Laws of Thermodynamics

First law of thermodynamics: Energy can be neither created nor destroyed. In other
words, the energy of the universe is constant.
The 2nd law of thermodynamics: Any spontaneous process results in an increase in
the disorder of the universe (entropy).
The 3rd law of thermodynamics: the substance with the lowest possible entropy level
is a perfect crystal at zero Kelvin.
Spontaneity - the condition of being spontaneous; spontaneous behavior or action.
Thermodynamics predicts whether a process will proceed under the given conditions
(spontaneous process).
Entropy (S) - The driving force for a spontaneous process is an increase in the entropy
of the universe.
• Entropy is a driving force of a chemical reaction. Chemical reactions want an
increase in entropy.
Free energy can be understood as a function that deals with the spontaneity of a
reaction based on temperature.
• The term "free energy" comes from the fact that the usable energy released from
a reaction can be acquired for nothing if it is spontaneous; the energy from a
spontaneous reaction is free.
An acid is any hydrogen-containing substance that is capable of donating a proton
(hydrogen ion) to another substance.
A base is a molecule or ion able to accept a hydrogen ion from an acid.
The word acid comes from a Latin word ‘acere’ which means ‘sour’.
Acidic substances are usually identified by their sour taste. An acid is basically a
molecule which can donate an H+ ion and can remain energetically favourable after a
loss of H+. Acids are known to turn blue litmus red.
The Arrhenius theory of acids and bases states that “an acid generates H+ ions in a
solution whereas a base produces an OH– ion in its solution”.
The Bronsted-Lowry theory defines “an acid as a proton donor and a base as a proton
acceptor”.
Finally, the Lewis definition of acids and bases describes “acids as electron-pair
acceptors and bases as electron-pair donors”.
1. Uses of Acids
• Vinegar, a diluted solution of acetic acid, has various household applications. It
is primarily used as a food preservative.
• Citric acid is an integral part of lemon juice and orange juice. It can also be used
in the preservation of food.
• Sulfuric acid is widely used in batteries. The batteries used to start the engines of
automobiles commonly contain this acid.
• The industrial production of explosives, dyes, paints, and fertilizers involves the
use of sulfuric acid and nitric acid.
 • Phosphoric acid is a key ingredient in many soft drinks.
2. Uses of Bases

• The manufacturing of soap and paper involves the use of sodium hydroxide.
NaOH is also used in the manufacture of rayon.

• Ca(OH)2, also known as slaked lime or calcium hydroxide, is used to

manufacture bleaching powder.

• Dry mixes used in painting or decoration are made with the help of calcium
hydroxide.

• Magnesium hydroxide, also known as milk of magnesia, is commonly used as a

laxative. It also reduces any excess acidity in the human stomach and is,
therefore, used as an antacid.

• Ammonium hydroxide is a very important reagent used in laboratories.

• Any excess acidity in soils can be neutralized by employing slaked lime.

BUFFERS - The concept of pH plays an important role in the body. The pH of human
blood is about 7.35
BUFFER SOLUTION - It is one that contains a weak acid and its conjugate base, or a
weak base and its conjugate acid.
Acidic Buffer: A weak acid together with a salt of the same acid with a strong base.
Basic Buffers: A weak base and its salt with a strong acid.
When the blood pH is higher than 7.45, the person is said to suffer from
alkalosis. It is not as common as acidosis.
NEUTRALIZATION - The reactions between an acid and a base to form a neutral
solution.
Equivalence point- a reaction, the point where the acid or base has been added in an
amount equivalent to the other.
Oxidation of Food: Fruits and vegetables oxidized when left open in air.
Redox – Reduction + Oxidation
Oxidation Reduction
Gain in oxygen Loss of oxygen
Loss of hydrogen Gain in hydrogen
Loss of electrons Gain of electrons
An Oxidising Agent is a chemical species that causes the other reactant in a redox
reaction to be oxidised, and it is always reduced in the process.
An Reducing Agent is a chemical species that causes the other reactant in a reaction
to be reduced, and it is always oxidised in the process.
The substance that donates electrons in a redox reaction is the REDUCING AGENT.
The substance that takes electrons in a redox reaction is the OXIDIZING AGENT.
1. Reaction of reduction oxidation based on releasing (losing) and gaining of oxygen.
a. Oxidation Reaction- is a reaction of gaining (capturing) of oxygen by a
substance.
b. Reduction Reaction – is a reaction of releasing (lossing) of oxygen from a
oxide compound

2. Reduction oxidation reaction based on electron transfer

a. Oxidation Reaction- is a reaction of electron releasing (lossing) from a
substance.
b. Reduction Reaction – is a reaction of electron gaining by a substance.
Oxidizing Agent (Oxidant) and Reducing Agent (Reductant)
The reactant that involve in a redox reaction can be differentiated into two kinds, that is
oxidizing agent (oxidant) and reducing agent (reductant).
Oxidizing agent is:
 A reactant that oxidizes other reactant
 A reactant that can gain electron
 A reactant in a reaction undergoes reduction
 A reactant that in a reaction undergoes decreasing in oxidation number.
Reducing agent is:
 a substance (reactant) that reduces other substances (reactants)
 a substance (reactant) that can loss electron
 a substance (reactant) that in the reaction undergoes oxidation
 a substance (reactant) that undergoes increasing in oxidation number.
An oxidation number is a positive or negative number assigned to an atom to indicate its
degree of oxidation or reduction.
As a general rule, a bonded atom’s oxidation # is the charge that it would have if the
electrons in the bond were assigned to the atom of the more electronegative element
The sum of the oxidation numbers of all the atoms in a compound is zero
The sum of the oxidation numbers of all the atoms in a polyatomic ion is the charge of
the ion.