CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION

1.1 General Statement

Groundwater is the most important sourcede of domestic, industrial and agricultural

water supply in the world, hence the search for good and quality groundwater is very

important to human life. Suitability of water for various uses depends on type and

concentration of dissolved minerals and groundwater has more mineral composition

than surface water (Mirribasi et al., 2008).

Water is generally obtained from two principal natural sources: surface water such as

fresh water, lakes, rivers, streams, etc. and ground water such as borehole water and

well water (McMurry et al., 2004). In Nigeria, surface water was formally the major

sources of water supply, due to advances in hydrogeological research, groundwater is

now considered as an alternative and safer means relative to surface water. Many

countries are turning to groundwater as a reliable source of supply. This situation has

been aggravated by the large-scale pollution of surface water. Also, factors such as the

generally wide availability of groundwater, its low capital development, cost and

normally excellent natural quality are leading to rapid development of groundwater

resources (Foster and Chilton, 1993).

Groundwater vulnerability is evaluated across the world in places with water resources

under stresses originating from population growth, industrial and agricultural activities.

Therefore, the vulnerability studies can provide valuable information for stakeholders

working on preventing further deterioration of the environment (Mendoza and Barman

2006). Groundwater vulnerability only deals with the hydrogeological settings and does

not include the pollutant attenuation. National Research Council (1993) defined

groundwater vulnerability to contamination as the tendency or likelihood for

contaminants to reach a specified position in the groundwater system after introduction

at some location above the uppermost aquifer. Groundwater reservoirs are easily

affected by pollution through a process that is slow and consequently dreadful

(Baghvand et al., 2010).

Contaminated aquifer is considered as harmful source of groundwater and requires

proper prevention and management to make water resources safe. Remediation of

contaminated aquifers is expensive. To recognize the need to an efficient method to

protect groundwater resources from contamination, scientists and managers develop

aquifer vulnerability techniques for predicting which areas are the most vulnerable. This

makes essential the study of aquifer vulnerability within the domain of groundwater

study (L. Pervinquere, 1903). Therefore, the assessment of aquifer vulnerability has

been a subject of thorough research in the past years. Several index methods have been

developed to evaluate aquifer vulnerability. These methods include DRASTIC (Aller et

al., 1987), GOD (Foster, 1987), AVI (Van Stempvoort et al., 1993), SINTACS (Civita,

1994) etc. and are all subjective to varied vulnerability parameters. The derivation of the

various parameters required for the computation of the index vulnerability models is

usually multi-disciplinary while the accuracy of the resulting models depends majorly

on the available information and their authenticity. Meanwhile, site specific

vulnerability assessments using these methods are not readily feasible since in most

cases there might not be enough hydrogeological information to compute and thus they

are usually applied at regional scale. (Adeyemo et al, 2016)

Adepelumi et al. (2006); Omosuyi and Oyemola (2012); Adelusi et al. (2014), and

Mogaji et al. (2017) all emphasized the role of geophysics in groundwater potential and

vulnerability study as they employed this knowledge in detecting the availability,

quality and quantity of groundwater over the years. Sub-surface geologic sequence and
concealed geological structures like unconformities, fractures, faults, joints, etc., which

can be favourable for the presence of groundwater especially in the basement complex

environment can be mapped by geophysical methods, hence geophysics is quite relevant

in vulnerability study. Geophysical survey of the subsurface involves the

measurement/establishment of geo-electric parameter such as layer resistivity, thickness

and depth for each lithological unit.

Groundwater vulnerability modelling has been studied using vulnerability modelling

techniques particularly GODT index modelling (Adeyemo et al., 2015, Adeyemo et al.,

2016, Foster 1987, Khemiri et al., 2013, Oni et al., 2017). According to these studies,

four parameters namely; Groundwater hydraulic confinement i.e. aquifer type (G),

Overlying strata (O), depth to aquifer (D) and Topography (T). These are integrated in

this study to determine the aquifer vulnerability of the study area. They were integrated

from the former three parameters GOD used for aquifer vulnerability assessment in the

past (Foster, 1987; Khemiri et al, 2013; Oni et al., 2017) while the fourth parameter (T,

topography) is an added input parameter considered to improve the resulting

vulnerability model since the topography of an area can influence the migration of

contaminants. The ridges usually associated with run-off and less infiltration, while the

opposite is the case for depression (Adeyemo et al., 2016). Furthermore, studies have

shown that contaminants can be topographically controlled whereby contaminants are

held downslope by gravity and prevented from migrating upslope (Adeyemo et al.,

2016; Khemiri et al., 2013). The first three parameters are geo-electrically derived

parameters while topography is derivable from GPS elevation data of the study area.

GOD was developed in Great Britain to evaluate groundwater vulnerability (Foster,

1987).
The application of multi-criteria decision analysis (MCDA) techniques in the field of

groundwater hydrology is relatively a recent development. However, the uniqueness of

these MCDA techniques’ philosophy is such that their mechanisms allow systemic

analysis and integrating of relevant criteria/factors to model or predicting target

proposition that are traceable to mineralization potential mapping, groundwater

potentiality mapping, vulnerability mapping etc. (Mogaji, 2017). Among the mostly

used MCDA methods in groundwater prospectivity mapping is the analytical hierarchy

process (AHP) approach (Adiat et al., 2012; Chowdhury et al., 2009; Jha et al., 2010;

Mogaji and Lim, 2016). The analytical hierarchy process (AHP) approach is a

structured technique for organizing and analysing complex decisions, based on

mathematics and psychology (Saaty, 2008). It is a theory of measurements through

pairwise comparisons and relies on judgements of experts to derive priority scales.

However, for effective management of large data volume, the effectiveness of GIS tool

cannot be over stressed. It is useful in the modelling of vulnerability modelling method

such as GODT model. The relevance of GIS has been explored in the domain of

groundwater potentiality mapping, groundwater vulnerability assessment, agriculture,

and geologic mapping (Adiat et al., 2012, Ghosh et al., 2015, Boris et al., 2016, Rahmati

et al., 2016, Pankaj et al., 2016).

Hence, the development of the derived geophysical parameters from geo-electric data is

conceptualised. This will require considering the vulnerability, conditioning

significance of these parameters and the application of MCDA-AHP technique for the

purpose of developing an aquifer vulnerability model. The proposed approach namely;

the AHP-GODT is a modified concept of the conventional GOD index model.

1.2 Problem definition

Contamination of the hydrogeological system in metropolitan areas is gradually

becoming a common feature. This is due to uncontrolled location of facilities most

especially underground storage tanks for petroleum products and septic tanks of various

households (Oladapo et al, 2004). A number of man’s activities that also pose threats to

hydrogeological systems include landfill solid wastes disposal, industrial activities,

liquid waste disposal basins, septic waste infiltration systems, gasoline service stations,

livestock feedlots, urban storm water infiltration etc. Thus, the protection of

environment is an essential part of development (Aladesanmi et al, 2014).

Groundwater serve as the main source of water in the study area due to the lack of

public water scheme. Groundwater aquifer requires proper utilization and management

to make water resources safe. The study area is an already built up area and as

population increases, there is a growing pressure on groundwater resources. Thus, a

proposed AHP-GODT method developed from a conventional GOD method will be

used in the aquifer vulnerability prediction modelling.

1. 3 Description and geomorphology of the study area

The study was carried out in Ipogun, Ondo State, Nigeria. Ipogun is village opposite

Ilara-Mokin in Ondo state, Nigeria and is accessed through Ilesa-Akure express road. It

lies about 335 kilometers to the southwest of the capital, Abuja. The study area lies

within geographic grids between 728945 m to 729900 m (Eastings) and 808435 m to

809724 m (Northings) defined by Minna-Nigeria 31N datum of the Universal Traverse

Mercatum (UTM), with topographic elevation ranging from 350 m to 290 m (as shown

in the Base map, Figure 1.1). Figure 1.2 shows the elevation map of the study area.

The study area has a seasonal climate characterised by two seasons; the rainy and dry

seasons. The rainy season lasts from April to October, with rainfall of about 1524mm
per year. The average temperature is about 27֯C during harmattan (December-February)

and 32֯C in March with annual relative humidity of about 80%. The natural vegetation is

tropical rainforest (en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Akure).

Figure 1.1 Base map of the study area.
Figure 1.2 Topographic map of the study area
1.4 Previous work

Several researchers over the past years have carried out different research works in the

quest for the determination of aquifer vulnerability using various methods and

techniques such as geophysical, GIS-based approach, and multi-criteria method. Some

of these past research works includes;

Vias et al. (2006) carried out groundwater vulnerability mapping in carbonate (Karstic)

aquifers using integrated multi-criteria methods, such methods includes; Concentration

of flow, Overlying layers above the water table, Precipitation (COP),

Aquifer Vulnerability Index (AVI), Groundwater confinement, Overlying strata, Depth

to water table (GOD), D-depth to groundwater table, R-annual recharge, A-aquifer

media, S-soil media, T-topography, I-impact of the vadose zone, C-hydraulic

conductivity (DRATIC). Results from these multi-criteria method were compared and

vulnerability maps were generated dividing the study area into different vulnerable

zones.

Khemiri et al (2013) carried out assessment of groundwater vulnerability to pollution in

scenarios of semi-arid climate using GIS for the comparison of intrinsic parametric

methods, such methods include DRASTIC (D-depth to groundwater table, R-annual

recharge, A-aquifer media, S-soil media, T-topography, I-impact of the vadose zone, C-

hydraulic conductivity), GOD (Groundwater occurrence, Overlying lithology, Depth to

groundwater), SINTACS (stands for the seven parameters: depth to water, recharge,

vadose zone, soil cover, aquifer, hydraulic conductivity and slope) and SI

(Susceptibility Index). A comparative study of the vulnerability maps was performed in

order to choose the best method. The models application showed that Foussana ground-

water was characterized by moderate to high vulnerability degrees. The most vulnerable
areas to pollution is located in the southern part. It has been affected by a major fault:

the “Fault Kasserine”.

Adeyemo et al (2015) worked on modelling groundwater vulnerability from

geoelectrical derived parameters using GIS-based (Groundwater confinement,

Overlying strata, Depth to water table and Aquifer morphology) GODA model

approach. Applying the developed GIS – based GODA vulnerability model approach to

the interpreted geoelectric parameters, the groundwater reservoir vulnerability index

was estimated for the area. The produced groundwater reservoir vulnerability map

zoned the area into four vulnerable zones namely low, low – moderate, moderate and

high categories. The estimated percentage areal coverage for the low, low – moderate,

moderate and high vulnerable classes are 24 %, 43%, 2 % and 31 %, respectively. The

GODA model groundwater reservoir vulnerability prediction produced map show high

significant qualitative correlation with the area geologic rocks.

Adeyemo et al (2016) carried out aquifer vulnerability assessment of Ipinsa-Okeode

area, near Akure, South-western Nigeria using GODT (Groundwater confinement,

Overlying strata, Depth to water table and Topography). The GODT vulnerability

model depicts that the area is characterized by four vulnerability zones which are very

low, low, moderate and high vulnerable zones. According to the model, about 10% of

the area is highly vulnerable while about 35% is of moderate rating. The low and very

low ratings constitute 40% and 15% of the area respectively.

Oni et al (2017) assessed groundwater vulnerability of Igbara Oke, Southwestern

Nigeria using hydrogeologic and geoelectric layer susceptibility indexing. From the

models, vulnerability to contamination can be considered higher at the southern part

than the northern part and therefore, sources of contamination like septic tank, refuse

dump should be cited far from groundwater development area.

1.5 Aim and objectives

The aim of the study is to evaluate the vulnerability of the aquifer layers in the study

area. The objectives are to;

i. Acquire geophysical data in form of Vertical Electrical Soundings (VES) using

schlumberger configuration,

ii. Delineate based on (i) above the geo-electric parameters in form of layer

thickness and resistivity values,

iii. Generate from (ii) above geo-electric parameters maps such as groundwater

confinement, overlying strata resistivity, depth to aquifer and topography,

iv. Synthesize the produced maps obtained in (iii) above using AHP-GODT

modelling approach,

v. Develop aquifer vulnerability map of the study area using the estimated AHP-

GODT index from (iv) above.

1.6 Research methodology

Several previous works by various geoscientists were consulted and reviewed. This was

followed by the generation of base map and topographic map of the study area using

elevation and coordinates with the aid of Global Positioning System (GPS).

Geophysical survey was carried out adopting the electrical resistivity method. The

Vertical Electrical Sounding (VES) technique adopting the schlumberger electrode

configuration was adopted. The data were interpreted using partial curve matching

technique and the result was iterated using WINRESIST computer software. Analysis

and interpretation of the results obtained were used to establish the geo-electrical

characteristics of the study area.

In order to derive the relevant vulnerability conditioning parameters as inputs for the

GODT model algorithm, the determined geo-electrical parameters were used to define

groundwater confinement (G), overlying strata resistivity (O) and depth to aquifer (D).

Topography (T) was determined from the elevation readings of the VES points. These

parameters have individual effect on the vulnerability of an aquifer. Weights were

assigned to the vulnerability conditioning parameters using AHP technique.

Geographical information system (GIS) was used for the interpolation of the data. The

geospatial data were synthesised with GIS to produce the final aquifer vulnerability map

using the estimated GODT index.

1.7 Justification

Successful development and management of groundwater aquifer requires application

of scientific principles.

A common approach to aquifer vulnerability assessment is the AHP-GODT method

which is an example of a multi-criteria evaluation technique.

1.8 Contribution to knowledge

The study is expected at end to have successfully mapped the aquifer vulnerability of

the study area and generate maps that would serve as guide for subsequent borehole

development in the area.