THE SCIENCE OF ADOLESCENT PSYCHOLOGY

1. Theories of Adolescence:
Stage Theorists’ Views of Human Development
Cognitive: Psychoanalytic Psycho-social: Biological
Jean Piaget Sigmund Freud Erick Erickson Stanly Hall
Childhood

Sensorimotor Oral Trust/mistrust Animalistic

Preoperational Anal Autonomy/doubt
Concrete operations Phallic Initiative/guilt Primitive
Latent Industry/inferiority
Adolescence

Formal operations Genital Identity/confusion Savage

Adulthood Intimacy/isolation
Generativity/self
absorption
Integrity/despair

1.1. Sigmund Freud’s Psychosexual Stages of Development

Freud proposed that there is a normal sequence of development through a series

of what he called psychosexual stages. Each stage focuses on a different
sexually excitable zone of the body, or an erogenous zone.

1.1.1 Oral (0-1 1/2 yrs)

The mouth, lips and tongue are the chief pleasure-giving (sexual) organs of the
infant. The infant’s desires as well as its gratification are primarily oral ones.
Sexual: sucking, mouthing. Aggressive: biting
Predominance of orality in non-infant stages is sign of regression and fixation.
These are over eating, smoking and alcoholism. There are some other derivatives like
over talking, the excessive tendency to collect and find it very difficult to let go or stingy
and over dependence on other people.
1.1.2 Anal (1 1/2-3yrs)
The anus comes to be the most important site of sexual aggressive tensions and
gratifications. These pleasure-unpleasure sensations are associated with both the
retention and expulsion of feces, and these bodily processes as well as feces
themselves are the object of the child’s most intense interest.
Sexual: pleasure of defecating
Aggressive: Soiling or retention of feces
Fixation during this stage may result later in the following: the compulsive
character, personality character vulnerable to obsessive compulsive regression, the over
compliant person, anal fixation and sadomasochistic pleasure.
1.1.3 Phallic Stage (4-5 yrs)
This phase is referred to as phallic for two reasons. First, the penis is the
principal object of interest to the child of either sex. Second, it seems that the little girl’s
organ of sexual excitement and pleasure during this period is the clitoris, which of course
if embryologically the female analogue of the penis.
 Sexual: pleasure sensation in fondling genitals, etc
Aggressive: To the slightly older child the penis and its activity are used or at
least conceived of (used in fantasy) as a weapon or a means of destruction. Weapons
he uses in games such as spears, arrow, guns, etc can be shown in analysis to
represent his penis in his unconscious thought.
The “oedipal complex” occurs at this stage. Sometime, the child loses what
autonomy he has gained and falls “deeply in love” with his parent of the opposite sex, at
the same time developing intense jealousy toward his other parent, as toward a
competitor. Possible conflicts that could arise if this stage and its difficulties are not
resolve in childhood: homosexuality, inability to love, confusion of sexual identity, loss of
confidence and worth in one’s sexuality.
1.1.4 Latency (6-12 yrs)
Through the process of reaction formation, repression, suppression, and
sublimation, particularly in connection with oedipal feelings and wishes, the child goes
into a period of latency. The super ego functions take over in a very predominant way.
Here, the sexual energy of the child is directed to some other activities. However, from
time to time a fragmentary manifestation of sexuality may breakthrough until the sexual
instinct emerges with greater intensity at puberty.
1.1.5 Genital (12 yrs and so on)
The person already develops this capacity for orgasm. The interest for genital
functions has reached sufficient maturity to make the adolescent aware of his
approaching adult sex role and of a realistic preoccupation of the opposite sex.
1.2 Biological Theories of Adolescence
1.2.1 Animal and Primitive stage
Stanly Hall in his theory of recapitulation asserted that our individual
development reflects the development of the human species throughout the entire
evolution. Just like the earliest ways of human inhabitants were considered primitive or
animal like, so do infants and young children behave in animalistic ways. This is
precisely because children are dominated by instinct and are beyond the bounds of
environmental influence. Thus they are in the animal stage of development. Later, at the
onset of adolescence, an evolutionary mechanism makes it possible for the individual to
behave in a more sophisticated, although still primitive, ways.
1.2.2 Savage Stage
According to the biological perspective, adolescent behavior is primarily a
consequence of the physiological changes that accompany puberty. Hall viewed
adolescence as the period between savagery and civilization. He described the change
of adolescence as rapid, pronounced and the adolescent as erratic, emotional,
unstable and unpredictable as a result of sexual maturation. He describe the period
as one of storm and stress dictated by nature’s physiological control over hormones
and physical growth. However, Hall still believed that young people who are properly
encourage by environmental influences can eventually constitute an elite that will create
a better society.

2. Approaches to the Study of Adolescence

2.1 Basic Factors to be considered.
Since the problems about adolescence are caused, study on adolescence must
focus on the following:
2.1.1 Common personality characteristics of adolescent at different levels
2.1.2 Individual differences among adolescents of the same period
2.1.3 Progressive changes that occur in the developmental pattern of the adolescent.
2.2 Areas of Study
 Any approach to adolescent study must consider the following factors: the physical,
mental, social, and emotional changes that accompany growth; Influence of
environment-opportunities and motivation; childhood Background.

2.3 The Approaches

2.3.1 The horizontal, cross sectional or group method- this is the normative study
of specific characteristics of a group aimed at discovering a general trend or average for
that group. Once a norm has been established, any individual who falls within the group
can be compared to the average or norm of his groups, in order to determine correlation
or deviation from his group.
2.3.2 The vertical study approach, also known as the individual or longitudinal
study. It is the study of the individual in one or all aspects of development, usually from
birth to adulthood or for a specified period of time. This is a more reliable approach
because an individual is observed daily or at regular intervals.
2.3.3 Techniques in Studying Adolescence, using either approach, include the
following.
2.3.3.1 Observation-
Participant Observation, Non-participant Observation
2.3.3.2 Survey.
This is the most common method. There are two tools a researcher can use in a
survey method- questionnaire and interview. The questionnaire is best used when the
study requires many respondents. This saves more time, money and effort. The
interview is used when the number of respondents is just small. Interview is also used
when the number of respondents cannot read or write.
Steps I conducting interview: i) Preparation for the interview- the place should
have order privacy and free from distraction, the interviewer must have adequate
knowledge of the interviewee; ii) Establishing rapport- The atmosphere should be
informal and relaxed, with a feeling of friendliness, security and mutual confidence; iii)
Developing insight- the interviewee will be able to share his situation, feelings, and ideas
through leading evocative questions, a plan of action will follow; iv) Terminating an
interview- be thankful always and make sure that the interviewee will leave with a joyful
memory of you; vii) Keeping records.
2.3.3.3 Test method.
This uses psychological tests as its instrument to evaluate and determine an
individual’s capacity or interest compared to a trait or behavior pattern or field.
2.3.3.4 Experimental Technique.
This is generally done under laboratory condition involving many control
variables. Social experiment is conducted in a natural environment.
2.3.3.5 The anecdotal report
This consists of a report on a significant incident in an individual’s life. It provides
information about the students’ behavior.
2.2.2.5 Autobiographical sketch.
A teacher can ask his students to write about their life.
1.3.3.6 Case histories and clinical studies.
This is used when an intensive investigation about a certain case is needed. In
this case, the researcher has to explore all sorts of records about the subject including
hospital, educational and family background.
1.3.3.7 Sociometric.
This is a devise to discover students’ social preferences. The teacher asks a
student to write the names of the classmates he likes best to invite, to sit with, to work
with. The teacher tabulates the choices and then plots them in a sociogram. Thus, the
isolates, cliques and popular students are known.

3. THE BACKGROUND OF ADOLESCENCE

Any individuals potentialities in development depends upon the interaction of two
foctors: i.) nature-biological heritage (genetic endowments handed down through the
genes which carry the hereditary traits); ii) nurture or environmental factors (education,
training, skills, significant persons.
3.1 Biological Factors of Influence