Automatica 162 (2024) 111521

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Automatica
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Global trajectory tracking for quadrotors: An MRP-based hybrid

strategy with input saturation✩
∗
Luís Martins a , , Carlos Cardeira a , Paulo Oliveira a,b
a
IDMEC - Institute of Mechanical Engineering, Instituto Superior Técnico, Universidade de Lisboa, Lisboa 1049-001, Portugal
b
ISR - Institute for Systems and Robotics, Instituto Superior Técnico, Universidade de Lisboa, Lisboa 1049-001, Portugal

article info a b s t r a c t

Article history: This paper proposes a novel inner–outer loop control methodology to tackle the trajectory tracking
Received 23 July 2021 problem for input-saturated quadrotors. The outer-loop, encapsulating the position tracking dynamics,
Received in revised form 28 July 2023 is rendered input-to-state stable by designing a nested saturated control law with integrative action
Accepted 19 December 2023
and applying small-gain arguments. The control strategy comprises an inner-loop that relies on a
Available online 25 January 2024
hybrid controller with integral action, designed based on the modified Rodrigues parameters attitude
Keywords: description, to solve the attitude tracking problem. The hybrid formulation of the controller benefits
Autonomous vehicles from the unique properties of the mentioned attitude description. Furthermore, it also provides a
Nonlinear control systems favorable framework to overcome the global stabilizing continuous feedback topological obstruction.
Global stability For any given initial state, the resulting double-loop control architecture asymptotically tracks a
Input saturation position trajectory that satisfies some assumptions, while minimizing the distance to the desired
Trajectory tracking attitude and satisfying the saturation limits of the thrust and torque inputs. The simulation results
demonstrate the potential of the strategy. The experimental test carried out with a commercially avail-
able quadcopter and a motion capture system highlighted the proposed solution tracking capabilities,
validating thereby the global saturated trajectory tracking controller. The proposed strategy is the first
saturated MRP-based hybrid solution for quadrotor trajectory tracking.
© 2024 The Authors. Published by Elsevier Ltd. This is an open access article under the CC BY license
(http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).

1. Introduction resorting to the rotation matrix representation, neglecting the

In the last years, the research community has focused on mul-
tiple projects to explore and expand the potential and features
of Unmanned Aerial Vehicles (UAVs). Given its maneuverability,
hovering capacity, and reduced size, the quadrotor is one of the
most popular UAVs for conducting research activities regarding
control and navigation strategies.
The three-dimensional special orthogonal group, SO(3), which
is the configuration manifold for the attitude dynamics of a rigid
body, entails a topological obstruction to the global asymptotic
stabilization of a given equilibrium point using continuous feed-
back (Bhat & Bernstein, 2000, Theorem 1), as the best stability
result is almost global since it yields a region of attraction that
excludes a set of measure zero. Overlooking this set may result
in a negative impact on the system response. For instance, when
✩ The material in this paper was not presented at any conference. This paper
was recommended for publication in revised form by Associate Editor Manfredi
Maggiore under the direction of Editors Daniel Liberzon, Luca Zaccarian.
∗ Corresponding author.
E-mail addresses: luis.cunha.martins@tecnico.ulisboa.pt (L. Martins),
carlos.cardeira@tecnico.ulisboa.pt (C. Cardeira),
paulo.j.oliveira@tecnico.ulisboa.pt (P. Oliveira).
mentioned set may decrease the rate of convergence of the sys-
tem (Lee, 2015). On the other hand, when the controller relies
on an attitude space that is a multiple covering of the rotation
matrix space, such as the MRP or the quaternion representations,
this set of zero measure could potentially lead to the undesirable
phenomenon of unwinding, which translates into the quadrotor
unnecessarily rotating through the longest rotational direction
even if the attitude error is small (Mayhew, Sanfelice, & Teel,
2013). Consequently, recent studies describe the design of hybrid
control solutions to bypass this well-known topological obstacle.
The attitude tracking strategies detailed in Gui and Vukovich
(2017), Lee (2015) and Mayhew, Sanfelice, and Teel (2011) are
examples of approaches developed within the hybrid systems
framework. Naldi, Furci, Sanfelice, and Marconi (2017) designed
a robust hierarchical control structure to solve the global asymp-
totic trajectory tracking problem for underactuated aerial vehi-
cles. This solution encompasses a position controller, relying on
the nested saturation design detailed in Isidori, Marconi, and Ser-
rani (2003, Appendix C), and a quaternion-based hybrid attitude
controller.
Invariably, unmanned aerial vehicles have actuation limits.
Neglecting these limitations in the control design negatively im-
pacts the performance by possibly leading to unpredictable or

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.automatica.2024.111521
0005-1098/© 2024 The Authors. Published by Elsevier Ltd. This is an open access article under the CC BY license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).
L. Martins, C. Cardeira and P. Oliveira
even unstable behavior when saturation occurs. In the majority
of the quadrotor control solutions comprising bounded actuation
techniques, the motivation behind the design of a saturated con-
trol law stems from the singularity caused by a null thrust value.
Devising a saturated positioning controller, apart from limiting
the thrust input magnitude, ensures the attitude references well-
posedness (Casau, Sanfelice, Cunha, Cabecinhas, & Silvestre, 2015;
Martins, Cardeira, & Oliveira, 2021b; Naldi et al., 2017). For this
reason, it is easier to find works reporting only thrust force
saturation than works that simultaneously address the generation
of a priori bounded thrust and torque inputs. Cao and Lynch
(2015) devised a saturated inner–outer loop control architecture
for quadrotors that yields a local asymptotic stability result. The
solution resorts to Euler angles to describe the attitude, does not
account for the derivatives of the attitude references, assumes a
bounded angular velocity, and relies on some linear approxima-
tions to study the stability of the resulting architecture. Shao, Sun,
Yao, Liu, and Wu (2021) developed a saturated adaptive sliding
mode control for attitude and altitude stabilization assuming
bounded states and relying on Euler angles. Wang and Liu (2018)
proposed a hierarchical control scheme that generates bounded
thrust and torque inputs. The quaternion-based controller results
from a backstepping approach with a Nussbaum function and
does not yield an asymptotic stability result. Furthermore, the
unwinding phenomenon and the impact of the attitude error in
the position tracking system are not addressed.
In this paper, a novel saturated control strategy is proposed
for trajectory tracking subjected to thrust and torque input con-
straints for quadrotors. Inspired by the methodology proposed
in Isidori et al. (2003, Appendix C), a position control law was
developed based on nested saturation design to render the po-
sition error dynamics input-to-state stable (ISS) while verifying
the thrust saturation limits. The resulting controller globally uni-
formly asymptotically stabilizes the position error dynamics in
the absence of external inputs. In the present work, since the an-
gular velocity and angular acceleration references result from the
position controller and its derivatives, the saturation functions
are required to be sufficiently smooth, instead of only differen-
tiable as in Isidori et al. (2003, Appendix C). Further, the spectrum
of functions here considered encompasses the smooth saturation
functions more frequently used in control applications, namely,
the hyperbolic tangent, inverse tangent, or sigmoid function. Con-
versely, these standard saturation functions do not fulfill the
condition σ (s) = sgn(s), for |s| ≥ 1 imposed in Isidori
et al. (2003, Appendix C). Moreover, the controller here proposed
includes a saturated integrative action to deal more effectively
with bounded external disturbances. Specifically, this inclusion
eliminates the steady-state error caused by additive constant
disturbances. In contrast, the controller proposed in Naldi et al.
(2017) lacks this capacity. As a result of these crucial differences,
the necessary conditions for ISS derived are distinct from Isidori
et al. (2003, Appendix C) and Naldi et al. (2017, p.2). A satu-
rated MRP-based hybrid controller with integrative action was
designed for the attitude tracking system. The hybrid formulation
provides a suitable framework to capture the MRP discontinuity
and allows exploiting an inherent characteristic of this represen-
tation to automatically drive the quadrotor through the short-
est rotational direction (Junkins & Schaub, 2009). This feature
prevents the unwinding phenomenon and is one of the main
advantages against quaternion-based solutions, which require ad-
ditional control states (cf. Mayhew et al. (2011)) to guarantee this
behavior. Hence, MRP-based solutions yield less intricate control
structures. Furthermore, another relevant advantage stems from
the MRP description only requiring three parameters to describe
the attitude of a rigid body. Therefore, the MRP are a more
compact attitude representation than rotation matrices and unit
2
Automatica 162 (2024) 111521
quaternions. Moreover, compared to controllers designed on the
rotation group, MRP-based strategies do not require an additional
discrete control state stemming from a switching mechanism
between multiple potential functions from a synergistic family
and their respective feedback laws, as in Mayhew and Teel (2011),
or between multiple error functions, as in Lee (2015), to obtain a
global stability result. The stability of the resulting double-loop
control architecture is studied by capitalizing on the position
control law ISS property. The simulation results demonstrate the
capacity of the strategy to track a given trajectory under the
influence of bounded constant disturbances, to perform consecu-
tive flip maneuvers, and to overcome considerable initial attitude
errors, illustrating, thereby, the global nature of the tracking
controller. The solution was experimentally validated by resorting
to an off-the-shelf quadrotor and a motion capture system.
The main contributions of this paper are the design and exper-
imental validation of a novel control solution for quadrotors that
yields a global asymptotic trajectory tracking result while verify-
ing specified bounds on the thrust and torque inputs. The devised
solution comprises a saturated MRP-based hybrid controller and a
nested saturated position controller, with both controllers having
an integrative action. The saturated MRP-based hybrid controller
globally uniformly asymptotically stabilizes the attitude error
dynamics origin and is robust to small measurement noise and
bounded constant disturbances. The outer-loop saturated control
law renders the position tracking system input-to-state stable.
In the absence of external inputs, the position controller glob-
ally uniformly stabilizes the origin of this system. The position
control law integrative action deals effectively with bounded con-
stant perturbations. The resulting control solution fully addresses
the coupling effect between the position and attitude tracking
systems, prevents the singularity caused by null thrust values,
accounts for the computation and impact of the derivatives of
the attitude references, and overcomes the attitude topological
obstruction. Furthermore, the authors derived bounds, in terms of
the control gains and parameters and independent of the initial
conditions of the vehicle, for the thrust and torque inputs. As a
result, for any initial state, the control structure tracks a given
position trajectory, verifying some mild assumptions, in the face
of constant disturbances and with the guarantee of complying
with user-specified saturation limits for the thrust and torque.
Consequently, the proposed strategy is more comprehensive than
the saturated solutions found in the literature and, to the best of
the authors’ knowledge, is the first solution for quadrotors ad-
dressing simultaneously thrust and torque saturation with global
asymptotic trajectory tracking properties.
This paper is organized as follows: some preliminaries and the
notation used are presented in Section 2; the physical model is
detailed and the control problem is formulated in Section 3; the
saturated position tracking controller is designed in Section 4;
the saturated MRP-based hybrid controller for the attitude error
dynamic system is devised and the global asymptotic stability
result for the full tracking system is proved in Section 5; the simu-
lation results obtained with the proposed solution are presented
and discussed in Section 6; in Section 7, the implementation is
addressed and the results attained in the experimental valida-
tion with a commercially available quadcopter are displayed and
analyzed; lastly, some concluding remarks are drawn in Section 8.
2. Notation and preliminaries
Rn represents the n-dimensional Euclidean space; R≥0 ex-
presses the set of non-negative real numbers; N symbolizes the
set of natural numbers; K Bn denotes the closed ball of radius
K centered at the origin of Rn ; Rn×m denotes the set of n × m
matrices; Sn = {x ∈ Rn+1 : x⊤ x = 1} symbolizes the n-
dimensional unit sphere; R̄n = Rn ∪ {∞} denotes the Alexandroff
L. Martins, C. Cardeira and P. Oliveira Automatica 162 (2024) 111521

compactification (Dugundji, 1966, p. 246) of Rn ; F : X ⇒ Y can be obtained from the original set by resorting to the map
represents the set-valued map F from X to Y ; C̄ denotes the Υ : R̄3 ↦→ R̄3 :
closure of the set C; dom V symbolizes the domain of the function
⎧
⎨−ϑ∥ϑ∥−2 , for ϑ ∈ R3 \ {0}
V ; V −1 (µ) expresses the µ-level set of the function V , which is
ϑs = Υ (ϑ) = ∞ , for ϑ ∈ {0} (3)
the set of points {x ∈ domV : V (x) = µ}; In ∈ Rn×n represents the ⎩ 0 , for ϑ ∈ {∞}
n-dimensional identity matrix; given the functions f : X ↦ → Y and
g : Y ↦ → Z , g◦f = g (f) denotes the composite function g of f; ei ∈ Both the original and the shadow MRP respect the following
R3 denotes a vector of zeros except for the ith entry which is 1; kinematic equation (Junkins & Schaub, 2009)
the operator ⊙ denotes the Hadamard product; ∥·∥ represents the {
(1−∥ϑ∥2 )I3 +2[ϑ]× +2ϑϑ⊤
Euclidean norm; for s ∈ Rn , ∥s∥∞ = ∥(s1 , . . . , sn )∥∞ = maxi |si | ω , for ϑ ∈ R3
ϑ̇ = T(ϑ)ω = 4 (4)
represents the L∞ -norm; for s ∈ R, sgn(s) represents the sign ∞ , for ϑ ∈ {∞}
function, which satisfies sgn(0) = 0 and sgn(s) = |s|s−1 ∀ s ̸ = 0;
[ω]× is such that [ω]× s = ω × s for each s, ω ∈ R3 , where × The mapping Rϑ (ϑ) : R̄3 ↦ → SO(3)
denotes the cross product; for a given square matrix A ∈ Rn×n , {
8[ϑ]2× +4(1−∥ϑ∥2 )[ϑ]×
tr (A) symbolizes the trace and λmax (A) denotes the maximum I3 + , for ϑ ∈ R3
Rϑ (ϑ) = (1+∥ϑ∥2 )2 (5)
eigenvalue. The class K, K∞ , and KL comparison functions used I3 , for ϑ ∈ {∞}
throughout the manuscript are in accordance with Khalil and
Grizzle (2002, Definition 4.2 and Definition 4.3). Given a vector maps a given ϑ to the corresponding rotation matrix and has
s ∈ Rn and a closed set A ⊂ Rn , ∥s∥A denotes the distance of the property Rϑ (ϑ) = Rϑ (ϑs ). For further details, the reader is
s to A and is given by ∥s∥A := infx∈A ∥s − x∥. The asymptotic referred to Junkins and Schaub (2009).
bound ∥f(t)∥a = lim supt →+∞ ∥f(t)∥ is defined for a function A hybrid system H is characterized by the data (C, F, D, G)
f(t) : R≥0 ↦ → Rm . The saturation functions considered in this work and its model can be represented by
are aligned with the following definition: {
ẋ ∈ F (x) , x∈C
H (6)
Definition 1. The mapping σ : Rm ↦ → Rm is an independent
x+ ∈ G (x) , x+ ∈ D
symmetric function, i.e., σ (s) ≜ [σ (s1 ) · · · σ (sm )], where each σ The hybrid system evolves according to the set-valued map F :
is a smooth strictly increasing function satisfying the following Rn ⇒ Rn while in the flow set C ⊂ Rn and instantaneously
properties with M > 0: changes under the set-valued map G : Rn ⇒ Rn while in the
jump set D ⊂ Rn . A solution x(t , j) to H, with t and j denoting,
σ (0) = 0 (1a)
respectively, ordinary time and jump time, is a function x :
dom x ↦ → Rn , where dom x ⊂ R≥0 × N is a hybrid time domain.
si σ (si ) > 0 ∀ si ̸ = 0 (1b) For further details, see Goebel, Sanfelice, and Teel (2012).

lim σ (si ) = ±M (1c) 3. Problem formulation

si →±∞

0 < σ̇ (si ) ≤ min(1, M |2si |−1 ) (1d) In this paper, envisioning a global trajectory tracking capacity,
a controller for quadrotors is designed. To this end, an inertial co-
ordinate frame {I } and a body-fixed coordinate frame {B}, whose
σ̈ (si ) ≤ 0, for si ≥ 0 (1e)
origin is coincident with the center of mass of the quadrotor, are
defined, and the dynamics of such vehicles are considered to be
σ̈ (si ) ≤ M −1 (1f) governed by the following set of differential equations:
Concerning rigid-body attitude description, R represents an ṗ = v, v̇ = −ge3 + Re3 Tm−1 + bp (7a)
element of the three-dimensional special orthogonal SO(3) and
the vector q ∈ S3 denotes the unit quaternion defined by the
pair (q0 , q1 ), where q0 ∈ R and q1 ∈ R3 correspond, respectively, Ṙ = R [ω]× , Jω̇ = Jω × ω + τ + dϑ (7b)
to the scalar and vector components. The map R : S3 ↦ → SO(3) 3
where p ∈ R represents the position of the aerial vehicle in the
maps a given quaternion to the corresponding rotation matrix. inertial frame, v ∈ R3 denotes the velocity in the inertial frame,
3
The double-valued{ inverse map Q} : SO(3) ⇒ S is characterized g ∈ R corresponds to the gravity acceleration, T ∈ Ω T ⊂ R>0
as Q(R) = q ∈ S3 : R(q) = R . In addition to the previous symbolizes the thrust magnitude, R ∈ SO(3) is the rotation matrix
representations, the MRP vector, ϑ ∈ R̄3 , can also be used to from the body-fixed to the inertial frame, m ∈ R is the total
parameterize the attitude. Each ϑ has a shadow MRP associated, mass of the quadrotor, ω ∈ R3 represents the angular velocity
ϑs ∈ R̄3 . Both ϑ and ϑs are related to a given unit quaternion expressed in the body-fixed frame, τ ∈ Ω τ ⊂ R3 represents the
through moment, J ∈ R3×3 corresponds to the quadrotor diagonal tensor
{ q1 of inertia, bp ∈ R3 models an unknown exogenous disturbance
, for q ∈ S3 \ {S}
ϑ = ϕ(q) = 1+q0
(2a) vector bounded by
∞ , for q ∈ {S}
{ −q ∥bp ∥∞ < bMp , (8)
1
, for q ∈ S3 \ {N}
ϑ = ϕ (q) =
s s 1−q0
(2b) 3
and dϑ ∈ R represents an exogenous disturbance vector whose
∞ , for q ∈ {N} entries are unknown, constant, and bounded by ∥dϑ ∥∞ < dMϑ .
where S = (−1, 0, 0, 0) and N = (1, 0, 0, 0) are, respectively, the The sets Ω T and Ω τ model the actuators limitation and are
south and north poles of the three-dimensional sphere. Observe given by Ω T := {T ∈ R>0 : T < Tmax } and Ω τ := {τ ∈
R3 : |e⊤ 1 τ| ≤ τϕmax , |e2 τ| ≤ τθmax , |e3 τ| ≤ τψmax }, where
⊤ ⊤
that ϕs (q) = ϕ(−q). In virtue of the original and shadow sets
being singular for different rotations, judiciously switching be- Tmax and (τϕmax , τθmax , τψmax ) represent, respectively, the maximum
tween the original and shadow sets yields a minimal non-singular attainable thrust magnitude and maximum attainable absolute
attitude representation (Junkins & Schaub, 2009). The shadow set value for each direction of τ . The relation between the inputs
3
L. Martins, C. Cardeira and P. Oliveira Automatica 162 (2024) 111521

where
2M 2
b
σ (M)2 Mp
+ b Mp + Kj
Λu̇ =
∗
g − Ka3 − 2bMp
2M 2 bMp
( )
2M 3 σ (M)
σ (M)2 σ (M)
+ 2
+ 4M
+ Ks
Λ∗ü = . □
g − Ka3 − 2bMp
The condition expressed in (10a) is crucial to avoid generat-
ing a null thrust value, which results in a singularity inherent
to the physics of the problem since the quadrotor goes into
freefall regardless of the attitude. Concerning conditions (10b)–
(10e), these inequalities guarantee that the trajectory r can be
tracked without violating the actuation constraints. Note that
Fig. 1. Schematic representation of the reference frames and the forces and
higher values for the trajectory parameters K∗ lead to a more
moments generated by each rotor.
restrictive range for the control actuation, which, in turn, implies
a slower asymptotic convergence to the reference trajectory. In
light of being an underactuated vehicle, the quadrotor is unable
T and τ and the thrust generated by each propeller is described to perform an arbitrary trajectory. In this regard, to prevent a
by: scenario of incompatibility between the desired rotation matrix
Rr and the thrust direction imposed by the position tracking, the
⎡ ⎤⎡ ⎤
[ ] 1 1 1 1 T1
T ⎢L −L −L L ⎥ ⎢T2 ⎥ following optimization problem (Frazzoli, Dahleh, & Feron, 2000)
=⎣ (9)
τ −L −L L L ⎦ ⎣T3 ⎦
Rd tr I3 − R−
( 1
)
= argmin r R
c1 −c2 c3 −c4 T4 R∈SO(3) (11)
where Ti ∈ (0, Timax ) and Timax ∈ R>0 , with i = {1, 2, 3, 4}, s.t. Re3 = α
denote the thrust and the maximum thrust generated by the
where α ∈ R3 denotes the thrust direction obtained from the
ith propeller, L ∈ R>0 denotes the perpendicular distance of
position control, is resorted to. The unique solution of (11) is
any given propeller to the body-fixed frame axis XB or YB , ci ∈
equivalent to finding the ‘‘closest’’ feasible rotation matrix, Rd ∈
R>0 defines a lumped parameter that relates the steady-state
SO(3), in the sense of the cost function, that verifies the restriction
thrust and yaw moment generated by a propeller in free air. For
Rd e3 = α. To this end, the degree of freedom associated with
further details, please see Martins, Cardeira, and Oliveira (2021a).
the rotation around the vector α is exploited. Note that, apart
In Fig. 1, the reference frames and the forces and yaw moments
from the condition detailed in Assumption 2, Rr can be arbitrarily
generated by each rotor are schematically represented.
defined. From Casau et al. (2015), it follows that
Let the mapping r(t) : R≥0 ↦ → Ω , given by r(t) :=
(3)
(pd , ṗd , p̈d , pd , Rr , ωr )(t), define the reference trajectory encom- Rd = Rs (θ, β) Rr (12)
passing the desired position, pd , and attitude, Rr , and the re-
where Rs ∈ SO(3) results from the Rodrigues’ rotation formula:
spective derivatives. To ensure the well-posedness of the attitude
references and establish the actuation bounds, the trajectory r(t) Rs (θ, β) = I3 + [β]× + (1 + cos (θ))−1 [β]2×
verifies the following assumption:
with β := [Rr e3 ]× α and θ = sin−1 (∥β∥) as the axis and the
Assumption 2. The trajectory r(t) is characterized by: angle of rotation, respectively. Note that the conditions stated in
Assumption 2 yield cos (θ ) = e⊤ 3 Rr α ̸ = −1 ∀ t ≥ 0. In geometric
⊤
{
r ∈ Ω ⊂ R × R3 × Ω a × Kj B3 × SO(3) × Kω B3
3
terms, Rs rotates Rr around an axis that is perpendicular to Rr e3
(3) and α, by an angle θ , so that Rd e3 and α are coincident. The
ṙ ∈ (ṗd , p̈d , pd , Ks B3 , Rr [ωr ]× , Kω̇ B3 )
control problem can finally be stated as follows:
with
Problem 3. Design bounded inputs T ∈ Ω T and τ ∈ Ω τ to
1 p̈d , e2 p̈d ) ∈ Ka1,2 B , |e3 p̈d | < Ka3 }
Ω a = {p̈d ∈ R3 : (e⊤ ⊤ 2 ⊤
globally asymptotically stabilize the set
and Ka1,2 , Ka3 , Kj , Ks , Kω , Kω̇ > 0 and where Ω satisfies e⊤
3 Rr (t)e3 A = {(r, x) ∈ Ω × χ : p = pd , R = Rd }
≥ 0 ∀ t ≥ 0 and is compact. Furthermore, the following
conditions hold with x := (p, v, R, ω) ∈ χ := R3 × R3 × SO(3) × R3 and r
verifying the conditions detailed in Assumption 2, for the closed-
g − Ka3 > 2bMp σ M
(M)
(10a) loop system that results from the application of the designed
( √ ) control law to the system (7).
1
Tmax > m g + (Ka21,2 + Ka23 ) 2 + 2 3bMp σ M
(M)
(10b) To tackle Problem 3, saturated position and attitude con-
trollers are devised for the tracking error dynamics that result
τϕmax > e⊤
1 Je1 νω̇ + |e3 Je3 − e2 Je2 |νω + dMϑ
∗ ⊤ ⊤ ∗
(10c) from considering the reference trajectory r(t) and the evolution
of the vehicle state vector x(t). Note that the upper bounds on
τθmax > e⊤ the thrust and torque detailed in Problem 3 can be specified by
2 Je2 νω̇ + |e3 Je3 − e1 Je1 |νω + dMϑ
∗ ⊤ ⊤ ∗
(10d)
the user.
τψmax > e⊤
3 Je3 νω̇ + |e1 Je1 − e2 Je2 |νω + dMϑ
∗ ⊤ ⊤ ∗
(10e)
4. Nested saturated position tracking
with
)2 Let the position and velocity tracking errors be defined by
3 Λ∗u̇
(
+ Kω2 ( ( )2 ) 12
νω∗ = , νω̇∗ = 3 Λ∗ü + Λ∗u̇ Kω + Kω̇2 , p̃ = p − pd , ṽ = v − ṗd (13)
2
4
L. Martins, C. Cardeira and P. Oliveira Automatica 162 (2024) 111521

From (7a), the error dynamics are expressed as follows:
p̃˙ = ṽ, ṽ˙ = −ge3 + Re3 Tm−1 + bp − p̈d
From the position control, it is intended to obtain the magnitude
and direction of the thrust force required to perform the desired
trajectory r(t). To this end, the rotation matrix R and the thrust
force T are considered inputs and a control vector up ∈ R3 \ {0}
satisfying
up := Re3 Tm−1
is designed. In this way, the thrust input can be computed
through
result directly from the relation between the saturation levels Mv
and Mp . For further details, the reader is referred to Sepulchre,
(14) Janković, and Kokotović (1997).
In Theorem 4, the stability result is formalized by proving
that the referred nested manifolds are invariant and applying
small gain arguments. Although the method followed in Isidori
et al. (2003) inspired the proof of Theorem 4, the inequalities
guaranteeing the reachability of the nested manifolds and the
fulfillment of the small gain condition are distinct due to the vicis-
(15) situdes of the sufficiently smooth saturation functions considered.
Furthermore, in contrast to Isidori et al. (2003), the following
proof resorts to ISS Lyapunov functions.

T := m∥up ∥ (16) Theorem 4. Let the conditions expressed in Assumption 2 hold for
all t ≥ 0. Suppose that the control law design parameters verify the
To avoid the generation of non-positive thrust values, comply
following conditions
with the input saturation limit, and render the position error
dynamics ISS, a position control law was devised based on a Mv > Mp (22a)
nested saturation design. Let z1 = p̃ and consider the position
error kinematics (14). A saturated smooth-state feedback control σv (Mv ) > 2 max bMp + Mζ , kp Mv k−
{ ( 1
)}
v + Mp (22b)
law ṽ∗ is designed with the intent of asymptotically stabilizing
the origin of p̃˙ = ṽ∗ . In this direction, consider the virtual control
kv > (σp Mp )−1 max 4kp Mp2 (σp Mp )−1 , Mv
( ) { ( ) }
ṽ∗ = −σ p (kp p̃), with kp > 0 and where σ p is a saturation (22c)
function in line with Definition 1, with Mp as saturation level. By
ρa
{ }
adding and subtracting the virtual control input to the kinematic Mv + Mζ < max ρa1 , √2 (22d)
3m
equation in (14) and defining z2 = ṽ − ṽ∗ , one arrives to the
following change of coordinates: with
( ( ) 1)
z1 = p̃, z2 = ṽ + σ p (kp p̃) (17) ρa1 = g − Ka3 , ρa2 = Tmax − m g + Ka21,2 + Ka23 2 .

Given (14) and (15), ż2 satisfies: Then, the position error dynamics (21) are Input-to-State Stable
without restrictions on the initial state and restriction (8) on the
ż2 = up − ge3 − p̈d + bp + σ̇ p (kp z1 ) ⊙ kp ż1 (18) input b)p . Moreover, T ∈ Ω T for r ∈ Ω and each solution
p̃, ṽ, ζ (t ) defined for t ≥ 0.
(
Let the control law up be defined as

up = −σ v (kv z2 ) − σ ζ kζ ζ + ge3 + p̈d

( )
(19) Proof. Let the sets Ω 1 and Ω 2 be defined by
with kv , kζ > 0 and where σ v and σ ζ are saturation functions Ω 1 = z ∈ R3 × R3 × R3 : ∥z1 ∥∞ ≤ Mp k−
{ 1
}
(23)
p
aligned with Definition 1 whose saturation levels are Mv and Mζ ,
respectively. The saturation level Mv satisfies Mv > Mp and ζ ∈
Ω 2 = z ∈ R3 × R3 × R3 : ∥z2 ∥∞ ≤ Mv k− 1
{ }
R3 is an integral state verifying ζ̇ = σ v (kv z2 ) that has the purpose v (24)
of dealing with bounded constant input disturbances. With this and let ∂Ω 1 and ∂Ω 2 be given by
definition, the evolution of ζ depends on both ṽ and p̃. The
∂Ω 1 = z ∈ R3 × R3 × R3 : ∥z1 ∥∞ = Mp k− 1
{ }
dynamics of the z-system with integrative action are described p (25)
by
∂Ω 2 = z ∈ R3 × R3 × R3 : ∥z2 ∥∞ = Mv k− 1
{ }
(26)
= z2 − σ p (kp z1 )
⎧
v
⎨ż1
⎪
= −σ v (kv z2 ) − σ ζ kζ ζ + σ̇ p (kp z1 ) ⊙ kp ż1 + bp to represent, respectively, the boundary of the sets Ω 1 and Ω 2 .
( )
ż2 (20)
⎩ ζ̇
⎪ = σ v (kv z2 ) The proof starts with the demonstration that, if the inequalities
expressed in (22) are satisfied, the sets Ω 1 and Ω 2 are positively
The position error dynamics, with the integral state and the invariant and any solution z(t) = (z1 , z2 , ζ) (t) of (20) reaches
control law (19), reshape into Ω 1 ∩ Ω 2 in finite time. Note that the focus is on demonstrating
that the solution z(t) enters a set in which the nested saturated
˙
⎧
⎨p̃ = ṽ (
⎪ term of the control law operates within its unsaturated region.
ṽ˙ = −σ v kv (ṽ + σ p (kp p̃)) − σ ζ kζ ζ + bp
) ( )
(21) For this reason, it is not required to prove that z(t) enters a similar
⎪ set involving ∥ζ∥∞ . For z ∈ ∂Ω 2 , by virtue of (22b), the following
ζ̇ = σ v kv (ṽ + σ p (kp p̃))
⎩ ( )
inequality holds
With this step, the nested saturation functions appear in the re-
i z2 ei ż2 ≤ ∥z2 ∥∞ −σv (Mv ) + bMp + kp Mv kv + Mp + Mζ
−1
e⊤ ⊤
( ( ) )
sulting closed-loop error dynamics. The proposed control, at first
instance, lets the solutions of the system (21) rapidly converge
to an invariant neighborhood of the manifold z2 = 0, which is
equivalent to ṽ = −σ p (kp p̃). Then, along this neighborhood, in < 0, with i = argmax |e⊤
i z2 | (27)
i
which the function σ v (kv z2 ) is operating in its unsaturated region,
the solution converges, at a slower rate, to an invariant neigh- Analogously, for z ∈ ∂Ω 1 ∩ Ω 2 , in light of (22c), a similar result
borhood of the submanifold z2 = z1 = 0, which is equivalent to is attained for z1
ṽ = p̃ = 0, where both saturation functions are operating within e⊤ ⊤ −1
( ( ) )
i z1 ei ż1 ≤ ∥z1 ∥∞ −σp Mp + Mv kv
the respective saturation levels. Afterward, the solution converges (28)
to (z1 , z2 ) = (p̃, ṽ) = (0, 0). The distinct convergence rates < 0, with i = argmax |e⊤
i z1 |
i

5
L. Martins, C. Cardeira and P. Oliveira Automatica 162 (2024) 111521

Whenever z is in the boundary of Ω 1 ∩ Ω 2 , three cases can

happen: if z ∈ ∂Ω 1 ∩ Ω 2 , it follows from (28) that the absolute
value of the components of z1 whose modulus is equal to ∥z1 ∥∞
will decrease; if z ∈ Ω 1 ∩ ∂Ω 2 , given (27), the absolute value of
the components of z2 with modulus equal to ∥z2 ∥∞ will decrease;
lastly, if z ∈ ∂Ω 1 ∩ Ω 2 , a combination of the two previous
cases occurs. Therefore, z(t ′ ) ∈ Ω 1 ∩ Ω 2 implies that z(t) ∈
Ω 1 ∩Ω 2 ∀ t ≥ t ′ . Thereby, the set Ω 1 ∩Ω 2 is positively invariant.
For z(t) ∈ R3 × R3 × R3 \ Ω 2 , since Mv > Mp , one has
Fig. 2. Feedback interconnection between Σ 1 and Σ 2 .
i σ v (kv z2 ) = sgn ei ṽ , with i = argmax |ei z2 |
sgn e⊤ ⊤ ⊤
( ) ( )
i

Given (22b), the previous equation enables writing

Focusing now on the subsystem Σ 2 , which has the second and
⊤˙ third equations of (20) as underlying differential equations, (z2 , ζ)
i ṽei ṽ ≤ ∥ṽ∥∞ −σv (Mv ) + bMp + Mζ
e⊤
( )
(29) as state-vector and the vectors bp and y1 = σ̇ p (kp z1 ) ⊙ kp ż1 as
< 0 with i = argmax |e⊤
i z2 | inputs. Assume that the following restriction holds:
i

v + σp Mp
1
∥y1 ∥∞ ≤ kp Mv k−
( ( ))
Then, it follows that any trajectory z(t) starting in R3 × R3 × R3 \ (34)
Ω 2 enters Ω 2 in finite time. Hence, there exists a time instant Let Vz2 : R3 × R3 ↦ → R≥0 be defined by
t ∗ > 0 such that ∥z2 (t)∥∞ < Mv k−v
1
∀ t ≥ t ∗ . For z(t) ∈ Ω 2 \Ω 1 ,
in virtue of (22c), the following inequality is verified 3 ∫ kv e⊤ z ∫ kζ e⊤ ζ
∑ i 2 kv i

−1 Vz2 (z2 , ζ) := σv (µ) dµ + σζ (µ) dµ

e⊤ ⊤
( ( ) )
i z1 ei ż1 ≤ ∥z1 ∥∞ −σp Mp + Mv kv i=1 0 kζ 0

< 0 with i = argmax |e⊤

i z1 | The function Vz2 is continuous, positive-definite with respect to
i
its origin, and radially unbounded. The time derivative V̇z2 is given
Consequently, given (22c), z(t) reaches the set Ω 1 ∩ Ω 2 in finite by
time. Therefore, since the set Ω 1 ∩ Ω 2 is positively invariant, it
follows that there exists a time instant τ > 0 such that z(t) ∈ V̇z2 = σ v (kv z2 )⊤ −σ v (kv z2 ) + y1 + bp
( )
Ω 1 ∩ Ω 2 ∀ t ≥ τ . With this result in mind, the focus is now on
showing that (20) is input-to-state stable without restrictions on The function V̇z2 is negative for
the initial conditions by applying a small gain theorem. To this
i z2 | > 2 max{|ei y1 |, |ei bp |}, for i = 1, 2, 3.
σv kv |e⊤ ⊤ ⊤
( )
end, the subsystems
Given (32), the previous equation holds whenever
ż1 = y2 − σ p (kp z1 )
{
Σ1 2Mv
y1 = σ̇ p (kp z1 ) ⊙ kp ż1 i z2 | >
|e⊤ i y1 |, |ei bp | , for i = 1, 2, 3
max |e⊤ ⊤
{ }
{ σv (Mv ) kv
z˙2 = −σ v (kv z2 ) − σ ζ kζ ζ + y1 + bp ,
( )
Σ2 The fulfillment of the latter expression implies
ζ̇ = σ v (kv z2 ) , y2 = z2 2Mv
∥ (z2 , ζ) ∥ >
{ }
max ∥y1 ∥, ∥bp ∥
are defined. The resulting feedback interconnection between Σ 1 σv (Mv )kv
and Σ 2 is schematized in Fig. 2. First, consider the subsystem Σ 1 ,
The function Φ2 (s) = 2Mv
σv (Mv )kv
s belongs to class K. Thereby, it
governed by the first differential equation of (20), with z1 (t) as
state-vector, and y2 (t) = z2 (t) as input. Let the input y2 (t) satisfy follows from Isidori et al. (2003, Definition B.2.7) that Vz2 is a
ISS-Lyapunov function for the Σ 2 subsystem. Hence, according
1
to Isidori et al. (2003, Theorem B.2.3.), the Σ 2 subsystem is ISS
∥y2 ∥∞ ≤ Mv k−
v (30) without restriction on the initial state and restrictions (34) and
Let Vz1 : R3 ↦ → R≥0 be defined by Vz1 (z1 ) := 21 z⊤ (8) on the inputs y1 and bp , respectively. Under these conditions,
1 z1 . The
function Vz1 is continuous, positive-definite with respect to its the following asymptotic bound is guaranteed.

i z2 (t)∥a ≤ max Φ2 ∥ei y1 ∥a ,

origin and radially unbounded.) The time derivative of Vz1 is given ∥e⊤
{ ( ⊤ )

1 y2 − σ p (kp z1 ) . The function V̇z1 is negative when

(35)
(
by V̇z1 = z⊤
Φ2 ∥e⊤ , for i = 1, 2, 3
( )}
i bp (t)∥a
σp kp |e⊤
i z1 | > |ei y2 |,
⊤
for i = 1, 2, 3
( )
(31) Since the trajectory z(t) is captured in finite time τ by the
holds. The property (1e) enables writing positively invariant set Ω 1 ∩ Ω 2 , the conditions (30) and (34) are
fulfilled for all t ≥ τ , i.e.,
σ (|r |) ≥ σ (M ) M −1 |r |, for |r | ≤ M (32)
sup ∥y2 (t)∥∞ < Mv k−
v
1

In this direction, the condition (31) is guaranteed if t ∈ [τ ,+∞[

∥y1 (t)∥∞ < kp Mv k−

v + σp Mp
1
( ( ))
sup
i z1 | > Mp (σp Mp kp ) |ei y2 |, for i = 1, 2, 3
( ) −1 ⊤
|e⊤
t ∈ [τ ,+∞[

Note that Φ1 (s) = Mp (σp Mp kp ) s is a class K function. Thus, it

( ) −1
Furthermore, applying the triangle inequality to the first differ-
follows from Isidori et al. (2003, Definition B.2.7) that Vz1 is a ISS- ential equation of (20) yields
Lyapunov function for the Σ 1 subsystem. Therefore, according to
i ż1 | ≤ |ei z2 | + |ei σ p (kp z1 )|, for i = 1, 2, 3
|e⊤ ⊤ ⊤
Isidori et al. (2003, Theorem B.2.3.), Σ 1 is ISS without restriction
on the initial state and restriction (30) on the input y2 . In this Given the properties outlined in Definition 1, the previous expres-
direction, under the restriction (30), one ensures sion transforms into

i z1 (t)∥a ≤ Φ1 ∥ei y2 (t)∥a ,

∥e⊤ for i = 1, 2, 3 i ż1 | ≤ max 2|ei z2 |, 2kp |ei z1 | , for i = 1, 2, 3
( ⊤
|e⊤
) { ⊤ ⊤
}
(33)
6
L. Martins, C. Cardeira and P. Oliveira Automatica 162 (2024) 111521

Thus, for z(t) ∈ Ω 1 ∩ Ω 2 , the asymptotic bound on the initial state and restriction (8) on the input bp . In this
direction, according to Isidori et al. (2003, Definition B.2.2.), the
i z2 ∥a , kp Φ1 ∥ei z2 ∥a
∥ei ż1 ∥a ≤ 2 max ∥e⊤ , for i = 1, 2, 3
⊤
{ ( ⊤ )}
trajectory )(z1 , z2 )(t) is asymptotically bounded by ∥(z1 , z2 )(t)∥a ≤
Φz ∥bp ∥a , where Φz is a class K function. Considering the
(
follows from (33). The latter expression is equivalent to ( trans-
formation (17), for (z1 , z2 ) = (0, 0) one has x̃p = p̃, ṽ =
)
2Mp
∥e⊤
i ż1 ∥a ≤ i z2 (t)∥a , for i = 1, 2, 3
( ) ∥e⊤ (0, 0). Moreover, an asymptotically bounded trajectory (z1 , z2 ) (t)
σp Mp implies an asymptotically bounded trajectory x̃p (t):
Hence, the interconnection terms y1 = σ̇ p (kp z1 ) ⊙ kp ż1 and y2 = ∥x̃p (t)∥a ≤ Φp ∥bp ∥a
( )
(38)
z2 , for z(t) ∈ Ω 1 ∩ Ω 2 , fulfill the asymptotic bounds
where Φp is a class K function. Hence, (21) is also ISS without
i y1 (t)∥a ≤ Φ3 ∥ei y2 (t)∥a ,
∥e⊤ for i = 1, 2, 3
( ⊤ )
restrictions on the initial states and restriction (8) on the dis-
turbance bp . Concerning the bounds on T , applying the triangle
i y2 (t)∥a ≤ max Φ2 ∥ei y1 (t)∥a ,
∥e⊤
{ ( ⊤ )
inequality to the norm of the control law (19) yields
Φ2 ∥ei bp (t)∥a , for i = 1, 2, 3
( ⊤ )}
∥up ∥ ≤ ∥σ v (kv z2 ) ∥ + ∥σ ζ kζ ζ ∥ + ge3 + ∥p̈d ∥
( )
(39)
2kp Mp
where Φ3 (s) = σp (Mp )
s is a class K function as well. In further- Given the properties detailed in Definition 1, (10a), (16), and
ance of proving that the system (20) is input-to-state stable, the (22d), one has
functions Φ3 and Φ2 must satisfy
√ 1
0 < T < m(g + 3(Mv + Mζ ) + (Ka21,2 + Ka23 ) 2 ) (40)
Φ3 ◦ Φ2 (r) < r , for r > 0 (36) Thus, it follows from (10b) and (22d) that T ∈ Ω T for r ∈ Ω and
In this direction, the composition Φ3 ◦ Φ2 (r) yields each solution (x̃p , ζ )(t) defined for t ≥ 0. ■

Φ3 ◦ Φ2 (r) = 4kp Mp Mv (kv σp Mp σv (Mv ))−1 r In light of (22), Mv and kv have a positive lower-bound,
( )
whereas Mp , kp , Mζ can be set with an arbitrarily small positive
Mp
Since σp and σv are in line with Definition 1, σp (Mp )
= Mv
σv (Mv )
= value. In more detail, for any selection of the control gains and
M parameters, one has
σ (M )
. Thus, given the small gain condition contained in (22c), the
inequality (36) holds. Furthermore, it also implies Mv > 2M
b ,
σ (M) Mp
kv > M
σ (M)

Φ2 ◦ Φ3 (r) < r , for r > 0 (37) In addition, note that (22) implies
( { ρa
} )( )−1
To apply the small gain theorem, the origin of (20) is required Mζ < max ρa1 , √2 − 2M
b
σ (M) Mp
1+ 2M
σ (M)
3m
to be stable in the absence of inputs. Thereby, profiting from the
existence of a time τ such that z(t) ∈ Ω 1 ∩ Ω 2 ∀ t ≥ τ , consider Compared to the ISS conditions outlined in Isidori et al. (2003)
bp = 0 and let Vz : R3 × R3 × R3 × ↦ → R≥0 be defined by and Naldi et al. (2017), due to not imposing σ (M) = M in
Vz (z) := c1 Vz1 (z1 ) + c2 Vz2 (z2 , ζ), with c1 = 4k3p and c2 = k−1
v .
this work, the inequalities (22b)–(22c) depend on the value of
The function Vz is continuous, positive-definite with respect to its the saturation functions at the respective saturation level rather
origin, and radially unbounded. Given (1d), the time derivative V̇z than depending exclusively on the saturation levels. Furthermore,
satisfies considering |s| ≥ σ (|s|) hinders the derivation of the class K
3 functions of the asymptotic bounds, (33) and (35), since extract-
ing an upper bound for |s| from an inequality involving σ (|s|)
∑
i z1 ||ei z2 | − c1 ei z1 σp kp ei z1
c1 |e⊤ ⊤ ⊤ ⊤
( )
V̇z ≤
becomes less straightforward. Given this drawback, the deriva-
i=1
( ⊤ )2 tion leverages the concave function σ (|s|), leading to the distinct
i z2 σv kv ei z2 − σv kv ei z2
+ kp e⊤
( ⊤ )
condition (22c). Lastly, due to the inclusion of the saturated
+ kp |σp kp e⊤ integrative action, the convergence to the positively invariant
( ) ( ⊤ )
i z1 ||σv kv ei z2 |
nested manifolds is influenced, resulting in one of the necessary
For z(t) ∈ Ω 1 ∩ Ω 2 , by combining the bound (32) with the inequalities for the reachability of unsaturated regions, (22b),
properties (1b) and (1d), and the condition (22c), the previous being dependent on its saturation level. It is worth noting that
equation yields the saturated integrative term allows compensating effectively
3
[ ] for constant additive bounded disturbances. On the other hand,
∑ 4k2p −kp
z ∗⊤
ei e⊤ ∗ the solutions proposed in Isidori et al. (2003) and Naldi et al.
V̇z ≤ − 3 i z ≤ 0
i=1
−kp 4 (2017) lack this feature, thus failing to eliminate the steady-state
( ) ( ) error caused by such disturbances.
where e⊤ ∗ ⊤
i z = [|σp kp ei z1 | |σv kv e⊤ ⊤
i z2 |] . The function V̇z
is negative for z(t) ∈ Ω 1 ∩Ω 2 . Therefore, in light of the trajectory 5. Saturated global asymptotic tracking for the full system
reaching the positively invariant set Ω 1 ∩ Ω 2 for any given initial
state z(0), it follows from Khalil and Grizzle (2002, Theorem 4.8) The position control designed in Section 4 determines the
that the origin of the system (20), in the absence of inputs, is thrust force magnitude and direction required to track the trajec-
globally uniformly stable. Since the subsystems Σ 1 and Σ 2 are tory. Accordingly, the vector up is reassigned to up := Rd e3 Tm−1 .
ISS without restrictions on the initial state and restriction (8) on With this redefinition, the position error dynamics reshape into
the input bp , the trajectories of (20) are defined for all t ≥ 0,
˙
⎧
and the restrictions (30) and (34) are fulfilled for all t ≥ τ , the ⎨p̃ = ṽ
⎪
interconnection terms y1 and y2 verify the asymptotic bounds ˙ṽ = (R − Rd ) ∥up ∥e3 + up − ge3 − p̈d (41)
(33) and (35). Furthermore, according to Isidori et al. (2003, Theo- ⎪
ζ̇ = σ v kv (ṽ + σ p (kp p̃))
⎩ ( )
rem B.3.2.), by combining these asymptotic bounds with the small
gain properties (36) and (37), and the global uniform stability The interconnection between the positional and the angular con-
result for bp = 0, it follows that (20) is ISS without restriction trol loops originates the term Γ = (R − Rd ) ∥up ∥e3 , which, in
7
L. Martins, C. Cardeira and P. Oliveira Automatica 162 (2024) 111521

(21), was initially represented by( bp). Bearing in mind (15), the As previously stated, the modified Rodrigues parameters are
constraint of (11) is defined as α up := up ∥up ∥−1 . In this way, resorted to parameterize the attitude. Let R̃ ∈ SO (3) denote the
Rd can be computed using (12) and, based on Martins et al. rotation matrix error given by
(2021b, Eqs. (27)–(30)), the angular velocity and acceleration
R̃ = R⊤
dR (45)
references are given by:
−1 and that satisfies R̃ = Rϑ (ϑ̃), where ϑ̃ ∈ R̄3 represents the
e1 ]⊤ R⊤
[ ]
[−e2 d u̇p ∥up ∥
ωd = (42) MRP error. The evolution of the MRP error satisfies the kinematic
3 ωr
e⊤ ˙
equation ϑ̃ = T(ϑ̃)(ω̃), where ω̃ ∈ R3 denotes the angular velocity
[
[−e2 e1 ]⊤ ([ωd ]2× e3 − R⊤ −1 ] error computed through
d üp ∥up ∥ )
ω̇d = (43)
3 ω̇ r
e⊤ ω̃ = ω − R̃⊤ ωd (46)

Since the thrust direction does not constrain the rotation around To compute ϑ̃ from R̃, the hybrid dynamic path-lifting algorithm
itself, the third component of ωd and ω̇d result from ωr . In described in Appendix is used. To better illustrate an inherent
Lemma 5, bounds for ωd and ω̇d are derived. mechanism of the MRP representation, consider α = 0 to with-
draw the hysteretic behavior. In this way, the bound ∥ϑ̃∥ ≤ 1,
Lemma 5. There exist constants Λω , Λω̇ ∈ R>0 such that corresponding to the MRP error vector associated with the short-
∥ωd (t)∥ ≤ Λω and ∥ω̇d (t)∥ ≤ Λω̇ hold for t ≥ 0. est principal rotation available (Junkins & Schaub, 2009, p. 120),
is guaranteed. This equivalence enables dealing effectively with
Proof. Let α, β, φ ∈ R>0 be defined as follows tumbling situations in which the quadrotor has performed a prin-
cipal rotation beyond ±180◦ away from the angular reference. In
α = max |σ̇ (s)σ (s)|, β = max |σ̈ (s)σ (s)2 |, practical terms, this translates into the quadrotor completing the
s∈R s∈R
revolution instead of attempting to force it back. Hence, this ad-
φ = max |σ̈ (s)σ (s)| vantageous feature prevents the unwinding phenomenon without
s∈R
requiring the introduction of a logic state in the control structure,
The time derivative of (19) yields:
as in quaternion-based solutions (cf. Casau et al. (2015) and
(3)
u̇p = −σ̇ v (kv z2 ) ⊙ kv ż2 − σ̇ ζ (kζ ζ ) ⊙ kζ ζ̇ + pd (44) Mayhew et al. (2011)). Further, compared to solutions developed
directly on SO(3) (cf. Lee (2015) and Mayhew and Teel (2011)), by
Given the characteristics of the saturation function, one notes that designing a control law that exploits this inherent mechanism, it
the maximum value for ∥u̇p ∥∥up ∥−1 occurs when the saturation is possible to attain a global stability result without resorting to
functions σ v and σ ζ are operating within the respective unsatu- multiple potential or error functions.
rated region. With this in mind and recalling√ Assumption 2, (1d), A saturated hybrid control methodology relying on Lyapunov
(22b), and (22c), the bound ∥u̇p ∥∥up ∥−1 ≤ 3Λu̇ is derived, with stability was designed considering the position control presented
in Section 4. Let the output of the MRP-based controller,
kv (αv + 2−1 σv (Mv ) + kp αp ) + kζ σv (Mv ) + Kj τ (ϑ̃, ω̃, ϵ̃, τ f ) : R̄3 × R3 × R3 × R3 ↦→ R3 , be defined by saturated
Λu̇ = ,
g − Ka3 − σv (Mv ) − σζ (Mζ ) feedback control law
Then, considering (42), the norm ∥ωd ∥ verifies τ = −T(ϑ̃)⊤ σ ϑ (kϑ ϑ̃) − σ ω (kω ω̃) − σ ϵ (kϵ ϵ̃) − τ f (47)
with kϑ , kω , kϵ > 0 and where σ ϑ , σ ω , and σ ϵ are saturation
√
∥ωd ∥ ≤ 3Λ2u̇ + Kω2 = Λω
functions, with the properties detailed in Definition 1, with Mϑ ,
The time derivative of (44) yields: Mω , and Mϵ , respectively, as saturation levels, ϵ̃ ∈ R3 is an integral
state that verifies ϵ̃˙ = kϑ ω̃ and τ f ∈ R3 is defined as follows
üp = −k2v σ̈ v ⊙ ż2 ⊙ ż2 − kv σ̇ v ⊙ z̈2
τ f = [Jω̄]× ω̄ − JR̃⊤ ω̇d , with ω̄ = R̃⊤ ωd (48)
− k2ζ σ̈ ζ ⊙ ζ̇ ⊙ ζ̇ − kζ σ̇ ζ ⊙ ζ̈ + p(4)
d
In light of 4T(ϑ̃)⊤ ϑ̃ = (1 + ∥ϑ̃∥2 )ϑ̃ (Junkins & Schaub, 2009),
For readability, the arguments of the derivatives of the saturation
when the saturation function σ ϑ operates within its unsatu-
functions in (5) were omitted. As in the computation of the previ-
rated region, T(ϑ̃)⊤ σ ϑ (kϑ ϑ̃) can be well approximated by a vector
ous bound, the maximum value for ∥üp ∥∥up ∥−1 occurs when σ v
collinear with the principal axis of rotation and proportional to
and σ ζ operate within the respective unsaturated region. In this
the principal angle of rotation.
direction, considering the conditions detailed in Assumption
√ 2,
The attitude error dynamic model is constructed within the
(1d), (1f), one arrives to the bound ∥üp ∥∥up ∥−1 ≤ 3Λü , with
hybrid system framework to encapsulate the switches between
σv (Mv ) σv (Mv ) the original and the shadow MRP error sets and the subsequent
k2v (βv + 2φv ( + kp αp ) + 1
( + kp αp )2 )
effects. Let rh = (Rd , ωd ) ∈ Ω h ⊂ SO(3) × Λω B3 , xh :=
2 Mv 2
Λü =
g − Ka3 − σv (Mv ) − σζ (Mζ ) (ϑ̃, ω̃, ϵ̃, rh ) ∈ χh , χh = R̄3 × R3 × R3 ×Ω h , with Ω h being a com-
k2p ( M2v max{2φp , 1} + kv max{αp , βp }) +
Mv2 kp pact set, in order to define the hybrid system H = (C, F, D, G):
2kv Mp
+
g − Ka3 − σv (Mv ) − σζ (Mζ ) T(ϑ̃)ω̃
⎛ ⎞
σv (Mv ) ⎜J−1 (∆ (ω̃, ω̄) + τ + τ + d )⎟
(k2v + kv kζ )(αv + + kp αp ) + kζ αv kv
2
⎜ f ϑ ⎟
+ F(xh ) := ⎜ kϑ ω̃ (49a)
g − Ka3 − σv (Mv ) − σζ (Mζ )
⎜ ⎟
⎟
Rd [ωd ]×
⎜ ⎟
kζ Mζ−1 σv (Mv )2
2
+ kζ kv (αζ − Mζ ) + Ks
⎝ ⎠
+ Λω̇ B3
g − Ka3 − σv (Mv ) − σζ (Mζ )
In this way, bearing in mind (43), ∥ω̇d ∥ is bounded by: C(xh ) := {xh ∈ χh : ∥ϑ̃∥ ≤ 1 + δ} (49b)
√
∥ω̇d ∥ ≤ 3(Λü + Λu̇ Kω )2 + Kω̇2 = Λω̇ ■ G(xh ) := (Υ (ϑ̃), ω̃, ϵ̃, Rd , ωd ) (49c)
8
L. Martins, C. Cardeira and P. Oliveira Automatica 162 (2024) 111521

Moreover, let the control design parameters verify the following

conditions
τϕmax > e⊤
1 Je1 Λω̇ + 2
−1 ⊤
2 Je2 |Λω + ι
|e3 Je3 − e⊤ 2
(51a)

τθmax > e⊤
2 Je2 Λω̇ + 2
−1 ⊤
1 Je1 |Λω + ι
|e3 Je3 − e⊤ 2
(51b)

τψmax > e⊤
3 Je3 Λω̇ + 2
−1 ⊤
2 Je2 |Λω + ι
|e1 Je1 − e⊤ 2
(51c)

with ι = (1 + (1 +δ + Mω + Mϵ . Then, τ ∈ Ω τ for any solution

M
)2 ) 4ϑ
xh to H.

Proof. Let Vh (xh ) : χh ↦ → R≥0 be a function given by Vh (xh ) :=

kϵ V̄h (ϑ̃, ω̃) + Vh∗ (ϵ̃), with
Fig. 3. Depiction of switching logic: when the norm of the original MRP is 3 ∫ kϑ e⊤ ϑ̃
greater than 1 + δ , (a), the hybrid algorithm jumps to the shadow MRP
( ) 1 ∑ i
V̄h ϑ̃, ω̃ := kϑ ω̃ Jω̃ + σϑ (µ) dµ
⊤
(52)
representation through the map Υ (ϑ̃). The resulting MRP description, (b), has 2 0
a norm lower than (1 + δ )−1 and corresponds to the shortest principal rotation i=1
available. The switch is hysteretic due to the inclusion of the parameter δ . 3 ∫
∑ k ϵ e⊤
i
ϵ̃ ∫ e⊤ d
i ϑ
Vh (ϵ̃) :=
∗
σϵ (µ) − ei dϑ dµ +
⊤
σϵ−1 (µ) dµ (53)
i=1 0 0

The function Vh is continuously differentiable on χh and, given

the assumption that Mϵ > dMϑ holds and the properties of the
D(xh ) := {xh ∈ χh : ∥ϑ̃∥ ≥ 1 + δ} (49d)
saturation function, is radially unbounded. Therefore, since rh
for some δ > 0 and where belongs to the compact set Ω h , the sublevel sets of Vh are com-
pact. In particular, for any initial condition xh (0, 0), the set U =
∆ (ω̃, ω̄) = [Jω̃]× − [ω̄]× J + [Jω̄]× − J [ω̄]× ω̃
( )
(50)
xh ∈ χh : Vh (xh ) ≤ Vh (xh (0, 0)) is compact. Let the compact
{ }

The switching between the original and the shadow sets is hys- set Āh be defined as follows:
teretic due to the inclusion of the parameter δ . In this way,
Āh = {xh ∈ χh : ϑ̃ = 0, ω̃ = 0, σ ϵ (kϵ ϵ̃) = dϑ } (54)
assuming the measurements are corrupted by an upper-bounded
noise, by setting the hysteresis parameter δ to a greater value, To demonstrate that Vh is positive-definite with respect to the set
noise-induced chattering is avoided. Thus, the switching becomes Āh , the functions V̄h and Vh∗ are evaluated separately. It is straight-
robust to measurement noise. In Fig. 3, the switching algorithm forward to verify that V̄h is positive-definite with respect to its
and the hysteresis region are illustrated. origin. Following from the symmetry property of the saturation
Before analyzing the stability of the hybrid system H, the function, the properties of the absolute value function, and the
relevant property of this closed-loop system stated in Lemma 6 condition Mϵ > dMϑ , Vh∗ is lower-bounded by
is worth noticing.
3 ∫
∑ kϵ |e⊤
i
ϵ̃| ∫ | e⊤ d |
i ϑ

Lemma 6. The hybrid system H is well-posed. Vh∗ ≥ σϵ (µ) dµ + σϵ−1 (µ) dµ − kϵ |e⊤
i ϵ̃||ei dϑ |
⊤

i=1 0 0

Proof. The flow set C is closed and the map Υ : R̄3 ↦ → R̄3 (55)
is continuous on D. Consequently, since the inverse image of a
closed set under a continuous mapping is closed, the jump set and, since σϵ is a non-decreasing function, similar to the approach
D is closed. The flow map F is a single-valued mapping. The followed in Casau et al. (2015), directly apply the Young’s in-
mapping ωd ↦ → Λω̇ B3 is convex and bounded. Furthermore, it equality to prove that Vh∗ }is positive-definite with respect to the
set ϵ̃ ∈ R3 : σ ϵ (kϵ ϵ̃) = dϑ . Therefore, the function Vh is positive-
{
is independent of xh , the graph is closed and, therefore, outer
semicontinuous. The remaining functions that F encompasses definite on C ∪ D with respect to the set Āh . The time derivative
of Vh is characterized by V̇h = −kϵ kϑ ω̃ σ ω (kω ω̃), from which one
⊤
are continuous on C, thus, are outer semicontinuous and locally
bounded, and correspond to differential equations, which, accord- concludes that V̇h ≤ 0 ∀ xh ∈ C. The evolution of Vh during
ing to Goebel et al. (2012, Assumption 6.5), can be identified jumps is expressed through
with a hybrid system satisfying hybrid basic conditions. Since the 3 ∫ kϑ e⊤ Υ (ϑ̃)
i
single-valued mapping Υ is continuous and Υ (ϑ̃) yields ∥ϑ̃∥ ≤
∑
Vh (G (xh )) − Vh (xh ) = σϑ (µ) dµ (56)
(1 + δ )−1 for xh ∈ D, and ω̃, ϵ̃, and rh remain constant during i=1 kϑ e⊤
i
ϑ̃
jumps, D × G(D) is closed and G(D) is bounded. Hence, G is outer
semicontinuous (Goebel et al., 2012, Lemma 5.10) and locally Given (3) and the fact that, for xh ∈ D, the condition ∥ϑ̃∥2 ≥
bounded (Goebel et al., 2012, Definition 5.14) relative to D. Hence, (1 + δ )2 holds, the latter equation simplifies into
since the hybrid basic conditions stated in Goebel et al. (2012, 3 ∫ kϑ e⊤ ϑ̃
∑ i
Assumption 6.5) are met, it follows from Goebel et al. (2012, Vh (G (xh )) − Vh (xh ) ≤ − σϑ (µ) dµ (57)
Theorem 6.30) that H is well-posed. ■ −kϑ e⊤ ϑ̃
i=1 i (1+δ )2

In Theorem 7, the global asymptotic stability result for the set
Ah := {xh ∈ χh : ϑ̃ = 0, ω̃ = 0} is demonstrated.
Theorem 7. Let the conditions expressed in Assumption 2 hold for
all t ≥ 0 and let Mϵ > dMϑ . The solutions to H are complete and
bounded, and the compact set Ah is globally asymptotically stable.
9
Note that the jump always occurs from the exterior of the sphere
of radius 1 + δ to its interior. In addition, the saturation function
σ ϑ is odd and nondecreasing. Thereby, it follows that Vh (G (xh ))−
Vh (xh ) < 0 ∀ xh1 ∈ D. Thus, Vh is monotonically decreasing
along flows and strictly decreasing during jumps, which implies
that any solution xh (t , j) to H remains in U for all (t , j) ∈ dom xh .
L. Martins, C. Cardeira and P. Oliveira Automatica 162 (2024) 111521

Furthermore, there exists a nontrivial solution xh to H from every

initial point in C ∪ D and, since G (D) ⊂ C, the maximal solutions τϕmax ≤ L min{T1max + T4max , T2max + T3max }
of H do not jump out of C ∪ D. Hence, each maximal solution to H
is bounded and complete (Goebel et al., 2012, Proposition 6.10). τθmax ≤ L min{T1max + T2max , T3max + T4max }
Consider the functions
−kϵ kϑ ω̃⊤ σ ω (kω ω̃) , xh ∈ C
{ τψmax ≤ min{c1 T1max + c3 T3max , c2 T2max + c4 T4max }
uc (xh ) = (58a)
−∞ , xh ∈ /C These relations are particularly useful from an implementation
standpoint since it facilitates verifying whether the propellers
⎧
3 ∫ kϑ e⊤ ϑ̃
⎪ i
fulfill the actuation requirements. It is also worth stating that,
∑
σϑ (µ) dµ ,
⎪
⎨− xh ∈ D
ud (xh ) = ⊤ ϑ̃ (58b) since H is well-posed, according to Goebel et al. (2012, Theorem
i=1 −kϑ ei (1+δ )2
⎪ 7.21), H is robust to small measurement noise. To obtain a global
, /D
⎪
−∞ xh ∈
⎩
stability result for the full system from the previous stability
In conformity with the invariance principle stated by Goebel et al. results, it is imperative to guarantee that the interconnection
in Goebel et al. (2012, Theorem 8.2.), since xh (dom xh ) ⊂ U, term Γ is arbitrarily small in finite time. In this way, there will
uc (xh ) ≤ 0, ud (xh ) < 0 ∀ xh ∈ U, and Vh is continuously be a time instant tp > 0 such that ∥Γ ∥∞ < bMp ∀ t ≥ tp ,
differentiable on χh ⊃ C, the complete and bounded solutions and, subsequently, one can resort to cascade control arguments
to H approach the largest weakly invariant non-empty subset of to demonstrate the global stability result for the full system.
[ ))] Furthermore, it is also necessary to establish an equivalence of
Vh−1 (r) ∩ U ∩ u−1 −1 −1
( (
c (0) ∪ ud (0) ∩ G ud (0) (59) stability between H and a hybrid system that considers the at-
titude tracking dynamics described in the rotation group SO(3).
for some r ∈ Vh (U). The former results yield In this direction, let HR := (CR , FR , DR , GR ) denote a closed-loop
hybrid system that encapsulates the interconnection between
c (0) = {xh ∈ χ : ω̃ = 0},
1 1 −1
u− u−
( )
d (0) ∩ G ud (0) = ∅ the attitude tracking dynamics described in SO(3), the dynamics
The largest weakly invariant set of (59) is Āh . Hence, each maxi- of the MRP-based controller, and the hybrid algorithm Hϑ . The
mal solution for H, given its completeness and boundedness, will hybrid system HR has xR := (R̃, ω̃, ϵ̃, q̂, m, rh ) ∈ χR := SO(3) ×
converge to Āh . Thereby, Āh is globally attractive. Furthermore, R3 × R3 × S3 × {−1, 1} × Ω h as state-vector and is defined as
since uc (xh ) ≤ 0 and ud (xh ) < 0 for all xh , and given that the follows
⎛ ⎞
function Vh is positive-definite on C ∪ D with respect to the set Āh R̃ [ω̃]×
and continuously differentiable on a neighborhood of C, it follows ⎜ ( ⎟
⎜J−1 ∆ (ω̃, ω̄) + τ + τ f + dϑ )⎟
from Goebel et al. (2012, Theorem 8.8.) that Āh is globally stable. ⎜ ⎟
As a result, once Āh ⊂ Ah is globally attractive and stable, Ah is kϑ ω̃
⎜ ⎟
⎜ ⎟
globally asymptotically stable for the hybrid system H. FR := ⎜
⎜ ⎟
(61a)
0 ⎟
Given the properties detailed in Definition 1 and the bounds ⎜ ⎟
derived in Lemma 5, the input vector τ , for i = 1, 2, 3, satisfies
⎜
⎜ 0 ⎟
⎟
Rd [ωd ]×
⎜ ⎟
i τ| < ∥T(ϑ̃ )∥Mϑ + Mω + Mϵ + ei ([Jω̄ ]× ω̄ + JΛω̇ ei )
|e⊤ ⊤ ⎝ ⎠
Λω̇ B3
Considering the property (Junkins & Schaub, 2009, p. 123)
CR := {xR ∈ χR : (R̃, q̂, m) ∈ Cm ∩ Cl } (61b)
T(ϑ̃)⊤ T(ϑ̃) = 4−2 (1 + ∥ϑ̃∥2 )2 I3 ,
{
1
one has ∥T(ϑ̃)∥ = (λmax (T(ϑ̃)⊤ T(ϑ̃))) 2 ≤ 4−1 (1 + (1 + δ )2 ). Then, (R̃, ω̃, ϵ̃, Φ (q̂, R̃), m, rh ), (R̃, q̂, m) ∈ Dl
GR := (61c)
given the result of the cross product [Jω̄]× ω̄ and the equality (R̃, ω̃, ϵ̃, q̂, −m, rh ), (R̃, q̂, m) ∈ Dm
∥ω̄∥ = ∥ωd ∥, it follows
DR = {xR ∈ χR : (R̃, q̂, m) ∈ Dm ∪ Dl } (61d)
1 τ| ≤ e1 Je1 Λω̇ + 2 2 Je2 |Λω + ι
−1 ⊤ 2
|e⊤ ⊤
|e3 Je3 − e⊤ (60a)
In Theorem 8, the stability result for the full tracking system,
comprising (41) and (61), is demonstrated.
2 τ| ≤ e2 Je2 Λω̇ + 2 1 Je1 |Λω + ι
−1 ⊤ 2
|e⊤ ⊤
|e3 Je3 − e⊤ (60b)
Theorem 8. Let the conditions expressed in Assumption 2, Theo-
3 τ| ≤ e3 Je3 Λω̇ + 2
|e⊤ ⊤ −1 ⊤
2 Je2 |Λω + ι
|e1 Je1 − e⊤ 2
(60c) rems 4 and 7 hold for all t ≥ 0. Let x̃ = (x̃p , ζ, R̃, ω̃, ϵ̃, q̂, m) and
χ1 = R3 × R3 × R3 × SO(3) × R3 × R3 × S3 × {−1, 1}. Then, the
Hence, given (51), it follows that τ ∈ Ω τ for any solution xh to compact set
H. ■
A1 = { r, x̃ ∈ Ω × χ1 : x̃p = 0, R̃ = I3 , ω̃ = 0}
( )
(62)
The complete set of requirements, comprising (22), (51), and
Mϵ > dMϑ , allows defining arbitrarily small positive values for the is globally asymptotically stable for the closed-loop tracking system
parameters of the controllers except Mv , kv , and Mϵ . Nonetheless, formed by (41) and (61). Furthermore, the specified bounds on the
(10) pre-allocates actuation margins for these three parameters thrust and torque are fulfilled, i.e., T ∈ Ω T and τ ∈ Ω τ .
based on their infimum values. Thus, one has some flexibility
in selecting and fine-tuning the control gains and parameters, Proof. In virtue of Martins, Cardeira, and Oliveira (2023, Lemma
which facilitates finding a solution verifying all the constraints. 1) and Mayhew et al. (2013, Theorem 7), the set A∗R = {xR ∈ χR :
Furthermore, based on (9), one can translate the actuation bounds ∥ϕ−1 (mΦ (q̂, R̃))∥ ≤ 1 + δ, dist(q̂, Q(R̃)) ≤ αl } is globally attrac-
for T and τ to equivalent expressions in terms of the individual tive for HR . Bearing in mind the stability result demonstrated in
thrusts as follows: Theorem 7, it follows from Martins et al. (2023, Theorem 1) that
4 the set ĀR = {xR ∈ χR : (ϕ(mΦ (q̂, R̃)), ω, ϵ̃) ∈ Ah , xR ∈ A∗R } is
∑
Tmax ≤ Timax globally asymptotically stable for the hybrid system HR . Then, by
i=1
virtue of (5), the set AR = {xR ∈ χR : R̃ = I3 , ω̃ = 0} is globally
10
L. Martins, C. Cardeira and P. Oliveira
Fig. 4. Schematic representation of the proposed control solution.
asymptotically stable for HR . Furthermore, based on Martins et al.
(2023, Lemma 1) and on the same arguments presented in the
proof of Lemma 6, the hybrid system HR satisfies the hybrid basic
conditions detailed in Goebel et al. (2012, Assumption 6.5). Hence,
in light of Goebel et al. (2012, Theorem 6.8), HR is nominally well-
posed. Therefore, it follows from Goebel et al. (2012, Theorem
7.12) that AR is KL asymptotically stable on χR . Then, it results
from Goebel et al. (2012, Theorem 3.40) that AR is uniformly
globally asymptotically stable. Thereby, AR is uniformly globally
attractive for HR , which implies that for each ϵ > 0 and r > 0
there exists tp such that, for any solution xR (t , j) to HR with
∥xR (0, 0)∥AR ≤ r, (t , j) ∈ dom xR and t + j ≥ tp imply
∥xR (t , j)∥AR ≤ ϵ . Therefore, in addition to the asymptotic result
R̃ = I3 and ω̃ = 0, R̃ is arbitrarily close to I3 in finite time.
Hence, there exists a time instant tp > 0 such that ∥Γ ∥∞ <
b Mp ∀ t ≥ tp . In this way, since for all 0 ≤ t < tp the
solutions of the position error dynamics (41) are defined and the
restriction on the input bp = Γ is fulfilled for all t ≥ tp , provided
that the inequalities stipulated in Theorem 4 are satisfied, the
asymptotic bound (38) holds. Thus, once R̃ = I3 implies Γ = 0, x̃p
asymptotically converges to 0 and the compact set A1 is globally
asymptotically stable for the closed-loop tracking system formed
by (41) and (61). Furthermore, as a direct result of Theorem 4,
Lemma 5, and Theorem 7, T ∈ Ω T and τ ∈ Ω τ ∀ t ≥ 0. ■
For xh ∈ A1 , considering (45), R̃ = I3 implies R = Rd and, from
(13), p̃ = 0 yields p = pd . Thereby, the global asymptotic stability
result of A1 for the closed-loop tracking system formed by (41)
and (61) translates into a global stability results of A for (7).
Hence, the control objective stated in Problem 3 is accomplished.
The control strategy is schematized in Fig. 4. In summary, with T
and τ given by, respectively, (16) and (47), with positive control
parameters verifying the conditions detailed in Theorems 4 and
7, for any given initial state of the vehicle, the proposed control
solution asymptotically tracks a position trajectory that satisfies
Assumption 2 while complying with thrust and torque saturation
limits.
6. Simulation results
To demonstrate the potential of the solution, a simulation
test was conducted and analyzed. For this purpose, the authors
used a model with the underlying differential equations (7) that
includes actuators dynamics, described through experimentally
determined relations, and noise disturbance, modeled from real
sensory data. The selected sampling time for the simulation was
0.01 s. The mass and inertia values of the quadrotor are, re-
spectively, m = 0.460 [kg] and J = diag(2.24 × 10−3 , 2.90 ×
10−3 , 5.30 × 10−3 ) [kg m2 ]. For more details, see Martins
( et al.
(2021a). The saturation function used was σ (s) = M tanh sM −1 ,
)
√ −1 √ √ −1
which yields α = 2(3 3) M, β = 12 3(25 5) M, and
11
Automatica 162 (2024) 111521
Table 1
Control parameters used in simulation.
kp kv kζ kϑ kω kϵ
0.75 6.0 0.5 12.0 0.05 0.001
Mp Mv Mζ Mϑ Mω Mϵ
1.0 4.0 1.5 0.3 0.05 0.02
φ = 2−1 . A proper selection of the control gains and saturation
levels is paramount since high gains and low saturation levels
impact the robustness of the solution. Low saturation levels in-
crease the sensitivity to external disturbances, while high gains,
in its turn, increase the sensibility to fast unmodeled dynamics
(Sepulchre et al., 1997, p. 274). A viable approach to select the
gains and saturation levels for the position tracking system starts
by defining kp , Mp , Mζ , and kζ , followed by selecting Mv and,
finally, choosing kv . The selection of these gains and saturation
levels must carefully consider the implications of (51), as higher
values will result in decreased actuation margins available for the
attitude tracking system. With the definition of these parameters,
the next step is to select the attitude saturation levels Mθ , Mω ,
and Mϵ and gains kθ , kω , and kϵ . If the current gains and sat-
uration levels of the position controller preclude verifying (51),
the previously discussed degree of flexibility enables reducing the
position parameters to a point in which it is possible to select
attitude saturation values satisfying (51). It is worth underscoring
that the positive attitude gains kθ , kω , and kϵ are not constrained
by the set of inequalities affecting the remaining parameters.
Nonetheless, from the proofs of Theorems 4 and 8, it follows that
x̃p enters the nested invariant manifolds when the attitude error
is arbitrarily small. Thus, the attitude gains must be defined to
obtain faster responses than the position tracking system. The
control parameters used are detailed in Table 1. Regarding the
maximum values of the thrust and torque inputs, based on (40)
and (60), one has Tmax = 9.01 [N], τϕmax = 0.49 [N m], τθmax =
0.57 [N m], and τψmax = 0.73 [N m]. The hysteresis parameter
was set with the value δ = 0.06.
The simulation test assesses the proposed control strategy
capacity to track a trajectory under the influence of bounded
and constant disturbances. In addition, to illustrate the global
nature of the attitude tracking controller, during the tracking,
the position and attitude controllers are disconnected momen-
tarily to give references directly through Rd to perform 360◦ flip
maneuvers. The baseline reference trajectory is defined by:
pd (t) = (cos (ft ) , sin (ft ) , z̄ − cos (ft )) , Rr (t) = Rr (ψd (t))
with f = 2π (15)−1 [Hz], z̄ = 4.5 [m], and where Rr (ψd (t)) corre-
sponds to a rotation of ψd (t) = −π (1 + tanh (1.1π (t − 30))) [rad]
around the unit vector e3 . Note that the reference trajectory
L. Martins, C. Cardeira and P. Oliveira Automatica 162 (2024) 111521

Fig. 5. Simulation responses attained during trajectory tracking with the control
designed. From left to right, top to bottom: (a) x, (b) y, (c) z, and (d) Euler angles.

verifies the conditions detailed in Assumption 2. The initial po-

sition was set as p(0) = (0, 0, 5) [m] and the initial attitude
was defined with a roll, pitch, and yaw angles of −179◦ , 0◦ , and
100◦ , respectively. Finally, regarding the disturbances, in addition
to dϑ = Mϵ (−0.8, −0.7, −0.7) [N m], an analogous constant Fig. 6. Saturation functions resulting from the control law during the simu-
force disturbance vector was considered and defined as dp = lation test. From left to right, top to bottom: (a) σ p (kp p̃), (b) σ ϑ (kϑ ϑ̃), (c)
mMζ (0.3, 0.35, 0.8) [N]. Note that dp differs from bp : whereas σ v (kv (ṽ + σ p (kp p̃))), (d) σ ω (kω ω̃), (e) σ ζ (kζ ζ ), and (f) σ ϵ (kϵ ϵ̃).
the former is a bounded constant disturbance vector, the latter
denotes the interconnection term of the position dynamics, bp =
Γ = (R − Rd ) ∥up ∥e3 , caused by the attitude error.
The position and Euler angles responses attained in the sim-
ulation test are depicted in Fig. 5. The attitude response is pre-
sented in Euler angles to provide a more intuitive interpretation.
Given the large initial attitude error, the position error increases
in the first two seconds of the simulation test. Nonetheless, the
quadrotor converges to the reference trajectory once it rotates to
values close to the desired attitude. Around the instants t = 10
s and t = 20 s, the position and attitude controllers are mo-
mentarily disconnected, and the attitude tracking system receives Fig. 7. Thrust and torque resulting from the control law implemented during
the references to perform a roll-flip maneuver. From the Euler the trajectory tracking in simulation. From left to right, top to bottom: (a) Thrust;
angles responses, it is noticeable that the quadrotor performed (b) Torque.
these flips while maintaining a stable behavior. Inevitably, re-
sulting from the physics of the vehicle and the referred brief
disconnection, the z and y response present deviations from the underlying theoretical approach, illustrate the global attitude re-
desired trajectory. However, after performing the requested flip covering capacity, and validate the proposed global saturated
maneuvers, the position responses evidence a seamless tracking tracking controller.
of the given trajectory. Moreover, focusing on the yaw response,
the desired reference, which incorporated a full rotation as well, 7. Experimental results
was successfully tracked.
In Fig. 6, the evolution of the saturation function terms is To experimentally validate the control solution, the Parrot
displayed in conjunction with the respective saturation levels. It AR. Drone 2.0 was the quadcopter resorted to. This off-the-shelf
is clear that the majority of these terms operated in the vicinity unmanned aerial vehicle has an altimeter and an inertial mea-
of the saturated region in the early phase of the experiment surement unit. A motion capture system provides the position
and when the flip maneuvers were performed. Nonetheless, the of the vehicle in the xy inertial plane. For further details on the
control strategy exhibited a stable response, demonstrating the implementation, the reader is referred to Martins et al. (2021a).
capacity of the saturated controllers. By confronting the thrust The experimental validation consisted of evaluating the capacity
and torque responses presented in Fig. 7 with the upper bounds to perform a trajectory similar to the one tested in simulation,
on the inputs, it becomes evident that the actuation verified with f = 2π (15)−1 [Hz], z̄ = 1.5 [m], and ψd (t) = 2π (90)−1 t
the specified saturation limits. The quadrotor was able to flip [rad]. The control parameters detailed in Table 1 were also used in
back from the initial downward-facing pose, perform the required the experimental test, and equal limits on thrust and torque were
flip maneuvers, and track the given trajectory while facing the considered. Implementing the saturated control solution in the
impact of significant disturbances and complying with the thrust quadcopter led to the three-dimensional tracking result exhibited
and torque saturation limits. The results are consistent with the in Fig. 8.
12
L. Martins, C. Cardeira and P. Oliveira
Fig. 8. Three-dimensional graph of the response obtained in the experimental
validation.
Fig. 9. Position and MRP error norms in the experimental test. From left to
right: (a) ∥p̃∥, (b) ∥ϑ̃∥.
Fig. 10. Position and yaw in the experimental test. From left to right, top to
bottom: (a) x, (b) y, (c) z, and (d) yaw.
The position and MRP error norms are displayed in Fig. 9. The
error norms converge to values close to zero, demonstrating the
tracking goal achievement. In particular, the position and MRP
error norms, after the first 10 s, are kept under 0.08 m and 0.03,
respectively. To embark on a more detailed analysis, the position
and yaw angle experimental responses are exhibited in Fig. 10.
The control methodology converges to the desired position tra-
jectory within the first 10 s of the experiment. After this period
of convergence, the position experimental responses, component-
wise, do not deviate more than 7 cm from the given trajectory.
Regarding the yaw angle response, the strategy converges in less
than 5 s and does not exceed a tracking error of 2 deg afterward.
The evolution of the saturation function terms are depicted
in Fig. 11, with the respective saturation levels also plotted. The
significant initial position error, p̃(0) = (2.5, −0.9, −0.5) [m],
led to most of these terms operating in the saturated region
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Automatica 162 (2024) 111521
Fig. 11. Saturation functions in the experimental test. From left to right, top
to bottom: (a) σ p (kp p̃), (b) σ ϑ (kϑ ϑ̃), (c) σ v (kv (ṽ + σ p (kp p̃))), (d) σ ω (kω ω̃), (e)
σ ζ (kζ ζ ), and (f) σ ϵ (kϵ ϵ̃).
Fig. 12. Thrust and Moments resulting from the control law implemented during
the experimental validation. From left to right, top to bottom: (a) Thrust; (b)
Moments.
during the first seconds. Notwithstanding, throughout and after
this initial phase, the strategy exhibited a stable response and
converged to the desired trajectory, evidencing the capacity of
the saturated control solution. The resulting actuation, in terms
of thrust and moments, is displayed in Fig. 12. Compared to
the simulation test, in the experimental validation, the actuation
has a higher fluctuation. Having considered a lumped parame-
ter model to characterize the rotor (see Martins et al. (2021a)),
in conjunction with other high-order effects neglected in the
simulation model and measurement noise, is a possible cause
of this behavior. The quadrotor exhibited a stable response and
converged to the desired trajectory while keeping the actuators
within their limits of operation, evidencing the tracking capacity
of the saturated strategy. Thus, the results validate the control
architecture and are consistent with the theoretical bounds and
asymptotic stability properties discussed in Sections 4 and 5. A
video of the experimental validation is available at https://www.
youtube.com/watch?v=Bc7VuAG7Wyk.
L. Martins, C. Cardeira and P. Oliveira
8. Conclusion
A novel saturated MRP-based controller was proposed to
tackle the trajectory tracking problem with thrust and torque sat-
uration for quadrotors. The strategy design was two-fold: first, a
nested saturated position control law with integrative action was
designed relying on small gain arguments to render the position
tracking system ISS; second, based on the hybrid system theory,
a saturated MRP-based hybrid strategy with integrative action,
exploiting the MRP unique properties, was devised to tackle the
attitude tracking problem. The resulting control structure renders
the full system error dynamics globally asymptotically stable. In
this way, the proposed solution can perform a position trajectory
while minimizing the angular distance to the desired rotation
matrix and verifying the thrust and torque saturation limits. The
simulation results demonstrated the capacity of the solution to
track a given trajectory under the influence of bounded constant
disturbances, to perform flip maneuvers, and to operate succes-
sively in the vicinity of the saturated region without presenting
an unstable behavior. The experimental trajectory tracking test,
conducted with a commercially available quadcopter and a mo-
tion capture system, yielded very positive results, validating,
thereby, the proposed solution.
Acknowledgments
This work was supported by Fundação para a Ciência e a Tec-
nologia, through IDMEC, under LAETA, project UIDB/50022/2020
and by the European Union under the Next Generation EU, through
a grant of the Portuguese Republic’s Recovery and Resilience Plan
(PRR) Partnership Agreement, within the scope of the project
PRODUTECH R3 – ‘‘Agenda Mobilizadora da Fileira das Tecnolo-
gias de Produção para a Reindustrialização’’, aiming the mobi-
lization of the production technologies industry towards of the
reindustrialization of the manufacturing industrial fabric (Project
ref. 60 - C645808870-00000067). Luís Martins holds a PhD schol-
arship 2022.14126.BD from FCT.
Appendix. Hybrid dynamic path-lifting algorithm for mrp ex-
traction
For the purpose of extracting the MRP representation of the
attitude, a hybrid algorithm is constructed to ensure the unique-
ness and consistency of this operation. The algorithm extends the
dynamic path-lifting solution proposed by Mayhew et al. (2013)
with the inclusion of an additional state and application of the
stereographic projection (2a) to the smoothly lifted quaternion.
Let xϑ = q̂, R, m ∈ χϑ with χϑ := S3 × SO(3) × {−1, 1}. Then,
( )
the following jump and map sets are defined
Cm := {xϑ ∈ χϑ : ∥ϕ(mΦ (q̂, R))∥ ≤ 1 + δ} (A.1)
Dm := {xϑ ∈ χϑ : ∥ϕ(mΦ (q̂, R))∥ ≥ 1 + δ} (A.2)
where m ∈ {−1, 1} is a discrete state, δ ∈ R≥0 is a hysteretic
parameter, and, as proposed by Mayhew et al. (2013), Φ : S3 ×
SO(3) ⇒ S3 denotes the map
Φ (q̂, R) := argmax q̂⊤ p, (A.3)
p ∈ Q(R)
and q̂ := (q̂0 , q̂1 ) ∈ S3 symbolizes the memory state, which is
updated in accordance with the following flow and jump maps
Cl := {xϑ ∈ χϑ : dist(q̂, Q(R)) ≤ αl }, (A.4)
Dl := {xϑ ∈ χϑ : dist(q̂, Q(R)) ≥ αl }, (A.5)
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Automatica 162 (2024) 111521
with dist(q̂, Q(R)) = inf 1 − q̂⊤ p : p ∈ Q(R) and αl ∈ ]0, 1[ also
{ }
considered here. With these definitions in mind, the hybrid algo-
rithm for the extraction of the MRP representation is described
by the system Hϑ :
⎧
⎪
⎨ q̂˙ = 0, ṁ = 0 , xϑ ∈ Cm ∩ Cl
Hϑ q̂ ∈ Φ (q̂, R), m = m
+ +
, xϑ ∈ Dl (A.6)
q̂+ = q̂, m+ = −m , xϑ ∈ Dm
⎪
⎩
with continuous input R : R≥ 0 ↦ → SO(3) and output
{
ϕ(mΦ (q̂, R)) , q̂, R, m ∈ Cm ∩ Cl
( )
ϑ := (A.7)
, q̂, R, m ∈
/ Cm ∩ Cl
( )
∅
In the( event )of the conditions for Dm and Dl being concurrently
met, q̂, R, m ∈ Dm ∩ Dl , the formulation allows for either jump.
The output ϑ satisfies the bound ∥ϑ(t , j)∥ ≤ 1 + δ (Martins et al.,
2023, Lemma 1).
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L. Martins, C. Cardeira and P. Oliveira
Luís Martins received the M.Sc. degree in mechani-
cal engineering from Instituto Superior Técnico (IST),
Lisbon, Portugal, in 2019. He is a Ph.D. student in
Mechanical Engineering at IST and his ongoing disserta-
tion project explores the design, stability analysis, and
validation of nonlinear control strategies for unmanned
aerial vehicles. His research interests include hybrid
systems, control theory, and autonomous vehicles.
Carlos Cardeira was born in Quinjenje, Angola, and
received the engineering and master of science degrees,
in electrical engineering from Instituto Superior Técnico
in Lisbon — Portugal, in 1986 and 1991, respectively.
He received the Ph.D. degree in electrical engineering
and computer science from the Institut National Poly-
technique de Lorraine in Nancy — France, in 1994. He
is a member of the Center of Intelligent Systems of
the IDMEC research laboratory and teaches at Instituto
Superior Técnico in Lisbon courses in Mechatronics
Systems, Industrial Automation, and Informatics areas.
15
Automatica 162 (2024) 111521
He made several post-docs and sabbatical leaves, namely in IRIT and LAAS
in Toulouse France, CERN in Geneva, Switzerland, and Schneider-Electric in
Seligenstadt, Germany.
Paulo Oliveira received the Ph.D. degree in Electrical
and Computer Engineering, in 2002, respectively, and
the Habilitation in Mechanical Engineering in 2016, all
from Instituto Superior Técnico (IST), Lisbon, Portugal.
Since 2020, he holds a joint position as Full Professor
in the Mechanical Engineering and Electrotechnical and
Computer Engineering Departments of IST, is the Vice-
president for the Research Affairs at the Associated
Laboratory for Energy, Transports, and Aeronautics,
and the Coordinator on Aerospace Engineering Doc-
toral Program, at IST. His research interests are on
Autonomous Robotic Vehicles with a focus on Mechatronic Systems Integration,
Sensor Fusion, GPS and Positioning Systems, and Guidance, Navigation and
Control Systems (GNC). He is author or coauthor of more than 100 journal papers
(90% in first quartile,) and 180 conference communications and participated in
more than 40 European and Portuguese research projects, over the last 30 years.