Kuwait University

Physics Department

Electricity and Magnetism

General Physics Lab II

PHYS 107-127

Prepared By

Physics Department

Kuwait University

December 2017

1
Introduction

Welcome to the general physics II laboratory 0430107/0430127.

This manual is intended for general physics laboratory II (course numbers 0430107 or 0430127).
The laboratory work is a demonstrative extension and is a concurrent course with the general
physics II course (course numbers 0430102 or 0430122). This course is designed to provide the
student with the basic laboratory skills on electricity and magnetism and is assigned one
academic credit.

Attendance in all lab sessions is mandatory. Students are required to bring the laboratory
manual for each experiment, a calculator, a pen or pencil, and a graph paper notebook to each lab
session. Upon the completion of the laboratory course student should be able to demonstrate
knowledge of experimental techniques related to the concepts of electricity, magnetism and
simple electrical circuits. Also, students should gain experience in data collection methods,
graphical representation of data, data analysis and interpretation of results, and develop
analytical and critical thinking abilities.

The evaluation components for this course will be:

Laboratory Quiz (Average) 10%

Student Attendance 5%

Instructor’s Opinion 5%

Laboratory Report (Average) 40%

Final exam 40%

The laboratory report for each experiment must be submitted at the end of that session. A short
test on the previous experiment is given in the beginning of each lab session, and a final exam
will be held at the end of the term.

2
Laboratory reports should have the following writing and marking scheme:

Title page:
Your course section, your name, partner’s names (if available), and the date.

Statement of Objectives:
You must clearly write the set of objectives of the experiment. (1 Mark)
Data and Analysis of Results:
This section is the main part of the report where the experimental results are (6 Marks)
reported followed by detailed calculations and data analysis. Statistical methods
and/or graphical presentation may be used where necessary.

Discussion and Conclusion:

A brief explanation of the purpose of the experiment and the experimental (3 Marks)
procedure must be given in this section. The results obtained should be
discussed and compared with theory. A conclusion should be made about
whether or not the experimental results agree with theory considering the
sources of error in the experiment.

3
Table of Content:

Exp. Experiment Title Page

No.
0 Pre-Laboratory Session…………………………………………. 5

1 Ohm’s Law……………………………………………………… 12

2 Non-Ohmic Devices: Tungsten Filament………………………. 17

3 Series and Parallel Connections of Resistors…………………… 22

4 Kirchhoff’s Laws ……………………………………………….. 28

5 Charging a Capacitor …………………………………………… 34

6 Discharging a Capacitor………………………………………… 40

7 (e/m) Ratio of an Electron ……………………………………… 46

8 Inductance ………………………………………………………. 54

9 Transformer …………………………………………………….. 61

4
 Pre-laboratory session

Objectives:
To learn the difference between direct current (dc) and alternating current (ac).
To study the resistors color-coding system.
To get familiar with the experimenter design.
To learn how to use the multimeter for voltage, current, and resistance measurements.

Direct and alternating currents:

Direct current refers to a current that does not change direction with time. A Battery is one sort
of a dc current source. A plot of a constant dc current versus time represents a horizontal straight
line as shown in Fig. 1.

I (dc)

Time
Figure 1

Alternating current, on other hand, refers to a current that change direction with time (oscillate).
There are different types of ac currents: sinusoidal, square, triangular and others (see Fig. 2). In
each graph, the current is positive in one half of a cycle and negative in the other half of the
cycle. This means that the ac current changes direction every half cycle.

5
 ( ) ( ) ( )

(a) sinusoidal (b) square (c) triangular

Figure 2

The sinusoidal current is the most popular one among the others, since it is the natural output of
the commercial alternating current generators or alternators. Other types of ac currents are
actually produced from the sinusoidal one, using some special electronic devices.

Resistors color-coding system:

Resistors form the most basic and popular electric components used in electric circuitry. Since
the size of resistors is fairly small, color-coding system is adapted for the value of a resistor. So
rather than writing the value of the resistor on its body, parallel color bands are drawn,
representing the value of the resistor.

Colors are given numbers from 0 9 according to the following list:

Black 0
Brown 1
Red 2
Orange 3
Yellow 4
Green 5
Blue 6
Violet 7
Grey 8
White 9

6
A four-band resistor is shown in Fig. 3. Let , , and represents the numbers of the first three
colors (scanned from left to right) as given in the list.

x y z Gold or Silver

Figure 3

The value of the resister is

= × 10

That is, the numbers of the first two colors are written adjacently to form a 2-digit number
multiplied by 10 raised to the power .

The fourth color, which can be gold or silver, represents the tolerance (accuracy) in the value of
the resistor. If it is gold, the tolerance is 5%, whereas if it is silver, the tolerance is 10%.

Example 1: Let the colors of a given resistor be: brown, black, red, and the fourth color be gold.
Determine the value of the resistor and the tolerance.

Solution: The numbers of the four colors from the color-coding list (successively) are: 1, 0, 2 and
5% Therefore the resistance

= 10 × 10 = 1000 .

And the tolerance = 5% × 1000 = 50 . The resistance value should be written as 1000 ±
50 , and the actual value of the resistor ranges from 950 to 1050 .

7
The electronic design experimenter:

The electronic design experimenter is a device used for designing some basic electronic circuits.
It consists mainly of 7 units as shown in Fig. 4:

1. POWER switch: Turns the trainer on and off.

2. POWER SUPLLY: consists of positive control (range: 1 V - 15 V), which adjusts the output
of the positive power supply, and negative control (range: -1 V – (-15) V), which adjusts the
output of the negative power supply, and three connectors: POS, GND, and NEG which
stands for positive, ground, and negative.
3. LINE FREQUENCY: consists of three connectors and supplies a 50 Hz 15 V ac voltage.
4. GENERATOR: Supplies a variable frequency (range: 0 Hz – 2 kHz, and can be upgraded to
20 kHz by setting the range switch to 10X) ac voltage.
5. 1 k variable resistor: consists of a control along with three connectors.
6. 100 k variable resistor: consists of a control along with three connectors.
7. BREADBOARD: consists of 4 units: two lines of 50 internally connected connectors (one at
the top and the other at the bottom); two blocks each consisting of a group of 5 vertical
internally connected connectors.

8
Figure 4: Electronic Design Experimenter.

9
Digital Multimeter
Many of the electrical measurements in this lab are accomplished using a digital multimeter
(DMM). A DMM can be used to measure current, voltage, or resistance as explained below.

Voltage measurement:
a) Set the dial of the multimeter to the voltage position ( for dc or for ac).
b) Plug the black probe (terminal) of the multimeter into the COM socket, and the red probe
into the V socket.
c) Connect the two probes of the multimeter in parallel to the resistor (or any other circuit
element), as shown in Fig. 5, and read the voltage shown on the meter.

Figure 5

Current measurement:
Warning: To measure the current through a circuit element, the DMM must be connected in
series with that element. The parallel connection can damage the meter and the rest of the circuit.
a) Set the dial of the multimeter to the current position ( for dc or for ac).
b) Plug the black probe of the multimeter into the COM socket, and the red probe
into the A socket.
c) Connect the two probes of the multimeter, as shown in Fig. 6, and read the current on the
meter.

10
 A

Figure 6

Resistance measurement:

a) Disconnect the resistor from the circuit.

b) Set the dial of the multimeter to the Ohm position ( ).
c) Plug the black probe of the multimeter into the COM socket, and the red probe into the
socket.
d) Connect the two probes of the multimeter in parallel to the resistor, (see Fig. 7), and read the
resistance on the meter.

Figure 7

11
 Experiment One: Ohm’s Law

Objectives:
The objective of this experiment is to study Ohm’s law, by studying the I-V characteristic of a
given resistor.

Theory:
When a potential difference is applied across a device such as a circuit element, a current
flows through it. The current is defined as the amount of electric charge that passes a given point
per unit time.

Ohms Law: Ohm’s law states that the amount of current ( ) is proportional to the voltage
( ). Mathematically, this is written as

= , (1)

where , which is the constant of proportionality, is called the resistance of the device. A device
that follows this relation is said to obey Ohm's Law. If the resistance of a decive remains
constant for the applied voltage is varied, the device is called an Ohmic device. Figure 1 shows
the voltage and current relation ( - characteristic) of an Ohmic device, where the slope of the
line equals the resistance .

Voltage

Current
Figure 1

12
Equipment:
Bread board with dc source.
560 stor.
Multimeter.
Wires.

Procedure:
1- Measure the resistance of the resistor using the multimeter.

2- Plug the 560 resistor into the bread board, then connect its leads to the power supply
terminals (POS and GND) using wires, as shown in the Fig. 2.

POS
A
Vs

GND

Figure 2

3- Set the value of the source voltage according to Table 1. Connect a voltmeter across the
POS and GND terminals to measure the exact value while changing the knob of the postitive
power supply.

4- For each value of measure the volatge across the resister ( ) and the current through the
resister ( ) and record them in Table 1.

5- Using Ohm’s law calculate the value of .

6- Plot a graph that shows versus and determine the value of from the slope.

13
Experiment Date : .......................................
Course Number : .......................................
Section Number : .......................................

Experiment 1
Ohm’s Law

Student Name: ...........................................................

Student ID: ...........................................................

Instructor Name: …………………………………………………………………………

---------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Partner’s Names:
...........................................................

...........................................................

...........................................................

Total Mark

14
Objectives:

……………………………………………………………………………………………………………….

……………………………………………………………………………………………………………….

……………………………………………………………………………………………………………….

Data and analysis of results:

Table 1

(V) (V) (A) ( )

2.0

4.0

6.0

8.0

10

12

Color coded value of =………

Measured (by multimeter) value of =………

Average value of from the table, =………

Value obtained from the slope of - curve, =……… (show the detail of your work)

15
Questions

1- How does changes with ?.................................................................

2- How does the experimental value of , which was found from the graph, compare to the
coded value?

……………………………………………………………………………………………………

3- Does your data points fit exactly to a straight line? Why?

……………………………………………………………………………………………………

4- Is a resistor an ohmic device?......................

Why?..........................................................................................................

Discussion and conclusion:

………………………………………………………………………………………………………….......

………………………………………………………………………………………………………….......

………………………………………………………………………………………………………….......

………………………………………………………………………………………………………….......

………………………………………………………………………………………………………….......

………………………………………………………………………………………………………….......

………………………………………………………………………………………………………….......

………………………………………………………………………………………………………….......

16
 Experiment Two: Non-ohmic Device

Tungsten Filament

Objectives:
To study the I-V characteristic of a tungsten filament as a non-ohmic device.
To understand the difference between ohmic and non-ohmic devices.

Theory:
As we observed in Exp. 1, the resistance of an ohmic element remains constant when the applied
voltage is varied. However, for some other materials, such as the tungsten filament in a light
bulb, the resistance changes as the applied voltage across the filament is varied. Therefore, the -
characteristic of the tungsten filament is not a straight line, but a curve as shown in Fig. 1. The
resistance of the device at any applied voltage is determined using ohm’s law as = / . Since
the resistance of the tungsten filament is not constant as the applied voltage changes, it is called a
non-ohmic or a non-linear device.

Voltage

Current
Figure 1: The - characteristic of a non-ohmic device.

17
Equipments:
Bread board with dc source
Tungsten filament
Resistor, 220
Multimeter.

Procedure:
1- Connect the circuit on your bread board as shown in Fig. 2.

POS

GND

Figure 2: Circuit diagram for Exp. 2.

2- Corresponding to the power supply values listed in Table 1, measure the voltage across
the resistor, and voltage across the filament.
3- For each value of , calculate the value of (which equals ) using Ohm’s law = / ,
and record it in the table.
4- Calculate using Ohm’s law for each value of and record it in the table.
5- Plot a graph of versus .
6- Find the resistance of the filament from the slope of the - curve at the two points A
( = 3 V) and B ( = 7 V). Write your results in the allocated space under Table 1.

18
Experiment Date : .......................................
Course Number : .......................................
Section Number : .......................................

Experiment 2
Non-ohmic Device
Tungsten Filament

Student Name: ...........................................................

Student ID: ...........................................................

Instructor Name ……………………………………..
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Partner’s Names:
...........................................................

...........................................................

...........................................................

Total Mark

19
Objectives:

……………………………………………………………………………………………………………….

……………………………………………………………………………………………………………….

……………………………………………………………………………………………………………….

Data and analysis of results:

Table I

= / = /
(V) (V) ( )
( ) ( )

2.0

4.0

6.0

8.0

10

12

Resistance at point A, = ……………

Resistance at point B, = ……………

20
Questions

1- How does change with ? .................................................................

2- How does the resistance of the filament change with ?

……………………………………………………………………………………………………

3- Is the tungsten filament an ohmic device?......................

Why?..........................................................................................................

Discussion and conclusion:

………………………………………………………………………………………………………….......

………………………………………………………………………………………………………….......

………………………………………………………………………………………………………….......

………………………………………………………………………………………………………….......

………………………………………………………………………………………………………….......

………………………………………………………………………………………………………….......

………………………………………………………………………………………………………….......

………………………………………………………………………………………………………….......

21
 Experiment Three
Series and Parallel Resistors
Objectives:
To understand the relation between voltage across and current through resistors when they
are connected in series and in parallel.
To determine the equivalent resistance of series and parallel networks of resistors.

Theory:
Resistors in Series:
When two or more resistors are connected in series to each other and to a potential source ,
they would share the same current such that

= = = = = (1)

where is the current delivered by the potential source, and , , … are the currents through
individual resistors.

Here the potential difference that is applied across the combination is equal to the sum of the
resulting potential differences across all the resistances, i.e.:

= + + + . (2)

The equivalent resistance of combinations of individual resistors is given as

= + + + (3)

Note that the equivalent resistance is greater than the greatest resistor in the series circuit.

Resistors in Parallel:
When two or more resistors are connected in parallel to each other and to a potential source, they
would share the same voltage such that

i.e.: = = = = = , (4)

and, the current I delivered by the potential source would equal the sum of currents through
22
individual resistors.

= + + + . (5)

The equivalent resistance can be obtained from

= + + + . (6)

Note that the equivalent resistance of a parallel circuit is always less than the smallest resistance
in the circuit.

Equipments:
DC power supply
Resistors: 470 , 1K , 390 , 560 .
Multimeter
Wires.

Procedure:
Part One: Series resistors

1. Measure R1 and R2 using DMM and record the values in Table 1. (R1 = 560 , R2 = 390 ).
2. Connect the two resistors in series on the breadboard, and measure their equivalent resistance
Req and record it in the Table 1.
3. Set the power supply to = 8 V, and connect it across the two resistors as shown in Fig. 1.
4. Measure the current passing through each resistor as I1 and I2, and the current I passing
through the power source and record the data in Table 1.
5. Measure the voltage drop across each resistor as V1 and V2, and record the data in Table 1.
6. Calculate Req, I, I1, I2, V1, and V2 using relevant equations and record the values in Table 2.

23
 R R
1 2

=5V

=8V
Fig.1: Two series resistors. Fig. 2: Two parallel resistors.

Part Two: Parallel Resistors

1. Use the same resistors as in part one.

2. Connect the two resistors in parallel on the breadboard as shown in Fig. 2.
3. Measure the equivalent resistance Req, and record it in the Table 3.
4. Set the power supply to 5 V and connect it across the two resistors.
5. Measure currents and passing through the two resistors. Also measure
the total current in the circuit I. Record the data in Table 3.
6. Measure the voltage across each resistor as V1 and V2. Record the data in Table 3.
7. Calculate Req, I, I1, I2, V1, and V2 using relevant equations, and record the values in Table 4.

24
Experiment Date : .......................................
Course Number : .......................................
Section Number : .......................................

Experiment 3
Series and Parallel Resistors

Student Name: ...........................................................

Student ID: ...........................................................

Instructor Name: ……………………………………..

---------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Partner’s Names:
...........................................................

...........................................................

...........................................................

Total Mark

25
Objectives:

……………………………………………………………………………………………………………….

……………………………………………………………………………………………………………….

……………………………………………………………………………………………………………….

Data and analysis of results:

Table 1: (Measured values)

R1 = ………………, R2 =………………

Req ( ) I (mA) I1 (mA) I2 (mA) V1 (V) V2 (V)

Table 2: (Calculated values)

Req ( ) I (mA) I1 (mA) I2 (mA) V1 (V) V2 (V)

1. Compare the measured values with the calculated ones …………………………………….

2. Using the measured values verify the relations for the voltage, current, and resistance given
for the series connection.
……………………………………………………………………………………………………..
……………………………………………………………………………………………………..
……………………………………………………………………………………………………..

26
Table 3: (Measured values)

R1 = ………………, R2 =………………

Req ( ) I (mA) I1 (mA) I2 (mA) V1 (V) V2 (V)

Table 4: (Calculated values)

Req ( ) I (mA) I1 (mA) I2 (mA) V1 (V) V2 (V)

1. Compare the measured values with the calculated ones .……………………………………..

2. Using the measured values verify the relations for the voltage, current, and resistance given
for the parallel connection.
……………………………………………………………………………………………………..
……………………………………………………………………………………………………..
……………………………………………………………………………………………………..

Discussion and conclusion:

………………………………………………………………………………………………………….......

………………………………………………………………………………………………………….......

………………………………………………………………………………………………………….......

………………………………………………………………………………………………………….......

………………………………………………………………………………………………………….......

………………………………………………………………………………………………………….......

………………………………………………………………………………………………………….......

27
 Experiment Four: Kirchhoff’s Rules

Objectives:
To understand Kirchhoff’s loop and junction rules.
To apply and verify Kirchhoff’s rules on a multi-loop circuit.

Theory:
Simple circuits can be analyzed using Ohm’s law and the rules for series and parallel
combination of resistors. Very often it is not possible to reduce a complex circuit to a single
loop. Therefore, to analyze complex circuits, we can use Kirchhoff’s rules for junctions and
loops.

A junction is a point where three or more circuit elements meet. There are two junctions in Fig.
1: points B and E. A Loop is any closed path in a circuit such that the start and the end points are
the same. There are three loops in Fig. 1: ABEFA, BCDEB and ACDFA.

Junction rule: the algebraic sum of all the currents entering and leaving any junction in a circuit
is equal to zero. That is, at any junction

I=0 (1)
Loop rule: the algebraic sum of all the potential differences around any loop in a circuit is equal
to zero. That is for any loop

V=0 (2)

A 1 B 3 C

F E D
Figure 1.
28
To apply the junction rule use the following steps:

1. Choose a junction.
2. Set the direction of the currents into or out of this junction (for example in + and out ).
3. Apply the junction rule, Eq. (1).

As an aid in applying the loop rule, the following points should be noted:

1. The potential change across the resistor in the direction of current is –IR.
2. The potential change in the battery in the direction of the emf (from –ve to +ve) is + .

Equipments:
A DC power supply
Resistors: 470 , 1000 , 390 , 560 .
Multimeter
Wires.

Procedure:
1. Using the given four resistors (R1 = 560 , R2 = 1 k , R3 = 470 , R4 = 390 ), connect the
circuit as shown in Figure 2.

A 1 B 3 C

2 4

10 V

F E D

Figure 2.

29
2. Measure the equivalent resistance Req with the power supply disconnected. Record the value
in Table 1.
3. Measure the current through each resistor as I1, I2, I3, and I4, and measure the current I
through the voltage source. Record the data in Table 1.
4. Use the data in the Table 1 to do the required calculations and answer the questions given in
the lab report.

30
Experiment Date : .......................................
Course Number : .......................................
Section Number : .......................................

Experiment 4
Kirchhoff’s Laws

Student Name: ...........................................................

Student ID: ...........................................................

Instructor Name: ………………………………………

---------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Partner’s Names:
...........................................................

...........................................................

...........................................................

Total Mark

31
Objectives:

……………………………………………………………………………………………………………….

……………………………………………………………………………………………………………….

……………………………………………………………………………………………………………….

Data and analysis of results:

Table 1:

Req ( ) I(mA) I1 (mA) I2 (mA) I3 (mA) I4 (mA)

1. Verify the junction rule for the junctions B and E.

- For point B: = ……………. ; ( + ) = ……………..
- For point E: I = ……………. ; ( + ) = ……………..
Therefore…………………………………………………………

Is the junction rule verified?.................................

2. Verify the loop rule for the loops ABEFA and BCDEB.
- For the loop ABEFA:
= ………………….

= …………………

+ = ………………………

- For the loop BCDEB,

= ……………………..

= ……………………...

= ……………………...

+ = ……………………

32
 Is the loop rule verified? ……………………………………………………………………..

Discussion and conclusion:

………………………………………………………………………………………………………….......

………………………………………………………………………………………………………….......

………………………………………………………………………………………………………….......

………………………………………………………………………………………………………….......

………………………………………………………………………………………………………….......

………………………………………………………………………………………………………….......

………………………………………………………………………………………………………….......

33
 Experiment Five: Charging a Capacitor

Objectives:

To study and understand the process of charging a capacitor.

To find out the capacitance of a capacitor by determining the time constant of the circuit.

Theory:
Consider a single loop circuit as shown in Fig. 1. Capacitor C is initially uncharged. By closing
the switch S a current i is setup in the loop and the capacitor begins to charge.

S = 220 k

= 10 V
= 470

Figure 1: The charging circuit.

The charge of the capacitor as a function of time is given as

t / RC
Q C (1 e ), (1)

and the voltage across the capacitor as

t / RC
Vc Q/C (1 e ). (2)

where is the electromotive force and R is the resistance. At a specific time = = (called
the time constant of the circuit),

Vc (1 e 1 ) = 0.63 (3)

34
Therefore, by plotting Vc versus t, the time constant can be determined as shown in Fig. 2. If
is given, the capacitance can be obtained from the time constant.

Figure 2: A plot of versus .

35
Equipments:
A DC power supply
A 220 k Resistors and a 470 F Capacitor
Multimeter
Wires.

Procedure:
1. Connect the circuit as shown in Fig. 1 (make sure that the lead of the capacitor at the arrow
head is connected to the ground). Switch S should be open at this point.
2. Set the power supply to 9.0 V.
3. Short out the capacitor temporarily by connecting a wire parallel to it, so that the capacitor is
completely discharged.
4. Close the switch S, and reset the stopwatch simultaneously.
5. For to each value of , given in Table 1, pause the display of the stopwatch and record the
time as in Table 1, then remove the pause.
6. Stop the stopwatch at the end.
7. Repeat the steps 3 - 6 two more times and record the time as and .
8. Calculate the average time and record it in the table.
9. Plot a graph for versus .
10. Determine the value of from the graph and record it under the table.
11. Calculate using the time constant and write it under the table.

36
Experiment Date : .......................................

Course Number : .......................................

Section Number : .......................................

Experiment 5

Charging a Capacitor

Student Name: ...........................................................

Student ID: ...........................................................

Instructor Name: ………………………………………

---------------------------------------------------------------------------------

Partner’s names: ……………………………..

……………………………..

……………………………..

Total grade

37
Objectives:

……………………………………………………………………………………………………………….

……………………………………………………………………………………………………………….

……………………………………………………………………………………………………………….

Data and analysis of results:

Table 1:

Vc (V) t1 (s) t2 (s) t3 (s) tavg (s)

0
1.0
2.0
3.0
4.0
5.0
6.0
7.0
8.0

Time constant determined from the graph: = ……………………….

Capacitance obtained from the time constant: C =……………………….

38
Questions

1- How does Vc change with time?................................................................................................

2- What physical quantity can be determined from the graph?.....................................................

3- What can be done to increase the time needed to fully charge a capacitor?

……………………………………………………………………………………………………

4- If another capacitor of the same capacitance is connected in parallel to the existing one, what
effect that would have on the value of the time constant?

……………………………………………………………………………………………………….

Discussion and conclusion:

………………………………………………………………………………………………………….......

………………………………………………………………………………………………………….......

………………………………………………………………………………………………………….......

………………………………………………………………………………………………………….......

………………………………………………………………………………………………………….......

………………………………………………………………………………………………………….......

………………………………………………………………………………………………………….......

39
 Experiment Six: Capacitor discharging

Objectives:

To understand the process of discharging a capacitor.

To find out the capacitance by determining the time constant of the circuit.

Theory:
Consider the circuit shown in Fig. 1. When the switch S is closed, the capacitor is fully charged
up to a value of Q = C . As the switch is opened, the power supply is disconnected from the
circuit and the capacitor starts to discharge through the resistor.

Figure 1: Discharging capacitor circuit.

The charge of the capacitor as a function of time is given as

t / RC
Q C e (1)

and the voltage across the capacitor as

t / RC
Vc Q/C e . (2)

At a time = = (the time constant)

Vc e 1 = 0.37 . (3)

40
Therefore, the time constant can be determined from the graph of versus , as shown in Fig.
2. If is given, the capacitance can be obtained from the time constant.

Figure 2: A plot of versus .

41
Equipments:
DC power supply
A 220 k Resistor and a 470 F Capacitor
Multimeter
Wires.

Procedure:
1. Connect the circuit as shown in Fig. 1 (make sure that the lead of the capacitor at the arrow
head is connected to the ground).

2. Turn on the power supply and set the voltage to 9.0 V.

3. Close the switch S. This will cause the capacitor to charge immediately.

4. Start the stopwatch and open the switch S simultaneously. The capacitor will start
discharging through the resistor R.

5. For each value of Vc according to Table 1, pause the display of the stopwatch and record the
time as in Table 1, then remove the pause of the stopwatch.

6. Stop the stopwatch at the end.

7. Repeat steps 3-6 two more times and record the time as and .

8. Calculate and record it in Table 1.

9. Plot a graph for versus .

10. Determine from the graph and calculate C and record them under Table 1.

42
Experiment Date : .......................................

Course Number : .......................................

Section Number : .......................................

Experiment 6

Discharging a Capacitor

Student Name: ...........................................................

Student ID: ...........................................................

Instructor Name: ………………………………………

---------------------------------------------------------------------------------

Partner’s names: ……………………………..

……………………………..

……………………………..

Total grade

43
Objectives:

……………………………………………………………………………………………………………….

……………………………………………………………………………………………………………….

……………………………………………………………………………………………………………….

Data and analysis of results:

Table I:

Vc (V) t1 (s) t2 (s) t3 (s) tavg (s)

10

9.0

8.0

7.0

6.0

5.0

4.0

3.0

2.0

Time constant determined from the graph: = ……………………….

Capacitance obtained from the time constant: C =……………………….

44
Questions

1- How does Vc change with time?.................................................................

2- What physical quantity can be determined from the graph?.......................

3- What can be done to increase the time needed to completely discharge the capacitor?

……………………………………………………………………………………………………

4- If another capacitor of the same value is connected in series to the existing one, what effect
that would have on the value of the time constant?

……………………………………………………………………………………………………..

Discussion and conclusion:

………………………………………………………………………………………………………….......

………………………………………………………………………………………………………….......

………………………………………………………………………………………………………….......

………………………………………………………………………………………………………….......

………………………………………………………………………………………………………….......

………………………………………………………………………………………………………….......

………………………………………………………………………………………………………….......

45
 Experiment Seven
Electron Charge to Mass Ratio (e/m)

Objectives:
To study the effect of a magnetic field on a moving charged particle.
To determine the electronic charge to mass ratio ( / ).

Theory:

A charged particle of electric charge q moving with velocity in a magnetic field

experiences a magnetic force

= × (1)

where the direction of , which is determined according to the right hand rule, is at right angle
to both and .

If the particle is an electron and if , then by applying Newton’s second law:

mv 2
evB , (2)
r

Therefore the electron would move in a circular path with radius , where forms the
centripetal force.

The PASCO Model SE-9638 e/m apparatus provides a simple method (similar to that used by
J.J. Thomson in 1897) for measuring e/m ratio (see Figure 1). It consists mainly of a pair of
Helmholtz coils, a glass tube, an electron gun, a mirrored scale, and control unit.

46
 Helmholtz coils

e/m tube

Mirrored scale

Electron gun

Control Unit

Figure 1: The e/m Apparatus.

Figure 2 shows the schematic diagram of the electron gun. When the electrons are accelerated
through a potential difference , they gain a kinetic energy given by = . The speed of

the electrons is therefore,

v = (2eV/m)1/2. (3)

Grid Anode

Heater Cathode Deflection plates

Figure 2: Electron gun.

47
The magnetic field produced near the axis of a pair of Helmholtz coils is given by the equation

o IN
B 3
, (4)
5/ 4 2 a

where = 4 × 10 T m/A is the permeability of vacuum, is the current in the Helmholtz

coils, = 130 is the number of turns on each Helmholtz coil, and = 15 cm is the radius of
the Helmholtz coils.

Substituting these values into Eq. (4), the magnetic field in terms of the current in the Helmholtz
coils is given by

= 7.8 × 10 (5)

Equation (3) can be plugged into Eq. (2) to get a final formula for e/m

= (6)

which can be rearranged as

= (7)

A plot of V versus r2 should result in a straight line where e/m can be determined from the slope.

48
Equipments:
UCHIDA Experimental Apparatus for / measurement.
PASCO Low Voltage Power Supply.
PASCO High Voltage Power Supply.
Multimeters (2).
wires.

Figure 3: / control unit and the required connections.

A: Toggle switch.

B: Current adjust knob for Helmholtz coils.

C: Heater connections (in electron gun).

D: Electrodes connections (electron gun).

E: Helmholtz coils connections.

49
Procedure:

1. Connect the circuit as shown in Fig. 3.

2. Flip the toggle switch up (switch A) to the e/m MEASURE position.

3. Turn the current adjust knob of the low voltage power supply clockwise to maximum, and
the voltage knob anti-clockwise to minimum.
4. Set the current adjust knob for the Helmholtz coils clockwise to maximum position.
5. Cover e/m Apparatus with the black hood.
6. Switch on the power of the two supplies.
7. Set the high voltage power supply electrode voltage to 250 V.
8. Turn the voltage adjust knob of the low power supply clockwise until the right display reads
a current of 1.4 A.
9. Wait a minute for the cathode to heat up. When it does, you will see the electron beam
emerging from the electron gun forming a circle.
10. Carefully measure the radius of the electron beam circle. Look through the tube at the
electron beam. To avoid parallax errors, move your head to align the electron beam with the
reflection of the beam that you can see on the mirrored scale. Measure the radius both from
the left and right sides and record your results in Table 1, then calculate the average.
11. For electrode voltages from 180 V to 300 V fill the table.
12. Plot V versus (ravg)2 from which determine e/m ratio, then compare with the theoretical e/m
ratio.

50
Experiment Date : .......................................

Course Number : .......................................

Section Number : .......................................

Experiment 7

Electron Charge to Mass Ratio (e/m)

Student Name: ...........................................................

Student ID: ...........................................................

Instructor Name: ………………………………………

---------------------------------------------------------------------------------

Partner’s names: ……………………………..

……………………………..

……………………………..

Total grade

51
Objectives:

……………………………………………………………………………………………………………….

……………………………………………………………………………………………………………….

……………………………………………………………………………………………………………….

Data and analysis of results:

Table I

Electrodes (V) (cm) (cm) (cm) ( ) (cm2)

180

210

240

270

300

The theoretical value of / =………………………

The measured value of / =……………………….

Questions
1. How does change with ?

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

2. If instead of the electrons, protons were accelerated to the same speed at right angle to the

same magnetic field B, what differences would it make?

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

52
3. What is the effect of reversing the current direction in the Helmholtz coils?

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

4. How does the radius of the electron beam change with the current ?

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

Discussion and conclusion:

………………………………………………………………………………………………………….......

………………………………………………………………………………………………………….......

………………………………………………………………………………………………………….......

………………………………………………………………………………………………………….......

………………………………………………………………………………………………………….......

………………………………………………………………………………………………………….......

………………………………………………………………………………………………………….......

53
 Experiment Eight: Inductance

Objectives:

To get familiar with the behavior of an inductor in an ac circuit.

To determine the inductance of an inductor.

Theory:

In this experiment an AC power source, which was introduced in Pre-Laboratory Session, will be
used. Consider an AC circuit (Fig. 1) consisting of an inductor L and a resistor R that are
connected in series to an AC power source .

Figure 1: An AC circuit (also called RL circuit)

The voltage output of a commercial alternator may be written as

( )= sin( + ), (1)
and the current delivered to the circuit as
( )= sin , (2)
where and are the voltage and current amplitudes (or peak values), is the angular
frequency, which is related to the frequency of power oscillations via =2 , and is the
phase different between and , which depends on the details of the circuit.

54
The voltage across the resistor is = , and the voltage across the inductor is given by

= , in which is called the inductance. Therefore,

= sin = sin , (3)

= cos = sin( + ). (4)

The voltage across the inductor, , leads the current by , whereas the voltage across the

resistor, , is in phase with the current , as shown graphically in Fig. 2. In Eq. (4), = ,
that is the quantity has the unit of Ohm, and is called the reactance of the inductor, = .

(a) (b)

(c) (d)
Figure 2

In Fig. 2, is the amplitude of the voltage across the series combination of resistor and
inductor, which is the same as the peak of the source voltage . It can be inferred from Fig.2 (d)
that

55
 = + . (5)
Using Ohm’s law to expand the voltages in Eq. (5) we get

= + (6)

where is the impedance of the circuit that is given by

= + . (7)

If we include the internal ohmic resistance of the inductor coil, ,

=( + ) + (8)

For a given value of , , and , and by measuring the current , can be calculated as

= . Therefore, a plot of versus ( + ) will result in a straight line with slope 1, and

with the y-intercept equal to . Then the inductance can be calculated from = = .

Equipment:

An ac power source
Resistance box

Inductor

Multimeters

Wires.

Procedure
1. Measure the internal resistance of the coil, . Use the coil labeled 1600.
2. Connect the circuit as shown in Fig. 3.
3. Set the frequency of the signal generator to 250 Hz, and the amplitude to maximum.
4. Set the resistance, , of the decade box to 50 .
5. Measure the total voltage, , by connecting the voltmeter in parallel to both & .
Record in Table 1.
56
6. Measure the current, i, by connecting the ammeter in series with the components. Record
in Table 1.
7. Calculate = /, , and ( + ) . Record in Table 1.
8. Repeat steps 5 7 varying from 75 to 150 . Fill the table.
9. Plot versus ( + ) , and determine , then calculate .

Figure 3: Circuit diagram.

57
Experiment Date : .......................................

Course Number : .......................................

Section Number : .......................................

Experiment 8

Inductance

Student Name: ...........................................................

Student ID: ...........................................................

Instructor Name: ………………………………………

---------------------------------------------------------------------------------

Partner’s names: ……………………………..

……………………………..

……………………………..

Total grade

58
Objectives:

……………………………………………………………………………………………………………….

……………………………………………………………………………………………………………….

……………………………………………………………………………………………………………….

Data and analysis of results:

=……………………….

= 250 Hz

Table 1

2 2
R( ) (R + r) ( ) (V) I (A) Z( ) Z ( )

50

75

100

125

150

Questions
Q1. How is related to ( + ) ? ........................................................................

Q2. What happens if the ac power source is replaced with a dc power source?

…………………………………………………………………………………………………

59
Q3. If the frequency of the source is increased, what effect this would have on the inductive
reactance and the impedance of the circuit?

……………………………………………………………………………………………………

Q4. If by mistake the resistor value was set to mega range, what is the consequence of this on the
inductive reactance, impedance and the current?

……………………………………………………………………………………………………

Discussion and conclusion:

………………………………………………………………………………………………………….......

………………………………………………………………………………………………………….......

………………………………………………………………………………………………………….......

………………………………………………………………………………………………………….......

………………………………………………………………………………………………………….......

………………………………………………………………………………………………………….......

………………………………………………………………………………………………………….......

60
 Experiment Nine: Transformer

Objectives:

To study the operation of a transformer.

To examine the effect of core configuration on the transformer voltage gain.

To compare between step-up and step-down transformers and between no-load and full-load
operation.

Theory:

The transformer consists of two coils wound around a soft iron coil (see Fig. 1). One is referred
to as the primary coil, with N1 turns, and the other as the secondary coil, with N2 turns. The
primary coil is connected to an alternating-current (ac) source with electromotive-force (emf),
( ), and the secondary is connected to a resistive load via a switch.

According to Faraday’s law, an alternating current in the primary coil induces a self alternating
magnetic flux B(t), which leads to an induced , , such that

= = , (1)

where, V1 is the potential difference developed across the primary coil. The magnetic flux is
linked to the secondary coil through the iron core. Thus, the magnetic flux rate of change is the
same for both coils. Therefore, using Eq.(1), we get

d B V1 V2
, (2)
dt N1 N2

where V2 is the potential difference developed across the secondary coil, which is given by

N2
V2 V1 . (3)
N1
61
 B(t)
S

(t) R

Primary (N1) Secondary (N2)

Figure 1: The basic Transformer.

Now, if N2 N1, we speak of a step-up transformer; and if N1 N2, we speak of a step-down

transformer. The voltage gain, G, may be defined as the ratio between the output, to the input
voltages, or

= . (4)

For a step-up transformer > 1, and for a step-down < 1. When the switch is open (no load
operation), no current exists in the secondary coil and therefore, no power is delivered to the
transformer, and the primary coil acts as a pure inductance, whereas, if the switch is closed a
current, i2, is set through the secondary coil, and the two windings appear to be as a fully coupled
mutual inductance.

Actually, the closed switch operation is rather complex to analyze. Therefore we take advantage
of the overall view provided by the conservation of energy principle. For an ideal transformer
with a resistive load this tells us that

Pin = Po, (5)

Where Pin, and Po are the input and output powers.

Transformer efficiency may be expressed as

Po
Efficiency 100 . (6)
Pin

62
In practice no transformer is of 100% efficiency due to power losses. Some of the main reasons
for these losses are: the resistance of the coils, the magnetic leakage, and the hysteresis losses
(due to magnetization properties of the core).

Equipment:

The PASCO SF-8616 Basic Coils Set.

Low voltage ac power supply (PASCO Model SF-9582).

Resistance box.

Banana connecting leads for electrical connections.

Multi-meter (2).

Procedure:
Part one (core configuration)

1- Set up the two coils labeled 400-turn as shown in Fig. 2 (no core is used).
2- Set the voltage of the supply to 6 V.
3- Measure input and output voltages, calculate the voltage gain and record in Table 1.
4- Repeat step 3, changing the core configuration as shown in Fig. 3.

Primary Secondary

Figure 2: Input and output voltage measurements.

63
Part two (Step-up vs step-down transformer)

1- Using the core configuration that gave the maximum voltage gain in part 1, set up the coils as
shown in Fig. 2.
2- Measure input and output voltages, calculate the voltage gain and record in Table 2.
3- Fixing the primary coil to 400-turns, repeat step 2, changing the secondary coil according to
Table 2.
4- Use the 3200-turn coil as your primary, repeat step 2, changing the secondary coil as given
in Table 3. Record the data.

Iron bar U-shape Square shape

Figure 3: Core configurations.

Part three (Power efficiency)

1- Using a 400-turn as the primary, and 1600-turn as secondary, set up the coils as shown in
Fig. 4, using the square core configuration.
2- Set the ammeters to milliamp range.
3- Set the resistor to 1000 .
4- Measure the input and output voltages and currents. Record in Table 4.
5- Calculate the input and output powers, voltage gain, and the power efficiency. Record in
Table 5.
6- Repeat steps 4 & 5 for resister values given in the table 5.

64
 Ammeter

Ammeter

Voltmeter Voltmeter

Figure 4: Determining power efficiency of the transformer.

65
Experiment Date : .......................................

Course Number : .......................................

Section Number : .......................................

Experiment 9
Transformer

Student Name: ...........................................................

Student ID: ...........................................................

Instructor Name: ………………………………………

---------------------------------------------------------------------------------

Partner’s names: ……………………………..

……………………………..

……………………………..

Total grade

66
Objectives:

……………………………………………………………………………………………………………….

……………………………………………………………………………………………………………….

Data and analysis of results:

Table 1 (both coils of 400-turns)

Core Vin (V) Vo (V) G

NO
Iron bar
U-shape
Square-shape

Table 2 (step-up)

Primary Secondary Vin (V) Vo (V) G

400 400
400 800
400 1600
400 3200

Table 3 (step-down)

Primary Secondary Vin (V) Vo (V) G

3200 1600
3200 800
3200 400
3200 200

67
Table 4 (voltages & currents)

R( ) Vin (V) Iin (mA) Vo (V) Io (mA)

1000
1100
1200
1300
1400
1500

Table 5 (power efficiency)

R( ) Pin (W) Po (W) G Efficiency

1000
1100
1200
1300
1400
1500

Questions
1- Which core configuration gives the maximum voltage gain?

2- Is the power efficiency, that you got, equals 100%? If not, can you explain the
reason?...................................................................................................

…………………………………………………………………………………………………….

3- Can a transformer input be dc?..........................Why?.................................

…………………………………………………………………………………………………….

68
4- At the terminal of the electricity generation plant, and the consumer, which type among step-
up, and step-down transformers are used?

……………………………………………………………………………………………………

Discussion and conclusion:

………………………………………………………………………………………………………….......

………………………………………………………………………………………………………….......

………………………………………………………………………………………………………….......

………………………………………………………………………………………………………….......

………………………………………………………………………………………………………….......

………………………………………………………………………………………………………….......

………………………………………………………………………………………………………….......

69