Accepted Manuscript

Assessment of soil erosion using RUSLE, GIS and remote sensing

in NW Ethiopia

Mengesha Zerihun, Mohammed S. Mohammedyasin, Demeke

Sewnet, Anwar A. Adem, Mindesilew Lakew

PII: S2352-0094(17)30200-6
DOI: doi:10.1016/j.geodrs.2018.01.002
Reference: GEODRS 162
To appear in: Geoderma Regional
Received date: 8 October 2017
Revised date: 21 January 2018
Accepted date: 26 January 2018

Please cite this article as: Mengesha Zerihun, Mohammed S. Mohammedyasin, Demeke
Sewnet, Anwar A. Adem, Mindesilew Lakew , Assessment of soil erosion using RUSLE,
GIS and remote sensing in NW Ethiopia. The address for the corresponding author
was captured as affiliation for all authors. Please check if appropriate. Geodrs(2018),
doi:10.1016/j.geodrs.2018.01.002

This is a PDF file of an unedited manuscript that has been accepted for publication. As
a service to our customers we are providing this early version of the manuscript. The
manuscript will undergo copyediting, typesetting, and review of the resulting proof before
it is published in its final form. Please note that during the production process errors may
be discovered which could affect the content, and all legal disclaimers that apply to the
journal pertain.
 ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT

Assessment of soil erosion using RUSLE, GIS and remote sensing in NW Ethiopia

Mengesha Zerihuna, Mohammed S. Mohammedyasinb,* , Demeke Sewneta, Anwar A. Ademc,

Mindesilew Lakewd
a
Department of Civil Engineering, Institute of Technology, Debre Markos University, P.O.
Box 269, Debre Markos, Ethiopia
b
Department of Geology, School of Earth Sciences, Bahir Dar University, P.O. Box 79, Bahir
Dar, Ethiopia
c
Department of Natural Resources Management, College of Agriculture, Bahir Dar

PT
University, P.O. Box 79, Bahir Dar, Ethiopia
d
Department of Hydraulics and Water Resources Engineering, Institute of Technology, Debre

RI
Markos University, P.O. Box 269, Debre Markos, Ethiopia

SC
*Corresponding author.
NU
E-mail address: mame1430@gmail.com (M. S. Mohammedyasin)
MA
T ED
C EP
AC
 ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT

Abstract

This study integrates the Revised Universal Soil Loss Equation (RUSLE) with GIS and

remote sensing techniques to assess soil erosion severity in the Dembecha District,

Northwestern Ethiopia. Digital elevation model (DEM), land use/land cover (LU/LC) maps,

and rainfall and soil data were used as an input to identify the most erosion prone areas.

Accordingly, the district was classified into five soil loss severity classes: very slight (24 %),

PT
slight (49 %), moderate (11 %), severe (3 %) and very sever (13 %) risk classes. Most of the

RI
district was characterized by very slight to slight soil erosion rates which is associated with

SC
the gentle slope covered by Alisols and Cambisols. The mean annual soil loss in the district is

estimated to be 49 t ha-1 yr-1 , i.e. total soil loss of 526996 t yr-1 . Hence, soil and water
NU
conservation (SWC) measures should prioritize based on soil erosion severity levels.
MA

Key words: Soil loss; Soil and water conservation; Severity class; RUSLE; Alisols;

Dembecha District; Upper Blue Nile

T ED
C EP
AC
 ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT

1. Introduction

Soil loss by water is a major problem in the Northwestern Ethiopian highlands

(Haregeweyn et al., 2017) with significant impacts on the ecosystem (Gebrehiwot et al., 2014;

Haregeweyn et al., 2016, 2015a, 2015b), crop production (Hurni et al., 2015), downstream

flooding and reservoir sedimentation (Balthazar et al., 2013; Garzanti et al., 2006;

Haregeweyn et al., 2015b), and economic loss (Hurni et al., 2015). The severity of erosion is

PT
caused by steep topography, overgrazing, poor technology and cultivation mechanisms

RI
(Nyssen et al., 2004), formation of gullies (Nyssen et al., 2006), and runoff and sedimentation

SC
related nutrient loss (Haregeweyn et al., 2008). Exhaustive agronomic practices are triggering

speedy land use alteration and intensifying the rate of soil erosion in the Northwestern
NU
Ethiopian highlands (Abebe and Sewnet, 2014). Human activities also accelerating soil

erosion and reducing the productivity of vulnerable lands (Bai et al., 2008; Fernandez et al.,
MA

2003).

Improper method of ploughing, and poor technology and cultivation mechanisms

ED

pronounce the water erosion risks in the Dembecha District. Therefore, runoff in the rainy
T

seasons easily degrade, transport and remove the loam soil from the area. This further
EP

contributes for the siltation problem in the downstream waterworks, such as the Great

Ethiopian Renaissance Dam (GERD).

C

Few basin and some watershed scale quantitative soil loss estimation has been done
AC

(e.g., Amsalu and Mengaw, 2014; Bewket and Sterk, 2003; Estifanos, 2014; Gelagay and

Minale, 2016; Gete, 2000; Haregeweyn et al., 2017; Yihenew and Yihenew, 2013). Erosion

by water in the Dembecha District is not yet addressed though the problem is frequently

reported in the news. This work is therefore done to estimate the annual soil loss and prioritize

areas prone to erosion risk in the Dembecha District, Northwestern Ethiopia (Fig. 1).

Therefore, integrated approach of soil loss estimation using Revised Universal Soil Loss
 ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT

Equation (RUSLE), geographic information system (GIS) and remote sensing (RS) was used

to achieve the objectives.

The Universal Soil Loss Equation (USLE) proposed by Wieschmeier and Smith (1978)

and its revised form (RUSLE) by Renard et al. (1997) are the most intensively used empirical

models for soil loss estimation. The RUSLE model is flexible, time and cost effective, and

practical in areas of scarce measured data which can be used for watershed conservation.

PT
However, the RUSLE model has also limitations in terms of reliability and its spatial

RI
coverage especially for large areas (Chen et al., 2011; Prasannakumar et al., 2011) and over

SC
estimate K values (Fernández and Vega, 2016; Ostovari et al., 2017). Therefore, combining

the RUSLE model with GIS and RS is more accurate and solve some of these problems (e.g.,
NU
Abu-Hammad, 2009; Farhan et al., 2013).

Quantitative models of soil erosion, such as RUSLE, are very important to prioritize
MA

high erosion severity areas and extrapolate into data scarce areas. However, interpretation of

the results depends on how the scores are defined (e.g., Haregeweyn et al., 2017) and the
ED

spatial coverage of the area (e.g., De Vente and Poesen, 2005; Volk et al., 2010).
T
C EP
AC
 ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT

2. Study are a

The Dembecha District, in the Upper Blue Nile (Abay) Basin, is situated between

37º09'30'' - 37º31'30'' E longitudes and 10°17'00'' - 10°44'30'' N latitudes with altitude ranging

from 1021 to 2516 m above mean sea level. It covers an area of 82931 hectare in the West

Gojjam, Northwestern Ethiopia, and 343 km far from Addis Ababa (Fig. 1). The climate is

dry sub-humid with a rainy season from June to October and a mean annual rainfall ranging

PT
from 1182.3-1880.9 mm, as recorded by different meteorological station (Table 1). The

RI
highest mean monthly temperature was recorded in March (29.6 °C) and the lowest was

SC
during December-January (12.9 °C).

The slope of the study area is flat (0 -5 % slope rise) to rolling (5-25 % slope rise)
NU
covering 32. 6 % and 51.7 % of the total area, respectively with the exception of some

mountainous and escarpments. The tip of highland in the district is the Chokie Mountain,
MA

which is the water-tower of the region.

FAO (Food and Agricultural Organization) soil classification was used in this work and
ED

most of the study area is covered by Alisols. The other major soils include Cambisols,
T

Fluvisols, Leptosols, Vertisols and Nitisols (Table 2). The quaternary columnar flood basalts
EP

in the area are probably the source of the black soils in the area as a result of intense

weathering. Most of the study area is used for crop production and mixed farming.
C
AC

3. Data and M e thods

3.1 Input data

The RUSLE model was applied to analyses the mean annual soil loss which requires

land use/land cover map, rainfall, slope length/steepness, soil types and properties, and

management practices, and the parameters of this method can be easily estimated and

integrated with GIS for better analysis. It is the best available model that can be used at
 ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT

watershed or basin wide levels. Input values were obtained from digital elevation model

(DEM), land use/land cover (LU/LC) maps from satellite image, and soil and rainfall data

which then integrated with RUSLE model. This model is more efficient for small area, e.g.,

watershed level, because it does not have the capability for routing sediment through channels

(Chen et al., 2011; Prasannakumar et al., 2011). Then, the area were discretised into

hydrologically homogeneous cells of ca. 30m x 30m based on RUSLE model parameters.

PT
RI
3.2 Methods and estimation of RUSLE parameters

SC
The RUSLE model (Renard et al., 1997) equates the mean annual soil loss (A) per unit

area with the erosivity of rain-runoff (R), erodibility of the soil (K), slope length/slope
NU
steepness (LS), cover-management (C) and support practice (P) factors by sheet and rill

erosion, which can be computed using Eq. (1):

MA

A  R  K  LS  C  P (1)
Where A is mean annual soil loss (t ha−1 yr−1 ); R is rainfall erosivity factor (MJ mm ha−1 h−1
ED

yr−1 ); K is soil erodibility factor (t ha h ha−1 MJ−1 mm−1 ); C is cover-management factor

(dimensionless); LS is slope length/slope steepness factor (dimensionless); and P is the

T
EP

support practice factor (dimensionless). The soil erosivity, erodibility and management

factors, can be determined from geomorphological and rainfall characteristics of the area. The
C

workflow and methods of the work are presented on Fig. 2.

AC

3.2.1 Rainfall erosivity factor (R)

Rainfall erosivity factor (R) is the power of rainfall to cause soil erosion by water, and a

mean annual value is calculated as summation of event based energy intensity value for a

location divided by the number of years over which the date were collected. R-factor is

computed as total storm energy multiplied by the maximum 30 min measurement of rainfall
 ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT

intensity with autographic recorders (Renard et al., 1997). And, the kinetic energy is the

ability of rain drop to detach soil particles from the whole soil mass (Nearing and Bradford,

1985). However this measurement is not usually available in the study area, hence an

empirical equation developed by Hurni (1985) has been to compute R-factor from the annual

rainfall (P, mm; Fig. 3a) using Eq. (2):

R  0.562P  8.12 (2)

PT
Where R is rainfall erosivity (MJ mm ha−1 h−1 yr−1 ) and P is annual rainfall (mm)

Twenty four years (1992-2015) of rainfall data was used for each selected local rainfall

RI
stations such as Dengay Ber, Dembecha, Rebu Gebeya, Wad Eyesus, Yechereka, Burie,

SC
Kuche and Anjeni stations (Error! Reference source not found.) which then interpolated
NU
using 30 m grid cells in Arc GIS 10.1.

The missing rainfall data are estimated using normal ratio method. This method is used
MA

if any surrounding gauges have the normal annual precipitation exceeding 10% of the

considered gauge. This weighs the effect of each surrounding station (Singh, 1992). The
ED

missing data were estimated using Eq. (3):

1 m  NX 
PX  
T

 Pi (3)
m i 1  Ni 
EP

Where, Px is estimate for the missing rainfall station; Pi is rainfall values of the surrounding
C

station used for estimation; Nx is normal annual precipitation of missing rainfall station; Ni is
AC

normal annual precipitation of surrounding stations and m is number of surrounding stations.

The accumulation in the station vs the surrounding neighbouring stations was computed

and plotted. Consistency of the rainfall data has been also tested using double mass curve

method. Finally, the association between them was evaluated using their coefficient of

determination (R2 ).
 ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT

3.2.2 Soil erodibility factor (K)

In the Upper Blue Nile (Abay) Basin, soil characteristic data is limited hence the K

values were determined in the district using the soil colour-type assignment previously

suggested in calibration-based (e.g., Hurni et al, 2015) and experiment-based (e.g., Bono and

Seiler, 1984; Hurni, 1985) works.

Soil texture, structure, permeability and organic matter determine

PT
the erodibility of a particular soil (Efe et al., 2008). Organic matter reduces soil erodibility

RI
and its susceptibility to detachment, but increases infiltration. The dominant soil type in the

SC
area is haplic Alisols with the K-factor of 0.25.

The K-factor ranges from less than 0.1 for the least erodible soils to approaching 1.0 in
NU
the worst possible case. The K-factor value used in this study ranges 0.15 (Vertisols) to 0.3
MA

(Fluvisols) (Table 2). On this basis the K-factor assignment and converting into maps in 30 m

grid cell was undertaken.

T ED

3.2.3 Topographic (LS) factor

EP

Slope length and slope steepness is the other main factor for estimating the soil

loss which measures sediment transport capacity of the flow (Moore and Wilson,
C

1992). LS does not consider the 3D complexity of the topography but simply
AC

assumes soil loss increases with slope length (Robert and Hilborn, 2000) and/or

upslope contributing area (Desmet and Govers, 1996; Mitas and Mitasova, 1996;

Moore and Burch, 1986a, 1986b). The LS- factor is calculated based on Eq. (4):

0.4 1.3
 CellSize   sin( Slope) 
LS   FlowAccumulation     (4)
 22.13   0.0896 
 ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT

Where Flow Accumulation is a raster- based total accumulated flow in each cell

weight for all cells that flow into each downslope cell which is derived from DEM

after processing fill and flow direction in ArcGIS; and Cell Size is the size grid cell

derived from DEM 30 resolution.

PT
3.2.4 Cover management factor (C)

The cover management (C) factor is the retio of soil loss from the land with vegetation

RI
to continuous fallow (Wieschmeier and Smith, 1978). The C-factor is derived from both land

SC
cover and crop management which was determined from the land use map of the area (Table

3).
NU
MA

3.2.5 Conservation support practice factor (P)

Conservation support practice factor is the ratio of soil loss after doing a conservation
ED

practice to soil loss for up and down slope in straight-row cultivation (Wieschmeier and

Smith, 1978), and used to understand the conservation practices in the study area.
T

Wieschmeier and Smith (1978) assigned the P-factor value by categorizing the area into
EP

agricultural land and other land use types by considering the support practices (Table 3).
C
AC

4. Re s ults

4.1 Estimation of RUSLE parameters

The soil erosion rate is more sensitive to and ease of computation using the annual

rainfall though it can be better indicated by the daily rainfall to characterize the seasonal

distribution of erosion and sediment yield (e.g; Dabral et al., 2008; Jain et al., 2001). The

mean annual rainfall of the Dembecha District ranges from 1182.3 – 1880.8 mm. Rainfall
 ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT

increases from low (e.g., Abay Gorge) to high elevation (e.g., Choke Mountain) areas; so do

high soil erosion is expected. The calculated R-factor value ranges from 754 to 1022.6 MJ

mm ha-1 h-1 yr-1 . The R-factor is highest in the NE and lowest in the NW parts of the study

area (Fig. 3b). The R-factor showed that the distribution of rainfall was not even in the study

area.

PT
Using the soil map, K-factor values were assigned to the respective soil types ranging

RI
from 0.15 to 0.3 (Fig. 4a and b). The topographic (LS) factor was calculated from the flow

SC
accumulation and slope extracted from the DEM of the study area (Fig. 5a and b). The values

of LS-factor increase from 0.27- 205 as the flow accumulation and slope increases. The low
NU
LS values are found in the gentle slope areas which show the significance of the slope on LS
MA

estimation.

Using the toposheet and satellite data, thematic layer of land use-land cover map was
ED

generated and used to produce the C-factor map by assigning their value for each land

use/cover class. The dominant C-factor values range from 0-1 (Fig. 6a). P-factor map also
T
EP

follow the C-factor map trend with dominant values ranging from 0.12-1 (Fig. 6b).

4.2 Estimation of mean annual soil loss and prioritization

C

The RUSLE equation was used to calculate the mean annual soil loss (A) in t ha-1 yr-1 .
AC

The mean annual soil loss map was produced by overlying the

sheet and rill erosion, and gully erosion maps (Fig. 7). Based on the result, the area was

classified into five rate of erosion severity classes (t ha-1 yr-1 ): very slight (0-5), slight (5-15),

moderate (15-30), severe (30-50), very severe (>50) (Table 4; Fig. 7). This helps to prioritize

areas for conservation measures according to their level of the risk. To identify the most risk

prone areas to soil erosion, RUSLE model is the most advisable and best method of analysis
 ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT

to prioritize the district according to risky level. Using the calculated values of each of the

RUSLE parameters we estimate the mean annual soil loss estimated to be 49 t ha-1 yr-1 , i.e.,

total annual soil loss of 526996 t yr-1 .

4.3 Consistency and validation of model results

PT
After doing outlier test, the model consistency was tested using double mas curve

(DMC). It shows that the model has strong predictive capability of rainfall for all gauging

RI
stations in the study area. So that statistical model efficiency criteria (R2 > 0.6) has been

SC
fulfilled (Table 1). This showed that the model parameters represent the processes occurring

in the Dembecha District deliver to the best of their ability due to the given available data and
NU
may be used to predict watershed response for various outputs.
MA

The rainfall distribution in the area showed that a variation of yearly rainfall amounts

due to elevation difference which is an increase from Abay Gorge to Choke Mountain. Based
ED

on the team observation in some areas, high depth gorges are developed due to surface runoff

which was difficult to develop soil loss mitigation.

T

Expert judgment and rating can be used for regional and nationwide soil loss scoring
EP

based on easily explanatory variables on biophysical characteristics, land use and country
C

variable (Sonneveld et al., 2011). Based on these variables our result indicates severe soil loss
AC

in the very steep slopes and slight/very slight soil loss in the gentle slopes. On this basis, we

have done a field visit in different traverses crossing all the soil loss severity classes and gave

expert rating (very slight, slight, moderate, severe, very sever). Finally, our estimate fits the

severity classes estimated by the RUSLE model. Besides, the team also identified gullies in

the gentle slope areas which are erosion hotspots but could not be estimated by RUSLE,

which is one of the limitation of this method.

 ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT

Moreover, we apply hydrological scientific model validation proposed by Biondi et al.

(2012). We used the previous works in the region, and compared with our model results, as

means of validation (FAO, 1988; Haregeweyn et al., 2017; Hurni et al., 2015; Sonneveld et

al., 2011; Table 5). These works are comparable and are indirect evidence for the validation

of the finding of this study.

PT
5. Dis cus sion

The result shows most part of the study area characterized by very slight (24 %) to

RI
slight (49 %) with small part with in moderate (11 %) to very small part with severe (3 %) and

SC
very sever (13 %) by area. The severe and very severe soil erosion rate can be associated with

the support practice and soil erodibility of the area. The severe soil loss is estimated from the
NU
steep slope areas. The very slight soil loss is related with the Nitisols which is found in the
MA

gentle slope areas.

This study estimates annual soil loss of 49 t ha-1 yr-1 which is lower than other estimates
ED

in the Upper Blue Nile Basin such as 131–171 t ha-1 year-1 of Kefeni (1995), 243 t ha-1 year-1

by Gete (2000) and 84 t ha-1 year-1 by Yihenew & Yihenew (2013). Other studies on the other
T

hand estimated 30.6 t ha-1 year-1 from Jabi Tehinan District (Amsalu and Mengaw, 2014),
EP

39.8 t ha-1 year-1 from Ribb Watershed (Estifanos, 2014), and 47.4 t ha-1 year-1 from Koga
C

watershed (Gelagay and Minale, 2016) in the Upper Blue Nile Basin. A comprehensive study
AC

in Upper Blue Nile Basin by Haregeweyn et al. (2017) estimated a mean annual soil loss of

27.5 t ha-1 yr-1 (Table 5). Hence, our result is in line with the previous works in the

neighbouring watersheds in the Upper Blue Nile Basin.

Besides, the rapid formation of rills and gullies in the cultivated lands are witnessing for

the alarming rate of soil erosion in the area. Hence, community based SWC measures should

be taken. Awareness development programmes to the local people about soil erosion and its
 ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT

consequence are need. Furthermore, this result could contribute for the development

watershed management strategies in the district by prioritizing the severe and very severe

risk/erosion prone parts.

6. Conclus ions

The Dembecha District is affected by soil erosion by water problems and prioritized

PT
SWC measures can be taken through integrated RUSLE, GIS and remote sensing quantitative

soil loss modelling. The RUSLE model has been a very costly and easy tool to estimate the

RI
mean annual soil loss, especially in small areas such as watershed and district levels, and is

SC
effective for planning of soil conservation measures. This study estimates the soil loss in the

Dembecha District and prioritize the areas based on erosion severity levels. Our result shows
NU
that the district loses a mean annual soil loss of 49 t ha-1 yr-1 with different risk levels: very
MA

slight (24 %), slight (49 %), moderate (11 %), severe (3 %) and very sever (13 %) risk class.

Soil and water conservation (SWC) plans in the area can prioritize the severe to very severe

erosion risk classes. The method can also be adopted for other neighbouring watersheds in the
ED

NW Ethiopia to have information on the spatial distribution and quantitative estimate of soil
T

loss as a guide for planning of SWC measures.

C EP

Acknowle dge me nts

AC

This work was supported by the Debre Markos University (Ethiopia) research grant. We

appreciate the Ethiopian Meteorological Agency and Water and Land Resources Center

(WLRC) for access the rainfall data. Constructive comments and suggestions from

anonymous reviewers improved the paper and we are grateful to them.

 ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT

Appe ndix A: Supple me ntary data

Supplementary data associated with this article can be found in the online version of this

article. These data include 24 years rainfall data and calculated rainfall accumulation used in

this work.

PT
RI
SC
NU
MA
T ED
C EP
AC
 ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT

Re fe rences

Abebe, Z.D., Sewnet, M.A., 2014. Adoption of soil conservation practices in North Achefer
District, Northwest Ethiopia. Chinese J. Popul. Resour. Environ. 12, 261–268.
doi:10.1080/10042857.2014.934953
Abu-Hammad, A., 2009. Watershed erosion risk assessment and management utilizing
revised universal soil loss equation-geographic information systems in the Mediterranean
environments. Water Environ. J. 25, 149–162.

PT
Amsalu, T., Mengaw, A., 2014. GIS based soil loss estimation using RUSLE model: the case
of Jabi Tenan Woreda, ANRS, Ethiopia. Nat. Resour. 5. doi:10.4236/nr.2014.511054

RI
Bai, Z.G., Dent, D.L., Olsson, L., Schaepman, M.E., 2008. Proxy global assessment of land
degradation. Soil Use Manag. 24, 223–234. doi:10.1111/j.1475-2743.2008.00169.x

SC
Balthazar, V., Vanacker, V., Girma, A., Poesen, J., Golla, S., 2013. Human impact on
sediment fluxes within the Blue Nile and Atbara River basins. Geomorphology 180,
NU
231–241. doi:10.1016/j.geomorph.2012.10.013
Bewket, W., Sterk, G., 2003. Assessment of soil erosion in cultivated fields using a survey
MA

methodology for rills in the Chemoga watershed, Ethiopia. Agric. Ecosyst. Environ. 97,
81–93.
Biondi, D., Freni, G., Iacobellis, V., Mascaro, G., Montanari, A., 2012. Validation of
ED

hydrological models: Conceptual basis, methodological approaches and a proposal for a

code of practice. Phys. Chem. Earth, Parts A/B/C 42, 70–76.
T

doi:10.1016/j.pce.2011.07.037
EP

Bono, R., Seiler, W., 1984. Erodibility in the Suke-Harerge and Andit Tid Research Units
(Ethiopia). Research Report 5. Soil Conservation Research Project (SCRP). Centre for
C

Development and Environment, University of Berne.

AC

Chen, T., Niu, R., Li, P., Zhang, L., Du, B., 2011. Regional soil erosion risk mapping using
RUSLE, GIS, and remote sensing: a case study in Miyun watershed, North China.
Environ. Earth Sci. 63, 533–541.
Dabral, P.P., Baithuri, N., Pandey, A., 2008. Soil erosion assessment in a hilly catchment of
North Eastern India using USLE, GIS and remote sensing. Water Resour. Manag. 22,
1783–1798. doi:10.1007/s11269-008-9253-9
De Vente, J., Poesen, J., 2005. Predicting soil erosion and sediment yield at the basin scale:
scale issues and semi-quantitative models. Earth-Science Rev. 71, 95–125.
Desmet, P.J.J., Govers, G., 1996. A GIS procedure for automatically calculating the USLE LS
 ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT

factor on topographically complex landscape units. J. Soil Water Conserv. 51, 427–433.
Efe, R., Ekincl, D., Curebal, I., 2008. Erosion analysis of Sahin Creek Watershed (NW of
Turkey) using GIS based on RUSLE (3D) Method. J. Appl. Sci. 8, 49–58.
doi:10.3923/jas.2008.49.58
Estifanos, A., 2014. Assessment of Micro-watershed vulnerability for soil erosion in Ribb
Watershed using GIS and Remote sensing. MSc Thesis. Mekelle University.
FAO, 1988. FAO/UNESCO soil map of the World: revised legend. FAO World Resources
Report 60. Rome, Food and Agricultural Organization of the United Nations.

PT
Farhan, Y., Zregat, D., Farhan, I., 2013. Spatial estimation of soil erosion risk using RUSLE
approach, RS, and GIS techniques: a case study of Kufranja watershed, northern Jordan.

RI
J. Water Resour. Prot. 5, 1247–1261.

SC
Fernández, C., Vega, J.A., 2016. Evaluation of RUSLE and PESERA models for predicting
soil erosion losses in the first year after wildfire in NW Spain. Geoderma 273, 64–72.
NU
Fernandez, C., Wu, Q., McCool, D.K., Stockle, C.O., 2003. Estimating water erosion and
sediment yield with GIS, RUSLE, and SEDD. J. Soil Water Conserv. 58, 128.
Garzanti, E., Andò, S., Vezzoli, G., Megid, A.A.A., El Kammar, A., 2006. Petrology of Nile
MA

River sands (Ethiopia and Sudan): sediment budgets and erosion patterns. Earth Planet.
Sci. Lett. 252, 327–341. doi:10.1016/j.epsl.2006.10.001
ED

Gebrehiwot, S.G., Bewket, W., Gärdenäs, A.I., Bishop, K., 2014. Forest cover change over
four decades in the Blue Nile Basin, Ethiopia: comparison of three watersheds. Reg.
Environ. Chang. 14, 253–266. doi:10.1007/s10113-013-0483-x
T

Gelagay, H.S., Minale, A.S., 2016. Soil loss estimation using GIS and Remote sensing
EP

techniques: A case of Koga watershed, Northwestern Ethiopia. Int. Soil Water Conserv.
Res. 4, 126–136. doi:10.1016/j.iswcr.2016.01.002
C

Gete, Z., 2000. Landscape dynamics and soil erosion process modelling in the North Western
AC

Ethiopia highlands. African studies series. Switzerland: Univesity of Berne.

Haregeweyn, N., Poesen, J., Deckers, J., Nyssen, J., Haile, M., Govers, G., Verstraeten, G.,
Moeyersons, J., 2008. Sediment‐bound nutrient export from micro‐dam catchments in
Northern Ethiopia. L. Degrad. Dev. 19, 136–152.
Haregeweyn, N., Poesen, J., Tsunekawa, A., Tsubo, M., Vanmaercke, M., Zenebe, A.,
Nyssen, J., Meshesha, D.T., Adgo, E., 2015a. Sediment yield variability at various
catchment scales and its impact on reservoirs in the Ethiopian highlands, in: Landscapes
and Landforms of Ethiopia, World Geomorphological Landscapes. pp. 227–238.
Haregeweyn, N., Tsunekawa, A., Nyssen, J., Poesen, J., Tsubo, M., Meshesha, D.T., Schütt,
 ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT

B., Adgo, E., Tegegne, F., 2015b. Soil erosion and conservation in Ethiopia: A review.
Prog. Phys. Geogr. 39, 750–774. doi:10.1177/0309133315598725
Haregeweyn, N., Tsunekawa, A., Poesen, J., Tsubo, M., Meshesha, D.T., Fenta, A.A.,
Nyssen, J., Adgo, E., 2017. Comprehensive assessment of soil erosion risk for better land
use planning in river basins: Case study of the Upper Blue Nile River. Sci. Total
Environ. 574, 95–108. doi:10.1016/j.scitotenv.2016.09.019
Haregeweyn, N., Tsunekawa, A., Tsubo, M., Meshesha, D., Adgo, E., Poesen, J., Schütt, B.,
2016. Analyzing the hydrologic effects of region-wide land and water development

PT
interventions: a case study of the Upper Blue Nile basin. Reg. Environ. Chang. 16, 951–
966. doi:10.1007/s10113-015-0813-2

RI
Hurni, H., 1985. Soil Conservation Manual for Ethiopia: A Field Manual for Conservation

SC
Implementation. Soil Conservation Research Project, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia.
Hurni, K., Zeleke, G., Kassie, M., Tegegne, B., Kassawmar, T., Teferi, E., Moges, A.,
NU
Tadesse, D., Ahmed, M., Degu, Y., 2015. Soil degradation and sustainable land
management in the rainfed agricultural areas of Ethiopia: an assessment of the economic
implications. Rep. Econ. L. Degrad. Initiat.
MA

Jain, S.K., Kumar, S., Varghese, J., 2001. Estimation of soil erosion for a Himalayan
watershed using GIS technique. Water Resour. Manag. 15, 41–54.
ED

doi:10.1023/A:1012246029263
Kefeni, K., 1995. Soil erosion and conservation in Ethiopia, in: Workshop on Coffee and
Other Crops in Coffee Growing Areas. Addis Ababa.
T

Mitas, Z., Mitasova, H., 1996. Modelling topographic potential for erosion and deposition
EP

using GIS. Int. J. GIS 10, 629–641.

Moore, D., Wilson, J.., 1992. Length–slope factors for the revised universal soil loss equation:
C

simplified method of estimation. J. Soil Water Conserv. 47, 423–428.

AC

Moore, I.D., Burch, G.J., 1986a. Modeling erosion and deposition: topographic effects. Trans.
Asae 26, 1624–1630.
Moore, I.D., Burch, G.J., 1986b. Physical basis of the length-slope factor in the universal soil
loss equation. Soil Sci. Soc. Am. J. 50, 1294–1298.
Nearing, M.A., Bradford, J.M., 1985. Single waterdrop splash detachment and mechanical
properties of soils. Soil Sci. Soc. Am. J. 49, 547–552.
doi:10.2136/sssaj1985.03615995004900030003x
Nyssen, J., Poesen, J., Moeyersons, J., Deckers, J., Haile, M., Lang, A., 2004. Human impact
on the environment in the Ethiopian and Eritrean highlands—a state of the art. Earth-
 ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT

science Rev. 64, 273–320. doi:10.1016/S0012-8252(03)00078-3

Nyssen, J., Poesen, J., Veyret‐Picot, M., Moeyersons, J., Haile, M., Deckers, J., Dewit, J.,
Naudts, J., Teka, K., Govers, G., 2006. Assessment of gully erosion rates through
interviews and measurements: a case study from Northern Ethiopia. Earth Surf. Process.
Landforms 31, 167–185. doi:10.1002/esp.1317
Ostovari, Y., Ghorbani-Dashtakia, S., Bahramib, H.-A., Naderia, M., Demattec, J.A.M., 2017.
Soil loss prediction by an integrated system using RUSLE, GIS and remote sensing in
semi-arid region. Geoderma Reg. 11, 28–36.

PT
Prasannakumar, R., Shiny, N., Geetha, H., Vijith, H., 2011. Spatial prediction of soil erosion
risk by remote sensing, GIS and RUSLE approach: a case study of Siruvani river

RI
watershed in Attapady valley, Kerala, India. Environ. Earth Sci. 64, 965–972.

SC
Renard, K.G., Foster, G.R., Weesies, G.A., McCool, D.K., Yoder, D.C., 1997. Predicting soil
erosion by water: a guide to conservation planning with the Revised Universal Soil Loss
NU
Equation (RUSLE). US Government Printing Office Washington, DC.
Robert, P.S., Hilborn, D., 2000. Fact sheet: universal soil loss equation (USLE), Queen’s
printer for Ontario.
MA

Singh, V.P., 1992. Elementary hydrology. Prentice Hall Englewood Cliffs.

Sonneveld, B., Keyzer, M.A., Stroosnijder, L., 2011. Evaluating quantitative and qualitative
ED

models: An application for nationwide water erosion assessment in Ethiopia. Environ.

Model. Softw. 26, 1161–1170. doi:10.1016/j.envsoft.2011.05.002
Volk, M., Möller, M., Wurbs, D., 2010. A pragmatic approach for soil erosion risk assessment
T

within policy hierarchies. Land use policy 27, 997–1009.

EP

Wieschmeier, W.H., Smith, D.D., 1978. Predicting rainfall erosion losses – a guide to
conservation planning. Series: agriculture handbook, Washington DC: USDA.
C

Yihenew, G., Yihenew, B.., 2013. Costs of nutrient losses in priceless soils eroded from the
AC

highlands of Northwestern Ethiopia. J. Agric. Sci. 5, 1916–1952.

doi:10.5539/jas.v5n7p227
 ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT

Tables

Table 1. Mean annual rainfall and coefficient of determination each station.

Station name Mean annual rainfall Coefficient of Status

(mm) determination (R2 )
Dengay Ber 1880.8 0.9995 Very strong fitting
Dembecha 1437.4 0.9987 Very strong fitting

PT
Rebu Gebeya 1680.1 0.9992 Very strong fitting
Wad Eyesus 1356.4 0.9990 Very strong fitting

RI
Yechereka 1625.9 0.9983 Very strong fitting
Burie 1388.9 0.9989 Very strong fitting

SC
Kuche 1182.3 0.9996 Very strong fitting
Anjeni 1742.4 0.9998 Very strong fitting
NU
Note: the R2 is calculated for accumulation of rainfall in a given station vs accumulation of
mean rainfall in the surrounding stations.
MA
T ED
C EP
AC
 ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT

Table 2. Unit soil and their estimated K factor value estimated (Gelagay and Minale,

2016).

Unit soil Estimated K value

[metric tons ha-1 MJ-1 mm-1 ]
Eutric Cambisols 0.2

PT
Eutric Fluvisols 0.3
Eutric Leptosols 0.2

RI
Eutric Vertisols 0.15
Haplic Alisols 0.25

SC
Haplic Nitisols 0.25
Eutric Leptosols 0.2
NU
MA
T ED
C EP
AC
 ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT

Table 3. Value of RUSLE C - and P- factors for different land cover in the Upper Blue

Nile Basin adopted from Gelagay and Minale (2016) and Haregeweyn et al. ( 2017).

Land use Description C-factor P-factor

Cultivated Lands used for agriculture , horticulture and gardens 0.5 0.12
land including paddy fields, irrigated and dry farm lands ,
vegetation and fruit gardens

PT
Forest Land covered with trees with vegetation cover over 0.001 1
30%, including deciduous and coniferous forests and

RI
sparse woodland which cover 10-30%
Grass land Lands covered by natural grass with cover over 10% 0.2 0.12

SC
Shrub land Lands covered with shrubs with cover over 30%, 1 0.2
including deciduous and every green shrubs and
NU
desert steppes with cover over 10%
Water Water bodies in the land area including rivers , lakes, 0 1
MA

bodies reservoirs, fish and ponds

Artificial Lands modified by human activities includes all 0.011 1
surface kinds of habitation industrial and mining area,
ED

transportation facilities and interior urban green

zones and water bodies
T
C EP
AC
 ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT

Table 4. Soil erosion severity classes/risk levels (adopted from Haregeweyn et al.,

2017) and their respective areal coverage (in % and ha), annual soil loss (in t yr - 1 and

%) and conservation priority.

Rank Soil erosion Severity Area Area Total annual Total Conservati
severity (t classes (%) (ha) soil loss (t yr- annual on priority
ha-1 yr-1 ) 1
) soil loss

PT
(%)
1 0–5 Very slight 58.8 48769.25 126031.28 24 Fifth
2 5 – 15 Slight 36.3 30078.83 256119.28 49 Fourth

RI
3 15 - 30 Moderate 3.5 2891.64 60481.60 11 Third

SC
4 30 - 50 Sever 0.5 446.52 18106.25 3 Second
5 >50 Very sever 0.9 744.79
NU 66257.80 13 First
MA
T ED
C EP
AC
 ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT

Table 5. Comparison of soil loss estimations in the Upper Blue Nile Basin.

Study area/region Mean anaual Mean annual soil Reference

rainfall (mm) loss (t ha-1 yr-1 )

PT
Dembecha District 1182.3-1880.8 49.0 This study

Koga watershed 1628.2 47.4 Gelagay and Minale (2016)

RI
Ribb Watershed 1997-2011 39.8 Estifanos (2014)

SC
Jabi Tehinan District 1022.75 30.6 Amsalu and Mengaw (2014)

Upper Blue Nile Basin 900 - 2000 27.5 Haregeweyn et al. (2017)
NU
MA
T ED
C EP
AC
 ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT

Figures

PT
RI
SC
NU
MA
T ED
EP

Fig. 1. Location of Dembecha District, Upper Blue Nile Basin, Northwestern

Ethiopia.
C
AC
 ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT

PT
RI
SC
NU
MA

Fig. 2. Work flow of the study.

T ED
C EP
AC
 ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT

PT
RI
SC
NU
Fig. 3. (a) Rainfall and (b) rainfall- runoff erosivity (R) factor maps.
MA
T ED
C EP
AC
 ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT

PT
RI
SC
Fig. 4. (a) Soil map (derived from FAO soil) and (b) soil erodibility factor (K) map.
NU
MA
T ED
C EP
AC
 ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT

PT
RI
SC
Fig. 5. (a) Slope map and (b) topographic (LS) factor map of the study area.
NU
MA
T ED
C EP
AC
 ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT

PT
RI
Fig. 6. (a) Crop management (C) factor and (b) conservation support practice (P)

SC
factor maps.
NU
MA
T ED
C EP
AC
 ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT

PT
RI
SC
NU
MA
T ED

Fig. 7. Soil erosion severity and respective rates (t ha - 1 yr - 1 ). Soil and water
EP

conservation measures may prioritize sever and very sever risk classes.
C
AC
 ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT

PT
RI
SC
NU
MA

Fig. 8. Double mass curve of rainfall stations which is the accumulation of rainfall in
ED

a given station vs accumulation of mean rainfall in the surrounding stations (Error!

Re fe re nce s ource not found. ). It shows a very strong association (R2 > 0.99)
T
EP

between the accumulation of in a given the stations and the accumulation of mean

rainfall in the surrounding stations.

C
AC
 ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT

Highlights

 Soil erosion is a major land gradation problem in Dembecha District, NW Ethiopia

 RUSLE, GIS and RS techniques were used to assess soil erosion in the Dembecha
Distirct.
 Five erosion severity classes were used to prioritize base on severity for soil and water
conservation works.
 The annual soil loss in the district is 49 t ha-1 yr-1 (total soil loss of 526996 t yr-1 ).

PT
RI
SC
NU
MA
T ED
C EP
AC