Disaggregating Job Satisfaction: Effects of Perceived Demands, Control, and Support

Author(s): Marcus J. Fila, Lisa S. Paik, Rodger W. Griffeth and David Allen
Source: Journal of Business and Psychology , December 2014, Vol. 29, No. 4, Inductive
Research in Organizations (December 2014), pp. 639-649
Published by: Springer

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J Bus Psychol (2014) 29:639-649
DOI 10.1007/s 10869-014-9358-5

ORIGINAL PAPER

Disaggregating Job Satisfaction: Effects of Perceived

Control, and Support

Marcus J. Fila • Lisa S. Paik • Rodger W. Griffeth •

David Allen

Published online: 20 April 2014

© Springer Science+Business Media New York 2014

Abstract Implications Those re-balancing types of demands, con

Purpose Our purpose was to inductively examine how trol, and support for workplace redesign should not pre
employees' perceptions of stressor and resource work sume consistent effects on all aspects of satisfaction with
characteristics relate to nine distinct facets of job satis
work. By doing so, expected positive outcomes may fail to
faction, in accordance with the demand-control (-support)
materialize, perhaps to the detriment of workplace redesign
[JDC(S)] theory. Job satisfaction is a multidimensional
as a whole in the minds of management. A more detailed
construct composed of various facets that differ greatly
approach to workplace redesign is recommended.
from one other. However, most stress studies have examOriginality/Value This is the first study which adopts the
ined job satisfaction at the global level. This may be
JDC(S) framework to examine job satisfaction at the facet
problematic for managers looking to redesign the worklevel. Our findings shed new light on how workplace
place to increase employee job satisfaction based on characteristics relate to different aspects of satisfaction.
established recommendations from previous research.
Design/Methodology/Approach Data were obtained from Keywords Job satisfaction ■ Facets ■ Work stress •
employees of a public sector human services organizationDemands • Control ■ Support ■ Inductive
that provides services to protect children from neglect and
other forms of abuse (n = 343). A series of t tests for
Job satisfaction is defined as a positive and pleasurable
dependent correlations determined facet-level differences
in satisfaction with demand and resource work state resulting from an individual's job appraisal or job
characteristics. experience (Locke 1976) and remains central to organiza
Findings We found different patterns of correlationstional research for both humanitarian and pragmatic rea
sons. For example, it is widely accepted that employees
across facets for all seven demand, control, and support
workplace characteristics. deserve good treatment at work to increase job satisfaction
(Spector 1997; Sulsky and Smith 2005). Moreover, satis
faction with work can lead to positive outcomes, such as
organizational commitment (Porter et al. 1974) and orga
M. J. Fila (El) nizational citizenship behaviors (Organ and Ryan 1995;
Department of Economics, Management, and Accounting Podsakoff et al. 1996); whereas dissatisfaction can induce
(DEMA), Hope College, 41 Graves Place, Holland, negative outcomes for the individual and organization,
MI 49422-9000, USA
such as counterproductive work behaviors (Hershcovis
e-mail: fila@hope.edu
et al. 2007), withdrawal cognitions (Mobley 1977; Tett and
L. S. Paik ■ R. W. Griffeth Meyer 1993), and voluntary turnover (Griffeth et al. 2000;
Department of Psychology, Ohio University, Athens, OH, USA
Horn et al. 1992). Indeed, thousands of studies have shown

D. Allen
the importance of job satisfaction to individual and orga
Fogelman College of Business and Economics, University of nizational health and well-being, and continued functioning
Memphis, Memphis, TN, USA (for reviews, see: Biegen 1993; Brown and Peterson 1993;

Ô Springer

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640
Faragher et al. 2005; Iaffaldano and Muchinsky 1985;
Greenberger and Strasser 1986; Judge et al. 2002; Loher
et al. 1985; Petty et al. 1984; Zangaro and Soeken, 2007),
making it by far the most examined construct in organi
zational literature (Spector 1997).
A concept that has been intimately tied to job satisfaction
is work stress (Griffin and Clarke 2011; Kahn and Byosiere
1992; Sulsky and Smith 2005). Stress is not a single event,
but a process involving appraisal, response, and attempts to
cope with and manage stressors in order to meet goals
(Sulsky and Smith 2005). Stressors describe demands from
the work environment experienced by individuals, and strains
constitute physiological and/or psychological reactions to
these stressors from attempting to function effectively in the
face of too many challenges (Kahn and Byosiere, 1992).
Although an attitudinal variable, job dissatisfaction is regar
ded by many stress researchers as a form of psychological
strain induced by stress because it is an inherent indicator of a
lack of psychological well-being at work (Kahn and Byosiere
1992). Additionally, its relationship with other indicators of
stress, such as anxiety, frustration, and job tension (Schlei
cher et al. 2011) contribute to job satisfaction being the most
examined construct in work stress literature (Griffin and
Clarke 2011; Sulsky and Smith 2005).
Job satisfaction is generally thought of and often mea
sured as a singular/global construct (Schleicher et al.
2011). Global approaches are thought to be useful for
predicting broader categories of criteria (c.f. Faragher et al.
2005; Judge et al. 2002; Zangaro and Soeken 2007).
However, research has shown job satisfaction to be com
plex and multidimensional, with constituent parts that are
relatively homogeneous and different from one another
(Ironson et al. 1989; Snipes et al. 2005; Spector 1985).
Moreover, employees tend to have differing levels of sat
isfaction between various facets of work, and each of these
facets can have independent effects on an individual's
overall satisfaction with work (Spector 1997). Therefore, a
danger exists in examining job satisfaction at an aggregated
level because recommendations for theory and practice
tend to be built upon overarching frameworks which, by
definition, ignore subtleties in how characteristics of work
can relate to various facets of satisfaction. For example,
different levels of satisfaction between facets may be
responsible both for some of the unaccounted for variance
in studies of job satisfaction, and may be contributing to
contradictory results in highly researched but inconclusive
relationships (i.e., the "Holy Grail" of satisfaction and
performance, Bowling, 2007). By leaving this undetected,
researchers and practitioners may only be partially
informed as to how job satisfaction relates to a host of control appears to promote well-being (Friedland et al.
outcomes which are critical to both individual and orga 1992). Conversely, low levels of control have frequently
nizational well-being (i.e., job performance, organizational
citizenship behavior, and retention, Schleicher et al. 2011).
Springer
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J Bus Psychol (2014) 29:639-649
Conversely, facet-level examination of job satisfaction
allows for between-person comparisons that lend perspec
tive as to how satisfied different employees are with the
various facets of their work, as well as the ability to crit
ically assess constituents of each individual employee
satisfaction through within-person analyses (Smith et al.
1969; Spector 1997). Although admittedly sacrificing the
parsimony of global measurement, these approaches offer
far richer information of how organizational characteristics
relate to job satisfaction, as well as greater perspective of
how to realign the workplace to facilitate maximal positive
individual and organizational outcomes (Spector 1997).
Job Satisfaction from a Stress Perspective
Throughout the history of organizational research, over a
hundred stress models have been used to model relation
ships between stressors; strains; and physiological, psy
chological, and behavioral outcomes (Sulsky and Smith
2005). Many of these models share a common focus on
employee desire for homeostasis with the work environ
ment in order to facilitate manageable work (Griffin and
Clarke 2011). However, a recurring theme in reviews of the
work stress literature is that employees' stress levels are
centered on the amount of demands placed upon them, and
the degree to which they can call upon resources to alle
viate stress from these demands (Griffin and Clarke 2011;
Kahn and Byosiere 1992).
Demands are generally regarded as physical, social, or
organizational aspects of the job requiring physical or
mental effort (De Jonge and Dormann 2006). A certain
level of demand is thought to be beneficial to worker sat
isfaction and well-being, as well as other positive out
comes, such as learning, motivation, and performance
(Selye 1976). However, too high a level of demands can
have an adverse effect based on the perception of an
insufficient amount or potential loss of personal resources
(Karasek 1979; Karasek and Theorell 1990; Wundt 1922).
Despite an expanding view of what constitutes "resour
ces" (Demerouti et al. 2001), two which arguably continue to
dominate the field are those of control and support (Kain and
Jex 2010). Control is defined as an individual's belief in his
or her ability to affect a desired change on their work envi
ronment (Greenberger and Strasser 1986). The notion that
human beings seek control over their environment is well
established (e.g., Averill 1973), and plays a central role in
many theories of workplace stress (for reviews, see Frese
1989; Ganster 1989). In fact, even the illusion of being in
been associated with reduced well-being (Kahn and Byosiere
1992; Spector 1986).
J Bus Psychol (2014) 29:639-649 641

Support refers to helpful workplace relationships
regarding job-related matters (Price 1997). This generally
constitutes support from supervisors and coworkers (e.g.,
Berman et al. 2002). However, perceived organizational
support (POS; Eisenberger et al. 1986) represents an
overarching manifestation of workplace social support
because employees perceive the extent to which the orga
nization values their opinion and cares about their well
being (Chen et al. 2009). Workplace support does not
afford employees the ability to directly intervene in alter
within a stress context, thereby providing richer evidence
of how demands, control, and support variables relate to
job satisfaction at the facet level. The body of evidence
supporting job satisfaction's multidimensionality in both
stress and other organizational disciplines leads us to the
following question: Do demands, control, and support
relate to all facets of job satisfaction similarly, or do these
three core work characteristics relate differently to indi
vidual facets? By adopting an inductive approach, we
believe that our results will lead to more accurate advice

ation of work tasks, or other aspects of the work environ
ment, as does job control (Nahapiet and Ghoshal 1998).
However, it can benefit employees by reducing the burden
on their other personal resources (Lin 1999). Similar to
control, support has been repeatedly associated with job
for organizations looking to increase their employee's job
satisfaction than simply examining it globally. We also aim
to offer additional theoretical insight as to how perceptions
of work characteristics relate to different aspects of job
satisfaction.

satisfaction (Rhoades and Eisenberger 2002; Van der Doef

and Maes 1999).
A model which has repeatedly been used to examine Methods

relationships between demands, control, support, and job

satisfaction is Karasek and Theorell's (1990) demand
control (-support) (JDC(S)) model. Over 250 studies of the
model have been published in the last 34 years (Luchman
and Gonzalez-Morales 2013) making it one of the most
examined models in the work stress literature (Griffin and
Clarke 2011; Sulsky and Smith 2005), with job satisfaction
focal to many of these studies (Hausser et al. 2010; Kain
and Jex 2010). However, the vast majority of these studies
have examined job satisfaction globally (two exceptions
are Beehr and Drexler 1986, who used the model to
examine social satisfaction, resource satisfaction, and
Data and Sample
Our sample consisted of 343 employees of a large public
sector human services organization, which provides ser
vices to protect children from neglect and other forms of
abuse, and help families preserve and strengthen their
ability to care for their children. The sample consisted of
family social service caseworkers, supervisors, and
administrative staff. Employees were invited to participate
by a letter from the Human Resource Director and the
research team. Members of the research team distributed

higher order need satisfaction; and Noblet and Rodwell surveys to the employees in small groups at the work site
2009, who measured intrinsic and extrinsic satisfaction). so that organizational representatives would not see their
As such, an examination of relationships between demands, individual responses. The average age of survey respon
control, support, and facet-level satisfaction using a vali dents was 39, and average tenure with the organization was
dated instrument appears to be absent from the literature. 8 years. Eighty-one percent were women, 63.8 % were
This may be problematic for the field because despite Caucasian, 28.6 % were African American, and the
continued acknowledgment that demands, control, andremaining 4.3 % were Hispanic, Native American Indian/
support are at the heart of work stress (Griffin and ClarkeAlaskan, Middle Eastern, or of other ethnic groups. All
2011; Kahn and Byosiere 1992), findings have led tosurveys were administered at a single time point, and
simplistic recommendations for practitioners (i.e., to employees were assured of the confidentiality of their
decrease demands wherever possible, and to increase both responses and that participation was voluntary.
control over work and support to help employees cope with
demands, Hausser et al. 2010; Kain and Jex 2010; Karasek Measurement
and Theorell 1990). Moreover, despite the weight of sup
port for these recommendations, presuming that demands, Job Demands
control, and support equally relate to every aspect of job
satisfaction may be undermining effects of facet-level Perceived job demands were measured using two instru
differences. Ignoring these differences may lead to nega ments. The first was a 3-item subscale termed "work
tive reactions from employees (who may be satisfied overload," from Price and Mueller's (1981) job stress
overall, but dissatisfied with a particular aspect of their instrument. Karasek (1979) originally conceived of
work), and unwanted consequences for the organization. demands in terms of "overload," and it continues to be
In light of this, we aim to contribute to job satisfaction frequently used in JDC(S) studies to depict the degree of
and work stress literatures by testing facet differences demands placed on workers (for reviews, see Häusser et al.

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642 J Bus Psychol (2014) 29:639-649

2010; Van der Doef and Maes 1999). Sample items to my job-related problems." The second was a three-item
included "The workload on my job is too heavy." The measure of "coworker support" from the same inventory
second was a two-item subscale termed "role conflict" (Price and Mueller 1981). Coworker support refers to
relationships with non-supervisory colleagues that can
from Price and Mueller (1981). Role conflict refers to stress
attributed to incompatibility between multiple sets of facilitate
work task accomplishment and other forms of mutual
demands (Beehr and Newman, 1978), and a number of
assistance (Bolino et al. 2002). Coworker support has been
JDC(S) studies have accounted for these perceptions (e.g.,
frequently found to be positively related to job satisfaction
Spector 1987; Tummers et al. 2002). Sample items (Hausser
inclu et al. 2010; Luchman and Gonzalez-Morales
ded "Job requests from my supervisor and coworkers2013;
are Van der Doef and Maes, 1999). Sample items
often conflicting." Responses to both instruments included
were "My coworkers can be relied upon when things
made on a five-point Likert scale (1 = "Never"get and
tough on my job." Responses to supervisor and cow
5 = "Always"), and scores were calculated by averaging
orker support inventories were made on a five-point Likert
the individual's scores on the respective items for scale
each(1 = "Strongly Disagree"). The third measure was a
scale, with high scores representing negative assessments.
16-item short form of "perceived organizational support"
from the Eisenberger et al. (1986) support inventory. POS
Job Control has repeatedly been shown to be positively related to job
satisfaction (Rhoades and Eisenberger 2002). Responses
were made on a seven-point Likert scale (1 = "Never"
Perceived job control was measured using two instruments.
The first was a 3-item scale of "autonomy" from Priceand
and7 = "Always"), and sample items included "Help is
Mueller (1981). Autonomy refers to the extent to which
available from the organization when I have a problem."
employees can structure and control how and when they
For all three instruments, scores were calculated by aver
perform their job tasks (Spector, 1986). Autonomy has the individual's scores on the respective items, with
aging
been frequently measured in JDC(S) studies (Häusser et
lowal.scores representing a negative assessment.
2010; Karasek and Theorell 1990; Van der Doef and Maes
1999). Sample items included "I have a lot of input
Jobin
Satisfaction
deciding what tasks or parts of tasks I will do." The second
was a three-item scale of "task variety" from Price and
Job satisfaction facets were measured using the Job Satis
Mueller (1981). Many JDC(S) studies focus on the breadth
faction Survey (JSS; Spector 1985). The JSS measures nine
of skills usable on the job in accordance with Adam
facets of satisfaction which have been shown to be largely
Smith's (1776) specialization of labor, which is often op from one another, but when aggregated offer an
distinct
erationalized as "skill discretion, or task variety" (Karasek
accurate reflection of an individual's overall job satisfac
and Theorell 1990, p. 58). An example of task variety istion
the (Spector 1985, 1997). The scale contains 36 items,
control over work experienced by a typical academic four
ver for each of the nine job satisfaction facets, and uses a
sus a factory line worker (Karasek and Theorell 1990).
summated rating scale format, which is the most popular
Sample items included "The duties in my job are repeti
format for job satisfaction rating scales (Spector 1997).
tious" (reverse coded). Responses to both instruments Responses
were were made on a six-point Likert scale
made on a five-point Likert scale (1 = "Strongly (1 dis
= "Disagree very much" and 6 = "Agree very
agree"), and scores were calculated by averaging the
much"). Sample items from the nine facets include "the
individual's scores on respective items, with low scores
benefit package we receive is equitable" (Fringe Benefits
representing negative assessments. scale), "communications seem good within this organiza
tion" (Communication scale), "when I do a good job, I
Workplace Support receive the recognition for it that I should receive" (Con
tingent Rewards scale), "I like doing the things I do at
Perceived workplace support was measured using three
work" (Nature of Work scale), "my efforts to do a good
instruments. The first was a 3-item measure of "supervisor
job are seldom blocked by red tape" (Operating Conditions
support" from Price and Mueller's (1981) social support
scale), "I feel I am being paid a fair amount for the work I
inventory. Supervisor support refers to the degree to which
do" (Pay scale), "those who do well on the job stand a fair
an employee perceives that they are supported by chance
their of being promoted" (Promotion scale), "my
supervisor is quite competent at doing his/her job"
immediate supervisor (Price 1997). Numerous studies have
(Supervision scale), and "I enjoy my coworkers"
shown positive relationships between supervisor support
and job satisfaction (Häusser et al. 2010; Luchman(Coworkers
and scale). The JSS was utilized because it was
Gonzalez-Morales 2013; Van der Doef and Maes 1999). developed on a sample of public sector human service
employees (Spector 1985), and has been widely used in
Sample items included "My supervisor is willing to listen

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J Bus Psychol (2014) 29:639-649 643

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644 J Bus Psychol (2014) 29:639-649

organizational research (Giri and Kumar 2010). Scores for
each facet scores were calculated by averaging the indi
vidual's scores on the respective items, with low scores
representing negative assessments.
Overall job satisfaction was measured using a four-item
coworkers. Supervisor support was positively related to all
nine facets. However, coworker support was positively
related to seven of the nine facets, but not to satisfaction
with fringe benefits and pay. Finally, POS was positively
related to all nine facets.

scale from Price and Mueller (1981). Responses were made Results of t tests for dependent correlations are shown in
on a seven-point Likert scale (1 = "Strongly disagree"). Table 2, with correlations between each stressor/resource
Sample items included "Most days I am enthusiastic about variable and each facet of satisfaction.

my job." Scores were calculated by averaging the indi For all seven stressor and resource variables there were

vidual's scores on the respective items, with low scores
representing a negative assessment.
Analysis
Data were collected using self-report surveys, which are
significant differences in how they related to different
facets of satisfaction. Due to space restrictions we are
unable to describe how each predictor related to each sat
isfaction facet in relation to the other eight facets. How
ever, Table 2 shows the significant differences in how each
stressor/resource variable related to each of the nine facets.

appropriate for the measurement of psychological percep For each column, the numbers (1-9) under the correlation
tions (Landsbergis and Theorell 2000). Bivariate correla between the predictor and a satisfaction facet indicate
tions between all study variables were calculated. A series significant differences with how that predictor related to
of t tests for dependent correlations between each demand, other facets. For example, the correlation between role
control, and support variable, respectively, and each job overload and satisfaction with the nature of work (r =
satisfaction facet were then measured using the R statistical -0.30) was significantly larger than the correlation
software package. This involved testing whether the cor between role overload and satisfaction with fringe benefits
relation between one stressor or resource variable with a (r = -0.13, n — 327, p < 0.05). However, the correlation
between role overload and satisfaction with the nature of
given satisfaction facet was significantly different than the
correlation between the same stressor or resource variable work (r = —0.30) was significantly smaller than the cor
and every other facet, given the correlation between the relation between role overload and satisfaction with con
two facets in question and the sample size (Howell 2012). tingent rewards (r = -0.44, n — 327, p < 0.01).
The purpose of this was to evaluate differences in effect
size between each facet as they relate to each of the seven
stressor/resource variables. Discussion

The aim of our study was to contribute to job satisfaction

Results and work stress literatures by adopting an inductive
approach to test facet differences within a stress context.
Descriptive statistics, correlations, internal consistency re Our results show facet-level differences in three ways. The
liabilities, and significant differences in paired comparisons first relates to how satisfied employees were with each
of means between facets are displayed in Table 1. facet as it related to an independent measure of overall
On average, employees were more satisfied with the satisfaction. Employees were on average more satisfied
nature of their work, their coworkers, and their supervision with the nature of their work, how they were supervised,
than they were overall. They were also less satisfied with and relationships with their coworkers, than they were
communication, as well as their contingent rewards, oper overall. Conversely, they were on average less satisfied
ating conditions, pay, and promotion opportunities than with communication, their contingent rewards, the operat
overall. Overall job satisfaction was negatively related to ing conditions of their work, their pay, and their promotion
role overload, and positively related to autonomy, task opportunities than overall (see Table 1). The second relates
variety, coworker and supervisor support, and POS. How to how work stressor and resource variables related to each

ever, overall job satisfaction was not related to role con of the nine facets of satisfaction. Karasek and Theorell
flict. With regards to facets of satisfaction, role overload (1990) theorized that demand stressors would be negatively
was negatively related to all nine facets. Role conflict was related to job satisfaction, and control and support
negatively related to seven of the nine satisfaction facets, resources would be positively related to satisfaction.
but was unrelated to satisfaction with pay and promotion. However, we found several inconsistencies across the nine
Autonomy was positively related to all nine facets. Task facets. With regards to demands, role conflict was nega
variety was positively related to seven of the nine facets, tively related to only seven of the nine satisfaction facets,
but was unrelated to satisfaction with fringe benefits and with no relationship of satisfaction with pay and

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J Bus Psychol (2014) 29:639-649 645

Table
Table 22 Correlations
Correlationsand
and
significant
significant
differences
differences
between
between
stressor/resource
stressor/resource
variables
variables
and job and
satisfaction
job satisfaction
facets facets

D,
D, C,
C, SS variable
variable

Role
Role overload Role
overload Role Autonomy
Autonomy Task varietySupervisor
Task variety Supervisor Coworker
Coworker POS
POS
conflict
conflict support support
support support

1. Fr. Benefits -0.13* -0.12*

-0.13* -0.12* 0.18**
0.18** 0.07 0.19** 0.03 0.27**

2,
2,3, 4,
3,6, 7,
4, 8, 96,
2, J,
7, 8,
2, 3, 9 6,2,
4, 6,
4, I8 5,
4, 5, 6 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 8, 9 2, 3, 4, 5, 9 5, 4,
2, 3, 6, 6,
7, 7,
S, 8,
9 9
2. -0.39**
-0.39** -0.29**
-0.29** 0.33** 0.24** 0.49** 0.19** 0.58**
Communication

7, 5, 6, 8
1, 1,3,4,7,8
1, 3,4, 7, 1,4,7
1, 4, 7 4,5,5,6,6,
4, 7, 7,
9 9 7,7,3,3,6,6,7,
7, 8,
8, 9
9 1, 7,
3,3,5,
5, 77 7, 3, 5, 7, 8«
3. Cont. Rewards -0.44** -0.20** 0.40**
-0.20** 0.40** 0.32** 0.60**
0.60** 0.28** 0.73**

1,
7, 4,4,5,5,6, 6,
8, 8,
9 9 7, 8 A 5, 7, 8, 9
7, 5, 6,
5, 6,7,7,S,8,9 9 1, 2,
1, 4,
2, 5,
4, 6, 7, 7,1
5, 6, 1, 2,2,5,5,6,6,
7, 7, 7,
, 8 7,
1, 2, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8,
S,
9 9

4. Nat. of Work -0.30** -0.14* 0.44** 0.51** 0.43** 0.22** 0.54**

0.22** 0.54,*

1, 3, 6 2, 5,9 A 2, 5, 6, 7,
1, 4, 2, 5, 6, 7, 8, 1,
7, 3, 7, 9 1,7,
5, 75, 7 7, 3,
1, 3,5
5
9 9

5. Coworkers -0.26** -0.30**

-0.30** 0.23**
0.23** 0.07 0.40** 0.50** 0.39**
0.50,* 0.39**

2, 3,6 7, 4,4,7,7,
7, S S 3,3,4,
4, 1,2,2,
7, 4, 4,
8, 98, 9 1,3,9
7, 3, 9 /,
1, 2, 3,2,
4, 6,3,
7, 4,
2, 3, 6,
4, 6, 7,
8 S, 2, 3,
9

6. Op. Cond. -0.71** -0.21**

-0.21** 0.31**
0.31** 0.14, 0.34,* 0.15**
0.15** 0.58**
0.58**

1,
7, 2,
2, 3,
3, 4,
4, 5, 7,17,7,
5,7,1 8 8 1, 1,
4, 4, 1, 2, 4, 8S 1, 2, 9 3,53, 5 7, 3,1, 3,
5, 5,
9

7. Pay -0.37** -0.08

-0.08 0.22**
0.22** 0.17** 0.28** 0.05 0.45**

1, 3, 6 2,3,5,6,9 2,3,4, 2, 4,
2, 4,8S 2, 3, 4, 8, 9 i, 4,
2, 3, 4, 5, 9 7, 2, 3, 8
1,
8. Promotion -0.28** -0.10 0.31** 0.34** 0.39** 0.15** 0.55**

1, 2, 3, 6 2,3,5,6,9 1,3,4, 6, 7,
4, 5, 6, 7, !8 1, 2, 5,
3, 7, 9 3, 5,
1, 7, 5, 7,
1, 2, 3, 5, 7, 99
9. Supervision -0.31** -0.25** 0.30** 0.20** 0.75** 0.25** 0.44**

1, 3, 6 4, 7, 8 3, 4, 2, 4,
2, < 5,
5, 99 /,
1, 2,
2,J,
3,4,4,5,5,6,6,
7, 7,
1, 5,7,75, 7 7, 3, 8
1,

Values beneath each correlation indicate a significant difference between the predictor in the column and the corresponding number of the
satisfaction facet. For example, the correlation between the role overload column and satisfaction with the nature of work (r = -0.30) is
significantly larger than the correlation between role overload and satisfaction with fringe benefits (r = —0.13); and significantly smaller than the
correlations between role overload and satisfaction with contingent rewards (r = —0.44), and satisfaction with operating conditions (r = -0.71).
Non-italicized values indicate corresponding p < 0.05 difference and Italicized values indicate corresponding p < 0.01 difference
* p < 0.05 and ** p < 0.01

promotion. This suggests that stress arising from conflict
ing demands at work (Beehr and Newman 1978) may not
necessarily be remediated by offering employees higher
rates of pay, or job promotions. With regards to control,
task variety was positively related to only seven of the nine
satisfaction facets, and was unrelated to satisfaction with
fringe benefits and coworkers. This suggests that employ
ees who perceive themselves to being confined by overly
routinized work cannot necessarily be appeased by offering
supplemental provisions in addition to salaries, such as
health insurance and retirement plans (Henderson 2000).
Moreover, fractured coworker relationships may not nec
essarily be repaired or enhanced by affording employees
greater control over the task structure of their work. With
regards to support, coworker support was positively related
to only seven of the nine satisfaction facets, but not satis
faction with fringe benefits and pay. This suggests that
supportive relationships with colleagues at work may not
compensate for dissatisfaction with compensation in the
form of basic pay and supplemental provisions.
Finally, our results showed variations in how each of the
seven work stressor and resource variables related to the
nine facets of satisfaction (see Table 2). For example, the
relationship between role overload and fringe benefits was
smaller than the relationship between role overload and
seven of the remaining eight facets, given the relationship
between each of these facets, respectively, and fringe
benefits. However, there was no difference between the
relationship between role overload and fringe benefits and
the relationship between role overload and satisfaction with
coworkers, given the relationship between these two facets.
Additionally, the relationship between role overload and
satisfaction with communication differed from the rela
tionship between role overload and four of the other eight

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646 J Bus Psychol (2014) 29:639-649

facets, given their respective relationships with communi justification for maximizing job satisfaction is grounded
cation. That is, the negative relationship between role in evidence that satisfaction is positively related to
overload and satisfaction with communication was larger desired outcomes such as organizational commitment
than the relationships between role overload and satisfac (Porter et al. 1974) and organizational citizenship
tion with fringe benefits, promotion, and coworkers, behaviors (Organ and Ryan 1995; Podsakoff et al. 1996,
respectively. However, the role overload-satisfaction with 2002); and negatively related to unwanted outcomes, such
communication relationship was smaller than the rela as counterproductive work behavior (Hershcovis et al.
tionship between role overload and satisfaction with 2007), withdrawal cognitions (Mobley 1977; Tett and
operating conditions. As such, although role overload was Meyer 1993), and voluntary turnover (Griffeth et al. 2000;
negatively related to all nine facets of satisfaction, we Horn et al. 1992). It is perhaps because of this that rec
found significant differences in how negatively it related to ommendations to decrease demands and to increase con
different facets. We also found this for each of the other six trol and support have seldom been questioned. However,
stressor and resource variables. Thus, in addition to our findings suggest that managers and consultants con
examining overall facet-level differences there is poten sidering the rebalance of these dimensions should not
tially richer information to be obtained by examining dif presume consistent effects of demands, control, and sup
ferences in how a given variable relates to each of the nine port on all aspects of job satisfaction. By doing so,
facets. expected positive outcomes may fail to materialize, per
In addition to finding differences in how each stress and haps to the detriment of workplace redesign as a whole in
resource predictor related to facets of satisfaction, our the minds of management. A more detailed approach to
results also indicated differing effect size trends between workplace redesign is recommended.
the respective measures of demands, control, support, and
satisfaction facets. For example, with regard to demands, Limitations and Future Research

role overload was generally more negatively related than

role conflict to most facets (with the exception of satis We acknowledge two limitations of the present study. First,
faction with fringe benefits, and coworkers). With regard to as per Spector's (1985) original findings, internal consis
control, autonomy was generally more positively related tency reliabilities of three of the nine facets (communication,
than task variety to most satisfaction facets (with excep operating conditions, and coworkers) were below the 0.70
tions being satisfaction with nature of work, and promo standard considered acceptable in applied psychological
tion). Finally, with regard to support, supervisor support research (Nunnally and Bernstein 1994), as was the internal
and POS were generally more related than coworker sup consistency reliability of autonomy. Second, our study was
port to satisfaction facets (with the obvious exception of cross-sectional as opposed to longitudinal. Cross-sectional
satisfaction with coworkers), and POS appeared more studies have been widely criticized in organizational litera
strongly related than supervisor support (with the exception ture for not allowing determination of reverse or reciprocal
of satisfaction with supervision, and coworkers). Although causation (e.g., Spector 2006; Spector and Brannick 1995).
we did not perform significance tests on these differences, Moreover, an inherent danger of reciprocal causation is that
these findings add weight to previous evidence that rela impaired psychological well-being can impact workers'
tionships between demands, control, support, and various perception of the work environment (cf. Dalgard et al. 2009).
strain outcomes depend on predictor operationalization Although this cannot be ruled out in the present study, evi
(i.e., Häusser et al. 2010; Kain and Jex 2010; Kristensen dence of significant differences between most JSS facets
1995). indicate that employees harbor differing perceptions of
various facets of work, as opposed to one singular satisfac
Managerial Implications tion state. Therefore, effects of reverse/reciprocal causality
are unlikely to be identical across all nine facets of satis
One of the primary goals of work stress research is to faction, and in how each stressor/resource variable relates
redesign jobs so as to reduce employees' stress levels differently to each facet.
while maintaining productivity (Sulsky and Smith 2005). Further research could attempt to repeat our findings in
Work stress studies have often concluded that to facilitate samples from different organizations, fields, or countries,
greater levels of job satisfaction, management should and could include longitudinal studies. Additionally, given
lower the demands made of employees wherever possible, the ubiquitous effect of workplace support on the nine
afford them greater control over work, and more support facets, future studies could explore whether non-work
in meeting demands (Kain and Jex 2010; Karasek support (e.g., family and/or friends support) relates to some
and Theorell 1990). From a managerial perspective,or all of these work-related satisfactions.

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 J Bus Psychol (2014) 29:639-649 647

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