your post, and let us return! Abraham, where is now
your faith in Jesus? Remember, He is Ruler on sea as on land.
Abraham, pray and ply your paddle! Keep up stroke for stroke with
me, as our lives depend on it. Our God can protect us. Matthew, bail
with all your might. Don’t look round on the sea and fear. Let us pray
to God and ply our paddles, and He will save us yet!”
Dear old Abraham said,—
“Thank you for that, Missi. I will be strong. I pray to God and ply
my paddle. God will save us!”
With much labour, and amid deadly perils, we got the canoe
turned; and after four hours of a terrible struggle, we succeeded,
towards daylight as the tide turned, in again reaching smooth water.
With God’s blessing we at last reached the shore, exactly where we
had left it five hours ago!
Now drenched and weary, with the skin of our hands sticking to
the paddles, we left the canoe on the reef and waded ashore. Many
Natives were there, and looked sullen and disappointed at our
return. Katasian, the lad who had been with us, instantly fled for his
own land; and the Natives reported that he was murdered soon after.
Utterly exhausted, I lay down on the sand and instantly fell into a
deep sleep. By-and-by I felt some one pulling from under my head
the native bag in which I carried my Bible and the Tannese
translations—the all that had been saved by me from the wreck!
Grasping the bag, I sprang to my feet, and the man ran away. My
Teachers had also a hedging knife, a useless revolver, and a fowling-
piece, the sight of which, though they had been under the salt water
for hours, God used to restrain the savages. Calling my Aneityumese
near, we now in united prayer and kneeling on the sands committed
each other unto the Lord God, being prepared for the last and worst.
As I sat meditating on the issues, Faimungo, the friendly Inland
Chief, again appeared to warn us of our danger, now very greatly
increased by our being driven back from the sea. All Nowar’s men
had fled, and were hid in the bush and in rocks along the shore;
while Miaki was holding a meeting not half a mile away, and
preparing to fall upon us. Faimungo said,—
“Farewell, Missi, I am going home. I don’t wish to see the work and
the murders of this morning.”
He was Nowar’s son-in-law. He had always been truthful and
kindly with me. His home was about half-way across the island, on
the road that we wanted to go, and under sudden impulse I said,—
 “Faimungo, will you let us follow you? Will you show us the path?
When the Mission Ship arrives, I will give you three good axes,
blankets, knives, fish-hooks, and many things you prize.”
The late hurricanes had so destroyed and altered the paths, that
only Natives who knew them well could follow them. He trembled
much and said,—
“Missi, you will be killed. Miaki and Karewick will shoot you. I
dare not let you follow. I have only about twenty men, and your
following might endanger us all.”
I urged him to leave at once, and we would follow of our own
accord. I would not ask him to protect us; but if he betrayed us and
helped the enemy to kill us, I assured him that our God would punish
him. If he spared us, he would be rewarded well; and if killed against
his wishes, God would not be angry at him. He said,—
“Seven men are with me now, and thirteen are to follow. I will not
now send for them. They are with Miaki and Nouka. I will go; but if
you follow, you will be killed on the way. You may follow me as far as
you can!”
Off he started to Nowar’s, and got a large load of my stolen
property, blankets, sheets, etc., which had fallen to his lot. He called
his seven men, who had also shared in the plunder, and, to avoid
Miaki’s men, they ran away under a large cocoa-nut grove skirting
the shore, calling,—
“Be quick! Follow and keep as near to us as you can.”
Though Nowar had got a box of my rice and appropriated many
things from the plunder of the Mission House besides the goods
entrusted to his care, and got two of my goats killed and cooked for
himself and his people, yet now he would not give a particle of food
to my starving Aneityumese or myself, but hurried us off, saying,—
“I will eat all your rice and keep all that has been left with me in
payment for my lame knee and for my people fighting for you!”
My three Aneityumese and I started after Faimungo and his men.
We could place no confidence in any of them; but, feeling that we
were in the Lord’s hands, it appeared to be our only hope of escaping
instant death. We got away unobserved by the enemies. We met
several small parties of friends in the Harbour, apparently glad to see
us trying to get away. But about four miles on our way, we met a