THE TWO SANSKRIT EPICS: THE RAMAYANA AND MAHABHARAT

1. Mahabharata and Ramayana as Smriti and Itihasa:

- Fall within smriti and itihasa categories, with Ramayana occasionally classified as poetry (kavya).

2. Common Cultural Milieu:

- Similarities in language and style suggest a common cultural origin.

- Mahabharata refers to Valmiki and outlines the Rama story in Ramopakhyana.

3. Chronology of Composition:

- Mahabharata: c. 400 BCE to c. 400 CE; suggested shorter period by Hiltebeitel.

- Ramayana: 5th/4th century BCE to 3rd century CE, or shorter period.

4. Interconnected Epics:

- Epics aware of each other's existence, with mentions of characters and places.

- Challenging task to identify internal chronological layers.

5. Historical Events and Social Development:

- Debate on historical accuracy; possible small-scale conflict transformed into an epic war.

- Mahabharata setting in Indo-Gangetic divide, while Ramayana shifted eastwards, suggesting

earlier social stages.

- Role of strong women and practice of niyoga

6. Mahabharata Composition and Structure:

- 18 Parvas (books) with northern and southern recensions.

- Encyclopaedic work with core conflict between Kauravas and Pandavas.

7. Ramayana Recensions and Core Story:

- Two main recensions—northern and southern.

- Seven Kandas (books) with core story of Rama's banishment, Sita's abduction, and Rama's return.
8. Archaeological Evidence:

- Ayodhya excavations indicate settlement from c. 700 BCE.

- Lack of evidence on historical basis for events or characters in the Mahabharata and Ramayana.

9. Diversity in Rama Story

- Multiple versions of the Ramayana, including Jaina, Buddhist, Tamil, and Tulsidas'
Ramcharitmanas.

- Oral traditions and artistic expressions in sculpture, painting, plays, dance dramas, and television
serials.

10. Reading Epics in Historical Context:

- Historians interpret the epics as responses to specific historical contexts.

- Mahabharata seen as a Brahmanical response to challenges from Buddhism, Jainism, and rising
dynasties.

THE PURANAS
1. Meaning and Composition of Puranas:

- 'Purana' means 'old,' composed by Vyasa, but not the work of one person or age.

- 18 Mahapuranas and numerous Upapuranas; composition extended up to 4th–5th centuries CE.

2. Characteristics of Puranas:

- Supposed to discuss five topics: creation, re-creation, Manu periods, genealogies of gods and
rishis, and royal dynasties.

- Actual content varies, dealing with much more than the specified topics.

3. Time Conception in Puranas:

- Four yugas: krita, treta, dvapara, and kali, making up a mahayuga.

- 1,000 mahayugas constitute a kalpa; each kalpa has 14 manvantaras, each presided over by a
Manu.

- Cyclical decline and revival of dharma connected with the periodic destruction and re-creation of
the world.
4. Puranic Genealogies and Time Prophecy:

- Early parts are mythical; later genealogies of kings from the kali age have historical material.

- Vyasa, living at the end of the dvapara yuga, provides a prophecy of future events in the kali yuga.

5. Historical Information in Puranas:

- Puranas, including Vayu, Brahmanda, Brahma, Harivamsha, Matsya, and Vishnu, offer historical
data on ancient political history.

- Reference to dynasties like Haryankas, Shaishunagas, Nandas, Mauryas, Shungas, Kanvas,

Andhras, and Guptas (4th–6th centuries).

- Compilation of most Puranas around Gupta period; some later (e.g., Bhagavata Purana - 10th
century, Skanda Purana - 14th century).

6. Geographical and Religious Aspects:

- Accounts of mountains, rivers, and places useful for historical geography.

- Reflect the emergence of religious cults based on devotion, especially towards Vishnu, Shiva, and
Shakti.

- Expressions of devotion through worship, pilgrimage, and vows.

7. Cultural Traditions and Brahmanical Values:

- Puranic myths interpreted as allegorical representations of interactions among people from

different cultures.

- Important in Brahmanical tradition for conveying social and religious values.

- Reflect interaction between Brahmanical and non-Brahmanical cultural traditions, shaping Hindu
religious practices.

THE DHARMASHASTRA

1. Dharma Concept:

- Sanskrit word 'dharma' (from root 'dhri' - to maintain, support).

- Rich, difficult to translate; based on the idea of a natural law governing the universe.

2. Goals of Human Life (Purusharthas):

- Purusharthas include dharma (righteous conduct), artha (material well-being), kama (sensual
pleasure), and moksha (deliverance).
 - Material gain and sensual pleasure desirable if pursued in accordance with dharma.

- Closely tied to the concept of samsara - the cycle of birth, death, and rebirth.

3. Dharmashastra and Its Groups:

- Special group of Sanskrit texts dealing with dharma - collectively known as Dharmashastra.

- Dharmasutras (c. 600–300 BCE), Smritis (c. 200 BCE–900 CE), and commentaries, etc. (9th–19th
centuries).

4. Vedanga Literature and Dharmasutras:

- Dharmasutras part of Vedanga literature along with Kalpasutras (Shrautasutras, Grihyasutras, and
Dharmasutras).

- Sutra style - ideas expressed in short, condensed statements.

- Dharmasutras focus on dharma, dealing with rules of conduct.

5. Sources and Components of Dharma:

- Three sources of dharma - shruti (Vedas), smriti (Smriti texts), and sadachara or shishtachara
(good custom or practices of the learned).

- A person's dharma depends on gender, age, marital status, varna, and ashrama.

6. Varna and Ashrama System:

- Four varnas: Brahmana, Kshatriya, Vaishya, and Shudra; first three considered dvija ('twice-born').

- Ashrama system: brahmacharya, grihastha, vanaprastha, and sannyasa; not obligatory for women
or Shudras.

7. Norms and Laws in Dharmashastra:

- Dharmashastra deals with social behavior, personal, civil, and criminal law.

- Normative and prescriptive; not like modern civil or penal codes.

- Reflects norms from the perspective of Brahmana males who were the 'dharma experts.'

8. Social Inferences from Dharmashastra:

- Inferences about social practices based on Dharmashastra texts.

- Contradictions may indicate different opinions, regional variations, or changes in social norms.
- Brahmanical tradition shows some elasticity to adapt to social reality.