Unit - 1.1 Levelling Introduction

How to:
Some Basic
Principles for
Leveling
Lecture Overview
• Equipment
• Introduction to Leveling
• Observation, Field Notes, and
Computation
• Errors and their effects
UNIT 2: LEVELLING surveying

Equipment

Equipment
• Level Instrument
• Tripod
• Staff/Pole
• Change plate (German: Frog/Frosch)
• Pole staff bubble (bull eye)
• Marker

Equipment: Level Instrument
• Automated Levels
◼ Easy to use (not power!)
◼ Needs experience
◼ Robust even in hostile environment
• Digital Levels
◼ Push-button technique
◼ No reading errors, special staff
◼ Readings are stored and analyzed digitally

Automated Levels (Compensator)
Pendulum
Bull Eye
Tribrach
Courtesy: Deumlich, Vermessungskunde

Digital Levels
• Uses Barcode staffs
• Internal storage of data
◼ Download to the computer
◼ Automated height computation + adjustment
◼ No feeling for quality anymore
◼ You frequently need power plugs

Equipment
• Tripod
• Staff/Pole
• Marker

Equipment: Tripod
• Wooden design or aluminum
◼ From “easy to sit” to “ops, this is high”

Equipment
• Tripod
• Staff/Pole
• Marker

Equipment: Staff/Pole
• Wood, aluminum
• INVAR type for high precision leveling
Conventional (“E”-type) Barcode

for Digital Levels

Equipment
• Tripod
• Staff/Pole
• Marker

Equipment: Change Plate
• For long survey lines
• Allows change of instruments
◼ Best is a metal change plate
◼ Screws e.g. at fences
◼ Sharp stones or nails
• Beware of dark colors
It’s not the

Indonesian-
German Dictionary,
It’s the nail!

Equipment
• Tripod
• Staff/Pole
• Marker

Equipment: Bubble
• Keep the pole upright
◼ Any tilt will disturb your readings

Equipment
• Tripod
• Staff/Pole
• Marker

Survey Markers
• Gives you a fixed point
◼ Should be of good quality
◼ Should be long-term
◼ Preferable in bedrock, settled buildings, or bridges
◼ Do not use fences or walls

Introduction to Leveling

Some Basic Definitions
• Level surface (e.g. the geoid)
◼ A water surface with no motion
◼ Gravity gradient is the normal to the level surface
◼ The Instrument’s Bubble is in the normal (!)
• Horizontal surface
◼ At the instruments axis, the horizontal surface is tangent
to the level surface
◼ Over short distances (<100 m) the horizontal surface
and the level surface will coincide
◼ For long leveling lines the effects of the gravity field
must be considered

Basic Principle of Leveling
• Measures height differences between points
◼ Along a line
◼ Several points from one occupation
Leveling rods
Line of sight
Back sight Fore sight
fs
bs
Dh = bs - fs
Gravity Gradient

Definitions
• Back sight (BS)
◼ The first reading from a new instrument stand
point (i.e. take the height to the instrument)
• Fore sight (FS)

◼ The last reading from the current instrument
station (i.e. give the height to a benchmark)
• Intermediate sight (IS)

◼ Any sighting that is not a back sight or fore sight

Reading a Staff
• Read the [m], [dm] & [cm]
• Estimate the [mm]
1422
• Check yourself for frequent

used numbers (2/3) or (7/8)
Basic Rules for Leveling
• Always start and finish a leveling run on a
Benchmark (BM or TGBM) and close the loops
• Keep fore sight and back sight distances as
equal as possible
• Keep lines of sight short (normally < 50m)
• Never read below 0.5m on a staff (refraction)
• Use stable, well defined change points
• Beware of shadowing effects and crossing
waters

Observation, Field Notes, and
Computation

How to: A sample loop
New Benchmark
NB2
S2
New Benchmark
NB1
Tidal Hut
TH
S1

How To: Field Notes
New Benchmark
NB2
S2 Back Inter Fore Point
1327 TH
2365 3982 NB1
2347 0986 NB2
3753 3724 NB1
New Benchmark
1101 TH
NB1
Tidal Hut
TH
S1

Date, Observer,
Instrument
Instrument Check
Back
Fore
SD

Compute levels
Back Inter Fore dh H Comment
1327 100 000 TH
2365 3982 ´7345 97 345 BM1
+1
2347 0986 1379 98 724 BM2 ?
3753 3724 ´8624 97 348 BM1
1101 2652 100 000 TH
9792 9793 0 0
IST -0001
SOLL 0000
0001 (SOLL – IST)
Loop misclosure
• Misclosure Error
◼ The difference of the measured height difference
(DHmeas) to the known height (closed loops = 0,
known benchmarks = height difference)
Misclosure = DHSOLL – DHIST
• Point errors at double observed points

Achievable Accuracy
• Instrument dependent
◼ Roughly from the instrument
 NI002 = 0,2mm/km (doubled line)
 NI025 = 2.5mm/km (doubled line)
• Survey line length dependent

◼ ms = m1km s, s in km
◼ mH = (m1km/2) s, s in km #(middle of the line)

An acceptable misclose?
• Small misclosures in closed level loops are
expected because of the accumulation of
random errors and can be adjusted
• If the misclosure is large, the loop (or part of
it) must be repeated
• Misclosures can also result from errors in published

BM levels and from BM instability

Testing the misclose
• The amount of misclosure acceptable using a
specific instrument and survey line length
• For our example, a second order leveling
standard is adopted*…
misclosure  2,5s mm
• where s is the length of the line in km
*Dependent on your contry’s rules and the instrument used

Our example
• The misclosure is +1 mm
• The length of the loop is 0.4 km
• Acceptable error is
2.5(0.4) = ±1.6 mm
• The misclosure of +1 mm is within the limit

• Mean error for NB1 = 2.5/2* (0.4)
Errors and their effects
(many, but only a few addressed)

Errors in leveling, e.g.
• Collimation, Parallax
• Change point / staff instability
• Instrument or Benchmark instability
• Refraction
• Uncalibrated staff or levels
• Reading, booking, or computation errors
• Fore- and backsight distances different

Systematic and Random Errors
• Earth curvature
• Refraction
• Collimation errors

Effect of Earth Curvature
Horizontal Level
(r +Dh)2 = r2 + s2
=>
Dh  s2/(2r)
Distance (s) in m 10 20 50 100 1000
Effect (Dh) in mm 0,008 0,03 0,2 0,8 80
www.fh-oow.de/institute/ima/personen/weber/VK_12/VL_VK1/geo_niv_6.htm

Refraction
Mean Gradient: 0,2 °C / m
www.fh-oow.de/institute/ima/personen/weber/VK_12/VL_VK1/geo_niv_6.htm

Collimation error
• Occurs when the line of sight (as defined by
the lens axis and cross-hairs) is not
horizontal
• Leads to an incorrect staff reading
error
horizontal line

Instrument test: Nähbauer
Stand point 2
´ ´
Stand point 1
´ ´
a′1 = a1+e a′2 = a2+2e

b′1 = b1+2e b′2 = b2+e
Δh = a1−b1 Δh = a2−b2
Δh′1 = a′1−b′1 = a1−b1−e = Δh−e Δh′2 = a′2−b′2 = a2+e−b2 = Δh+e
With Δh′1+e = Δh′2−e Δh =Δh′2−e
Δh′2−Δh′1
e=
2
Summary

Procedure of leveling
1. The instrument must be check before use! (see lecture)
2. The instrument and level must be stable settled-up
3. The bubble tube must be leveled before the reading
• Beware of sun exposure (will wander)
• Ensure the instruments pendulum is in-limit
4. The instrument must be set up in the middle between two
staffs
• Prevents curvature effects
• If impossible, use the same distances, but opposite for the
next readings
5. You must not use the parallax screw between the backsight
and foresight readings

Procedure of Leveling
6. Readings must be taken 30-50 cm above the ground
• Surface refractions
• Beware also of temperature gradients (inside/outside
buildings) !!!!
7. Staff should be set up vertically
8. A change plate should be used
9. Leveling must be done in two opposite directions but the
same line (beware of gravity gradients)
10. Staff should be calibrated, especially if INVAR
11. Be careful when crossing rivers (large water surfaces)
• Use “same-time” (mutual) observations
• Repeat it during different times of the day

An Unhappy Surveyor
… having a 2 centimeter difference

Levelling
Topics covered
◼ Definition,
◼ Terms associated with levelling
◼ Spirit levelling
◼ Instruments for spirit levelling
◼ Simple numerical examples

05/12/2021
5.1 Definition
• Levelling
◼ Branch of surveying that deals about the measurement in
vertical plane
◼ Determines the difference in elevation between points on
the ground
◼ Establishes the points on the given elevation
05/12/2021 UNIT 2: LEVELLING surveying

5.1 Terms associated with
levelling
• Level surface
• Level line
• Horizontal plane
• Horizontal line
• Vertical line
• Datum
• Elevation
• Vertical angle
• Mean sea level
• Bench mark

Levelling
• Methods of levelling
◼Barometric levelling
◼ Trigonometric levelling ( Indirect
levelling)
◼ Spirit levelling
• Spirit levelling
◼ Instruments used
 A level
 A levelling staff

Levelling
• Level
◼ The purpose of level is to
provide horizontal line of
sight
◼ It consists of
 A telescope to provide line
of sight
 Level tube to make line of
sight horizontal
 Levelling head to bring the
bubble in its centre
 A tripod to support the
instrument

Some Terminology
BS
S1
RL C
RL A RL B
C
A
B
Level staff on A Back Sight (BS) reading is first reading

FS
S2
RL C
RL A RL B
C
A
B
Level staff on A Back Sight (BS) reading is first reading
Level staff on B Fore Sight (FS) reading is last reading
Move instrument to new position

BS
S3
RL C
RL A RL B
C
A
B
CP
Move instrument to new position Level staff stays on B

The instrument has changed its position about point B
Point B is known as a Change Point (CP)
2nd instrument position starts with BS to B

BS FS
S3 S4
RL C
RL A RL B
C
A
B
and finishes with FS to C

HI
HI BS FS
BS FS
RL C
RL A RL B
C
A
B (CP)
RL A is known
HPC = RL A + BS RL B = HPC - FS
Now the RL B is known So we can repeat the process
HPC = RL B + BS RL C = HPC - FS
Generally : HI = Known RL + Back Sight
Unknown RL = HI - Fore Sight

Differential Leveling
• Importance of Leveling
◼ The determination of elevations is called leveling
◼ Measuring relative elevations changes is a
comparatively simply process
◼ Precise and accurate control of relative elevations are
critical to most construction projects
B.The Level
◼ A level consist of a high-powered telescope
◼ The level is attached to a spirit or bubble level
that keeps the line of sight of the telescope
horizontal
3. Level Instrument
Level Instrument
4.60
4.55 4.54
4.53 4.52
4.51
4.50
C. Definitions
BS = 6.32 ft HI = 106.32 ft FS = 3.10 ft

Point B
Point A
Elevation = 103.22 ft
Starting point
(elevation 100.00 ft)
Definitions
1. Bench mark (BM) - relatively permanent
point of known elevation
BS = 6.32 ft HI = 106.32 ft FS = 3.10 ft

Point B
Point A
Starting point
Definitions
2. Backsight (BS) - a sight taken to the level
rod held at a point of known elevation
(either a BM or TP)
BS = 6.32 ft HI = 106.32 ft FS = 3.10 ft
Point B
Point A
Starting point
Definitions
3. Height of instrument (HI) - the elevation
of the line of sight of the telescope
BS = 6.32 ft HI = 106.32 ft FS = 3.10 ft

Point B
Point A
Starting point
Definitions
4. Foresight (FS) - a sight taken on any point
to determine its elevation
BS = 6.32 ft HI = 106.32 ft FS = 3.10 ft

Point B
Point A
Starting point
D. Computation of Elevations
BS
12.64
BM1
1. BS + Elevation = HI
Elevation 100.00
Point BS HI FS Elevation
BM1 12.64 112.64 100.00
Computation of Elevations
BS FS
12.64 3.11
BM1
TP1 2. HI - FS = Elevation
Elevation 100.00
BM1 12.64 112.64 100.00
TP1 3.11 109.53
BS
BS FS 10.88
12.64 3.11
BM1
TP1
Elevation 100.00
BM1 12.64 112.64 100.00
TP1 10.88 120.41 3.11 109.53
BS FS
BS FS 10.88 2.56
12.64 3.11
BM1 TP2
TP1
Elevation 100.00
BM1 12.64 112.64 100.00
TP1 10.88 120.41 3.11 109.53
TP2 2.56 117.85
BS
9.72
BS FS
BS FS 10.88 2.56
12.64 3.11
BM1 TP2
TP1
Elevation 100.00
BM1 12.64 112.64 100.00
TP1 10.88 120.41 3.11 109.53
TP2 9.72 127.57 2.56 117.85
BS FS
9.72 3.10
BS FS
BS FS 10.88 2.56
12.64 3.11 BM2
BM1 TP2
TP1
Elevation 100.00
BM1 12.64 112.64 100.00
TP1 10.88 120.41 3.11 109.53
TP2 9.72 127.57 2.56 117.85
BM2 3.10 124.47
BS FS
9.72 3.10
BS FS
BS FS 10.88 2.56
12.64 3.11 BM2
BM1 TP2
TP1
Elevation 100.00
BM1 12.64 112.64 100.00
TP1 10.88 120.41 3.11 109.53
TP2 9.72 127.57 2.56 117.85
BM2 3.10 124.47
3. Change in elevation- summation of the backsight and
the foresight then subtract
BM1 12.64 112.64 100.00
TP1 10.88 120.41 3.11 109.53
TP2 9.72 127.57 2.56 117.85
BM2 3.10 124.47
+33.24 -8.77
Change in elevation = 33.24 -8.77 =24.47

4. The initial backsight (BS) is taken to a point of
known elevation
5. The backsight reading is added to the elevation of

the known point to compute the height of the
instrument (HI)
6. The level may be moved to a temporary point called a

turning point (TP)
7. The elevation of a point is the height of the

instrument (HI) minus the foresight (FS)
Computation of Elevations - Group Problem
Prepare a set of level notes for the survey illustrated
below. What are the elevations of points TP1 and TP2?
BS FS
1.27 4.91
BS FS
2.33 6.17
BM
Elevation 356.68
TP1
TP2
Computation of Elevations - Group Problem
BS FS
1.27 4.91
BS FS
2.33 6.17
BM
Elevation 356.68
TP1
TP2
BM1 1.27 357.95 356.68
TP1 2.33 355.37 4.91 353.04
TP2 6.17 349.20
+3.60 -11.08 -7.48
E.Common Mistakes
1. Misreading the rod - reading
3.54 instead of 3.45
2. Moving the turning point - use a

well–defined TP
3. Field note mistakes - work within
your group to check you records
4. Mistakes with extended rod - make

sure the leveling rod is fully
extended
Common Mistakes
5. Level rod not vertical
6. Settling of leveling rod
7. Leveling rod not fully extended or

incorrect length
8. Level instrument not level
9. Instrument out of adjustment
10. Environment - wind and heat
F.Suggestions for Good Leveling
1. Anchor tripod legs firmly
2. Check the bubble level before and after each reading
3. Take as little time as possible between BS and FS
4. Try to keep the distance to the BS and the FS equal
5. Provide the rodperson with a level for the rod

Practice Set 1
Differential Leveling Review
1. Why is differential leveling called
differential?
2. What does B.M. , B.S., H.I., and F.S. stand for

in surveying?
3. If you know the starting elevation and the

B.S., how do you calculate the H.I.?
4. How do you calculate the evaluation of a T.P.?
5. What common error of leveling do you think

will be made the most in this class and why?

Unit - 1.1 Levelling Introduction

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How to:

UNIT 2: LEVELLING surveying

UNIT 2: LEVELLING surveying

UNIT 2: LEVELLING surveying

UNIT 2: LEVELLING surveying

Courtesy: Deumlich, Vermessungskunde

UNIT 2: LEVELLING surveying

UNIT 2: LEVELLING surveying

UNIT 2: LEVELLING surveying

UNIT 2: LEVELLING surveying

UNIT 2: LEVELLING surveying

Conventional (“E”-type) Barcode

UNIT 2: LEVELLING surveying

UNIT 2: LEVELLING surveying

It’s not the

UNIT 2: LEVELLING surveying

UNIT 2: LEVELLING surveying

UNIT 2: LEVELLING surveying

UNIT 2: LEVELLING surveying

UNIT 2: LEVELLING surveying

UNIT 2: LEVELLING surveying

UNIT 2: LEVELLING surveying

UNIT 2: LEVELLING surveying

• Fore sight (FS)

• Intermediate sight (IS)

UNIT 2: LEVELLING surveying

• Check yourself for frequent

UNIT 2: LEVELLING surveying

UNIT 2: LEVELLING surveying

UNIT 2: LEVELLING surveying

UNIT 2: LEVELLING surveying

UNIT 2: LEVELLING surveying

Misclosure = DHSOLL – DHIST

• Point errors at double observed points

UNIT 2: LEVELLING surveying

• Survey line length dependent

UNIT 2: LEVELLING surveying

• Misclosures can also result from errors in published

UNIT 2: LEVELLING surveying

• where s is the length of the line in km

*Dependent on your contry’s rules and the instrument used

UNIT 2: LEVELLING surveying

• The misclosure of +1 mm is within the limit

(many, but only a few addressed)

UNIT 2: LEVELLING surveying

UNIT 2: LEVELLING surveying

UNIT 2: LEVELLING surveying

Effect (Dh) in mm 0,008 0,03 0,2 0,8 80

UNIT 2: LEVELLING surveying

Mean Gradient: 0,2 °C / m

UNIT 2: LEVELLING surveying

UNIT 2: LEVELLING surveying

a′1 = a1+e a′2 = a2+2e

UNIT 2: LEVELLING surveying

UNIT 2: LEVELLING surveying

UNIT 2: LEVELLING surveying

… having a 2 centimeter difference

UNIT 2: LEVELLING surveying

05/12/2021 UNIT 2: LEVELLING surveying

05/12/2021 UNIT 2: LEVELLING surveying

05/12/2021 UNIT 2: LEVELLING surveying

05/12/2021 UNIT 2: LEVELLING surveying

UNIT 2: LEVELLING surveying

UNIT 2: LEVELLING surveying