Engineering in Chalk

Lawrence, Preene, Lawrence and Buckley

ISBN 978-0-7277-6407-2
https://doi.org/10.1680/eiccf.64072.007
ICE Publishing: All rights reserved

Developing ground models for chalk engineering: links

across the disciplines
R. N. Mortimore*1
1
ChalkRock Limited, Lewes, UK
*
Corresponding Author

ABSTRACT Changes in our understanding of chalk geology since the Brighton 1989 International Chalk Symposium (ICS 89) in terms of
stratigraphy, sedimentology, structure, micro-fabric, descriptive method and engineering classification are reviewed. The first major
development has been the application of a „Formation‟ stratigraphy to mapping chalk at outcrop and subcrop in England. At subcrop under
the London Basin, and offshore, marker beds provide the keys for borehole correlation and linking the geology to geophysics and
geotechnical properties. Conceptual ground models are illustrated for complex geology including dry valleys, potential karst areas and the
offshore environment for wind turbine foundations. Such models require detailed multidisciplinary knowledge of chalk and Quaternary
processes including where chalk has been subjected to glacial and periglacial weathering. Field experiments using geophysical and
hydrogeological techniques developed for European research projects including PROTECT and FLOOD1 are used to quantify the physical
properties of the engineering ground profile. Laboratory tests linked to the field experiments illustrate lithological controls on behaviour,
especially dual porosity and permeability and potential mechanical properties. These results emphasise the need for accurate stratigraphical,
lithological and chalk-mass descriptions applying the CIRIA C574 methods.
Recent research has also re-looked at the micro-fabric of chalk and has identified the role of water at a molecular level controlling the
bonding and disaggregation of chalk granular structure. It is the start of a new era of chalk research within a well-defined geological
framework linked closely to properties and geophysics. The ultimate objective is increasingly consistent descriptions, classifications, test
results and accurate predictions of mechanical and groundwater behaviour of the chalk material and rock mass.

1. INTRODUCTION chalk and absence of values to apply when

What has changed/ been achieved since the
1965/1966; 1973/1976 and 1989/1990 Chalk
symposia? remaining gaps in knowledge
The wealth of new information being presented at
the Chalk 2018 Conference illustrates the
continuing interest in chalk as an engineering
material especially in north west Europe (Figure 1).
Despite the publication of the CIRIA Report C574
Engineering in Chalk guidelines (Lord et al. 2002)
for unexpected ground conditions, difficulties
drilling boreholes and obtaining good core
recovery, and problems during construction
operations, still occur.
1.1 Previous chalk engineering conferences
Each of the previous Chalk conferences focussed
on particular issues related to chalk engineering
and geology. In the context of engineering, the first
Chalk Symposium (ICE 1966) was a response to
road construction and foundation issues. There
were four papers. Higginbottom (1966) focused on
the engineering geology including what was then
known about chalk lithologies (stratigraphy),
microscopic structure, physical itfr.63938.001.3d
itfr.63938.001.3d 3
properties, 3 joints
fissures and groundwater, frost heave, solifluction
and „Head‟ including putty chalk. He also
addressed methods of boring, sampling and in situ
testing and underground workings in chalk.
A further special issue addressed by
Higginbottom was the location of dissolution
features especially dissolution pipes in relation to
landscape. Wakeling (1966) emphasised the
scarcity of good case studies on foundations in
calculating allowable bearing capacity. He also
recognised two layers in chalk with respect to
shallow foundations, weathered chalk and fissured
chalk. Properties of chalk, especially frost
susceptibility and compaction of chalk-fill in
relation to road foundations and pavements, were
addressed by Lewis & Croney (1966). The final
paper by Toms (1966) looked at chalk cuttings and
embankments in relation to railways and provided a
long-term view of the stability of cuttings from
historical and recent case studies on the Southern
Region of British Railways. All the papers
emphasised the need for more case studies and the
limited design values available.
It should be noted that this 1965 Symposium
pre-dated publication of the detailed investigations
at Mundford (Ward at al. 1968) that set the
standard for many years in terms of describing and
classifying chalk and recognising deformation
characteristics of the „Mundford‟ grades. These
Mundford grades were linked to borehole SPT
values for foundation design by Wakeling (1970).
Many of the engineering issues related to Chalk
were further discussed at a meeting of the Southern
Association, Institution of Civil Engineers in
Brighton (Jenner & Burfitt 1975) and in papers in
engineering
04/02/2018 geology
05:14:20pm (Dumbleton & West 1972; 05:14:20pm
04/02/2018
West & Dumbleton 1972).
In France, as in England, engineering issues in
relation to road construction and foundations were
encountered, especially the behaviour of „soft‟
chalks. At a conference on the Chalk held at Rouen
in the Paris Basin, France (La Craie – Laboratoire
des Ponts et Chausees 1973 and 1975) more
attention was paid to the microstructure of chalk to
7
Engineering in Chalk
Figure 1. Chalk and related Upper Cretaceous deposits in north west Europe showing key locations.
characterise it in terms of porosity, density relation
to laboratory test results and recorded performance
in earthworks. Earthworks, in terms of
embankment performance, were graded from very
bad, bad, to good. In France the stratigraphy of the
Chalk was described in terms of the international
Cretaceous Stages (Cenomanian, Turonian,
Coniacian, Santonian, Campanian). These stages
helped date the deposits across the Paris Basin but
did not identify stratigraphic or lateral changes in
8
(Masson 1973), and texture (Le Roux 1973) in
lithology. The need for such investigations was
further emphasised by „unexpected‟ earthworks
problems on the Autoroute A1 near Rouen
(Raguenel 1973; Rat & Schaeffner 1990), the M27
Portsdown earthworks (Clayton 1977, 1980) and
the A34 Chievely sections north of Newbury
(Clarke 1977). Subsequently, a range of different
laboratory test methods were trialled and developed
in order to classify properties and engineering

behaviour of chalk for earthworks (e.g. the Impact
Crushing Value compared with moisture content,
Ingoldby & Parsons 1977). An early attempt was
also made to link lateral changes in chalk lithology
and physical properties with geomorphological
setting and engineering performance across the
Anglo-Paris Basin (Mortimore and Pomerol1998).
1.2 Groundwater and the chalk aquifer
In addition to the civil engineering problems
encountered with chalk, the hydrogeology of the
chalk aquifer (Downing et al. 1993) remained
problematic in relation to predicting groundwater
behaviour, storage, drainage and groundwater
floods especially the role of the „unsaturated‟ zone.
Input to the aquifer (effective rainfall) and output to
rivers (stream flow gauges) and long-term
monitoring of wells (e.g. Chilgrove House well
hydrograph record from 1836–1995, Jones &
Robins 1999) have been measurable for a long time
and formed the basis of most predictive models.
Other field experiments illustrated the interaction
between matrix pores and micro- and macro-
fissures (Downing et al. 1978).
Beyond a single borehole or well relatively little
was known about the impact of lithology and
individual beds such as marl seams on groundwater
flow in the unsaturated zone or as a control on the
location of springs. A particular gap in knowledge
related to how to model the Chalk as a non-
homogeneous medium taking into account the new
formation and bed lithostratigraphy and strata-
bound fracture network. As Downing et al. (1993
page 13) indicated „…..precise knowledge of the
aquifer must be elusive …. data exist for only a
small fraction of the total volume‟.. (i.e. around a
well or between wells in a wellfield).
1.3 North Sea chalk hydrocarbon reservoirs
Behaviour of chalk in North Sea hydrocarbon
reservoirs (Mapstone 1975; Scholle 1977) was
highlighted by the breakdown and mobilisation of
chalk material in the Ekofisk Field (e.g. D‟Heur
1980, 1984; Hardman 1982). Breakdown of chalk
material during hydrocarbon production and
subsequent ground subsidence in the Ekofisk area
(Figure 2a) initiated much research (e.g. Jones
1990; Maury et al. 1996; Papamichos et al. 1997;
PASACHALK2,2004; De Gennaro et al. 2004).
North Sea investigations identified the best
reservoirs in reworked, well sorted chalk deposits
with the least cementation (e.g. D‟Heur,1980).
Such reworked, turbidite-like chalks had not been
recognised onshore in north west Europe. North
Sea results provided insights into chalk
sedimentary processes, compaction and material
breakdown that could possibly affect mechanical
and hydrogeological properties onshore as well as
offshore.
Mortimore
1.4 The 1989 Brighton International Chalk
Symposium (ICS 89)
It was in this context of needing to better
understand the geology, mechanical, aquifer and
petroleum reservoir behaviour of chalk that the
1989 Brighton International Chalk Symposium was
initiated. ICS 1989 was the first fully international
and multidisciplinary symposium on the subject.
The intention of a „symposium‟ (rather than a
conference) was to initiate discussions between
engineers and geologists in hydrogeology, civil
engineering and petroleum geology which could
lead to recognition of „common processes’ across
the different disciplines (e.g. Jones 1990; Figure 2).
From these discussions it was hoped that
improved knowledge of the geology and more
appropriate descriptions and classifications of chalk
as an engineering material could be developed to
provide a more precise basis for field and
laboratory testing, interpretation, modelling and
design.
1.5 Post 1989 developments: CIRIA 574, new
geology maps and research programmes
Twenty-nine years on from the 1989 Brighton
International Chalk Symposium it is time to review
how far we have progressed with chalk. A key
outcome of the 1989 Brighton Symposium was
development and production of CIRIA
Report C574 Engineering in Chalk (Lord et al.
2002). The research undertaken to arrive at the
methods of classification and the recommendations
for engineering design in C574 were partly
supported by profits from the 1989 Symposium and
partly by industry through CIRIA.
Several other research programmes were
initiated following the 1989 Brighton Symposium
to address gaps in knowledge and understanding of
the geology of chalk in terms of field scale
variations (the context for field and laboratory
testing).
i. In recognition of the consistent feature
forming potential of lithological divisions of
the Chalk developed during the 1970s and
1980s new geology maps of the Chalk of
England were produced during the 1990s and
early 2000s by the British Geological Survey
(BGS). These maps make it possible to
predict likely lithologies and associated
structure for modelling the Chalk for
engineering and hydrogeology.
ii. Geological mapping has enhanced our
knowledge of tectonic structure (regional and
local areas of folding, faulting and fracturing)
and, combined with research on fracturing of
the Chalk especially on the coastal cliffs of
north west Europe (ROCC, (Mortimore &
Duperret,2004) and PROTECT (Busby et al.
2002, 2004a, b)), provides details for future
ground models in terms of strata-bound
(formation level) and wider tectonic fracture
9
Engineering in Chalk

Figure 2. Schematic cartoons illustrating common processes and properties of chalk involved across the disciplines A. Settlement of the
sea-bed in the Ekofisk area, North Sea, as hydrocarbons are withdrawn and matrix pores degrade/collapse (Jones 1990). B. Settlement of
fractured chalk at Mundford beneath cyclically loaded water-filled tanks (Ward et al. 1968; Jones 1990). C. Geomorphology and location of
groundwater flows (Ineson 1962); matrix and fracture interaction controlling effective rainfall infiltration rates, water table evolution and
groundwater resource. D. Lithology (matrix/ density) and fracturing control piling foundation conditions for wind turbines in the North Sea.
Contrasting yield values for the petroleum reservoir (A) and the aquifer (C) are illustrative, based on Downing et al.(1993).

characteristics (Vandycke 2002; Vandycke &
Bergerat 2001; Vandycke et al. 1988;
Duperret et al. 2012).
iii. The depth of weathering including alteration
of chalk material and degree of fracturing in
relation to geomorphology formed part of the
ROCC, PROTECT and FLOOD1 European
funded research investigations. On a regional
scale this included areas subjected to ice
sheets compared with areas subjected to
periglaciation and the variations in depth of
weathering between valleys (dry and river
valleys) and interfluves and developing
schematic models to illustrate these ground
conditions (e.g. Hadlow 2012; Hadlow et al.
2018).
As well as research programmes, major
construction projects were used to test the
application of evolving ideas on description and
classification of chalk as an engineering material
(e.g. HS1 (formerly known as the Channel Tunnel
Rail Link, CTRL), 1991–2001)). HS1 and other
projects including tunnels under London for
Crossrail and the Thames Tideway schemes, the

10

proposed A303 Stonehenge tunnels and many
offshore wind farms in the southern North Sea,
Baltic Sea and eastern English Channel, added
greatly to our knowledge of Late Cretaceous Chalk
geology. In combination, the research programmes
and construction projects have led to our current
state of knowledge and informed current practices.
2 REGIONAL AND LOCAL DISTRIBUTION
OF LITHOLOGY AND STRATIGRAPHY
2.1 New formation mapping
Work in the 1960s–70s illustrated that Lower
Middle and Upper Chalk in England and the
Cretaceous Stage divisions (Cenomanian to
Campanian) of the Chalk in the Paris Basin were
inadequate representations of chalk lithology as
reflected in engineering and aquifer behaviour. It
was partly this gap in knowledge that gave impetus
to development of a lithostratigraphy relevant to
engineering and hydrogeology for the onshore
Chalk of England (Northern Province, Wood and
Smith 1978; Southern Province, Mortimore 1986).
During the 1990s the British Geological Survey
(BGS) (Bristow et al. 1997) found they could map
nine „members‟ in the southern Province in Dorset
and the South Downs of Sussex, replacing the
threefold division into Lower, Middle and Upper
Chalk. Each „member‟ contained broad rock mass
properties that controlled weathering and
development of landscape features (Figures 3 and
4).
These landscape features (primary and
secondary escarpments, dip slopes, concave slopes,
convex slopes), made it possible to map the Chalk
using satellite imagery, aerial photographs and field
techniques (changes of slope, Figure 4, character of
the field brash e.g. Aldiss et al. 2012) and the
Chalk lithostratigraphic members were
consequently raised to formations (summarised in
Mortimore et al. 2001; Hopson 2005).
Most of England has now been mapped using
nine formations in the Southern and Transitional
Provinces and four formations for the Northern
Province Chalk of Yorkshire and Lincolnshire. The
new BGS „digital‟ geological map for Britain
which, for the first time has agreed line-work
between the mapping sheets, has the great
advantage that it can be updated readily as new
information is made available especially from large
construction projects (e.g. HS2 and the A303
Stonehenge investigations, Mortimore et al. 2017,
figures 2 and 4).
With the old Lower, Middle and Upper Chalk
divisions it was only possible to recognise and map
faults with very large displacements (around 100 m
or greater) and many folds were not indicated.
Using the new formations, faults with throws of 10
m or less could be mapped and many new tectonic
structures have been identified (e.g. Aldiss et al.
Mortimore
2012, figure 2 for the Winchester and Salisbury
districts; Mortimore, 2012, figures 30–31, Brighton
District).
2.2 Marker beds and regional correlation
Within the broad mapping formations numerous
marker beds aid ground investigation core-logging,
borehole correlations and the construction of
conceptual ground models on which numerical
models depend. As a result, various lines of
evidence can be linked (e.g. for tunnelling beneath
London, Figure 5). Using the detailed
lithostratigraphy it has also proved possible to
correlate formations and marker beds across the
Anglo-Paris Basin (Mortimore & Pomerol 1987,
1996; Pomerol 2000; Robaszynski et al. 2005).
2.3 Biostratigraphy and the use of micro- and
nannofossils
In addition to new geological maps for the English
Chalk, a detailed internationally agreed
biostratigraphy for the Cretaceous has helped
advance identification of Chalk sedimentary and
tectonic processes. A reference section for a key
part of the White Chalk of north west Europe has
been established at Seaford Head, Sussex, where
lithology and fossils (macro-, micro- and
nannofossils) have been integrated (Hampton et al.
2007). The information on fossil ranges plotted
against the key lithological marker beds at Seaford
Head have been used to aid interpretation of the
complex phosphatic-chalk geology on the proposed
A303 Stonehenge tunnel (Mortimore et al. 2017).
Nannofossil biostratigraphy has also been used to
confirm the lithostratigraphical correlations
between boreholes on the Thames Tideway scheme
(Gallagher pers. comm.).
Microfossils were used to correlate boreholes on
several construction projects including the original
Thames Barrier investigations (Carter & Hart
1977), to define and control the alignment of the
undersea tunnelling on the Channel Tunnel (Harris
et al. 1996) and to align the Ipswich Orwell Tunnel
below bands of flint that might have caused
significant damage to the Tunnel Boring Machine
(TBM).
Offshore, correlations between wind farm
boreholes have used both onshore marker beds
(Mortimore & James 2015) and nannofossils in
areas where younger chalks were present which
had no comparative onshore sections. Hampton et
al. (2010) demonstrated the value of micro- and
nannofossils in mapping lithofacies in North Sea
hydrocarbon reservoirs and identifying the controls
that both sea-level and tectonics have exerted on
the facies distributions and, therefore, physical
property distributions.
The ability to link construction projects and
hydrogeological investigations to a bed-level
11
Engineering in Chalk

Figure 3. British Geological Survey shadowed satellite image of part of the South Downs between the rivers Arun and Adur, Sussex, U.K.
(based on Greenbaum et al. 1993; BGS Remote Sensing Group IPR/29-15C BGS enhanced imagery © NERC, all rights reserved). The
image illustrates the mappable landscape features produced by each formation (compare with Figure 4).

Figure 4. Landscape features created during weathering of Chalk formations with different rock mass properties (lithology and
fractures).The Primary Chalk Escarpment looking west from Wilmington in the East Sussex Downs, UK.

Figure 5. Detailed marker bed stratigraphy for the Chalk provides the evidence for correlating boreholes and constructing the conceptual
ground model, an example from Crossrail Thames Crossing.

12

stratigraphy has made it possible to compare
engineering performance within and between sites
and within groundwater wells/boreholes (e.g.
Mortimore 2012). Despite these advances there are
still areas of relative absence of detail in the
English Chalk. This includes much of East Anglia
(Woods et al. 2007, 2012) and the Flamborough
Chalk Formation in the Humber area and Yorkshire
Wolds.
3 GEOMORPHOLOGY: CHARACTERISING
THE GROUND PROFILE FROM GROUND
SURFACE DOWN ONSHORE AND
OFFSHORE
3.1 Early conceptual models of ground profiles
Chalk has long been known to be fractured and
fissured to varying degrees depending on position
in the landscape or in relation to tectonic structure
(e.g. Ineson 1962; Higginbottom 1966). The
location of many pumping stations and water
supply wells along the margins of dry valleys has
made extensive use of this knowledge.
A schematic ground model for the Chalk in open
downland with dry valleys and river valleys was
developed for the North and South Downs of
England, Figure 6 (Mortimore 1996; Mortimore et
al. 1996) and the CIRIA chalk-grades added to
provide some quantification to the profile. A
second ground profile across a dry valley in the
Medway area at Snodland (North Downs, Kent,
Figure 7) was developed from a ground
investigation for large foundations which gave
dimensions in terms of depth and horizontal
distance for rock mass descriptions and application
of CIRIA grades. Other, similar ground profiles
across valleys have been constructed for
construction projects.
What has been needed for such conceptual
ground models is quantification with depth and
horizontal extent of the chalk-mass properties in
terms of degree of weathering, changing properties
of the chalk especially in relation to permeability,
rock mass structure and strength of chalk.
3.2 Geophysics and river valleys
Where tunnels in chalk under river valleys have
been constructed (e.g. CTRL Thames Crossing
(Warren & Mortimore 2003) Crossrail Thames
Crossing)) or bridge foundations have been built in
river beds (e.g. River Medway CTRL and M2
crossing (Warren & Mortimore 2003)) marine
geophysics has been used in conjunction with
boreholes to define depth of weathered zones. The
Crossrail Thames Crossing (Figure 5) provided the
most comprehensive geophysics showing channels
scoured into the river bed and the structure of the
Chalk in terms of dip of strata and a fault (Lenham
et al. 2006).
Mortimore
3.3 Adding dimensions and properties to the
ground profiles
Two examples where detailed dimensions and
„numbers‟ have been added to the chalk ground
profile in open downland are the Highways
England A303 Stonehenge investigations and the
European funded FLOOD 1 experimental sites in
France and England. The Stonehenge ground
profile illustrates the general depth at which
fractures are closed and permeability is low
(Mortimore et al. 2017). High and moderate
permeability is located along the western margin of
Stonehenge Bottom (a dry valley, Figure 8) where
open fractures and faults are concentrated and in
the phosphatic chalks (weakly bonded, reworked
fine sand-grade material
Low permeability (Figure 8) is concentrated in
the fractured white chalk between 20–25m depth,
broadly following the ground profile (except where
the phosphatic-chalk-filled channels are present).
Groundwater monitoring wells (Figure 9) also
indicate greatest variation in the two most
permeable zones, Well P1 in the phosphatic chalks
and Well P2 on the western margin of Stonehenge
Bottom (dry valley). Least variation is present in
the two wells on the interfluves to the east (R158)
and west (W1) where tighter rock with more closed
fractures would be expected (e.g. Hadlow et al.
2018). The groundwater results also suggest that
the generally low permeability parts of the aquifer
may contain local fissures along bedding planes
(e.g. Borehole R18, Figure 8).
Such bedding plane fissure-flow has long been
recorded in the saturated zone below the watertable
(Ineson 1962; Figure 10) but has only relatively
recently been established as a flow pathway in the
unsaturated zone using downhole CCTV and
optical camera logging in boreholes (e.g. Molyneux
2012).
3.4 Adding results from FLOOD 1 experimental
sites to the ground profile
As part of the European funded INTERREG III-A
FLOOD 1 Project, a joint research programme
between the French Geological Survey (BRGM),
the University of Brighton and the British
Geological Survey (BGS), three experimental sites
were constructed to better define the chalk
hydraulic ground profile. Cored boreholes were
drilled to provide the ground profiles in terms of
depth of weathering, chalk lithology and fracture
characteristics, supported by field mapping
(Hadlow 2012). Experiments were designed to
measure effective rainfall, groundwater infiltration,
the rate of groundwater flow as an interaction
between matrix and fractures in chalk and
watertable evolution.
The excellent results from the French experimental
site at Warloy-Baillon in the Hallue catchment, part
of the Somme River Basin (Amraoui et al. 2002,
2003, 2008a,b; Hamm et al. 2008;Thiéry et
13
Engineering in Chalk

KEY 1. Loess brown silt. 2. Involutions 3. Dense, brown, flinty Head (Coombe Deposit). 4. Brown to pale brown chalky Head (Coombe
Deposit). 5. Grade Dm chalk, silty-matrix dominated, matrix supported. 6. GRADE Dc intraclast dominated chalk. 7. Closely to very closely
spaced fractures, softened chalk and putty-fill along fracture. 8. Irregular dissolution contact between Clay-with flints and Grade C 4/5
chalk. 9. Normal faults parallel to valley-sides opening valleywards and filled. 10. Conspicuous marker flint bands traceable through faults
and the disturbed zone in valley-floor.

Figure 6. The original schematic model used to illustrate the weathered Chalk ground profile in relation to geomorphology in the North and
South Downs of England and used to help define engineering domains on HS1 (Channel Tunnel Rail Link), here with CIRIA chalk-grades
added (based on Mortimore 1996; Mortimore & Pomerol, 1996).

KEY: 1. Brown topsoil and/or in places Made Ground. 2. Reddish-brown silt to silty clay with rounded sand and gravel sized and angular
cobble-sized flints on valley margins passing valley-wards into pale yellow to cream coloured, rounded sand and gravel-sized hard chalk
fragments in cycles and containing fossil snails. 3. Finely laminated, pale yellow to buff coloured, very pure silt (Brickearth). 4. Chocolate
brown silty clay with old root systems (former topsoil), stiffer than loam above present mainly in valley axis 5. Crudely layered in fining
upwards cycles, rounded sand and gravel-sized flint and chalk clasts and more angular cobble-sized flints fines increasing downwards,
lightly cemented (hard dig). 6. Unstructured, fragmented, greeny-grey marly chalk with marly-putty-chalk between intact blocks (Grade
Dm) 7. Becoming more structured downwards, blocky, grey-green marly chalk with black stained joints, some filled with red-brown silty
clay (Grade Dc to C).

Figure 7. Schematic geological section across the Home Farm dry valley, showing degraded chalk in floor of palaeovalley and Quaternary
valley-fill deposits. Despite the marly, clay-rich Grey Chalk Subgroup deep weathering along dry valleys in this part of the Medway valley,
near Snodland, Kent, is very similar to depth of weathering in the White Chalk Subgroup valleys (Figure 6). Jukes-Browne Bed 7 (JB7) and
the White Bed are two useful lithological subdivisions for engineering in the Grey Chalk (Zig Zag Chalk Formation) of Kent defined by the
Geological Survey (Jukes-Browne & Hill 1903).

14
 Mortimore

Figure 8. Part of the ground profile for the proposed A303 Stonehenge Tunnel based on the 2001-04 ground investigations (from Mortimore
et al. 2017).

Figure 9. Two years (2003-2005) of results from monitoring wells along the line of the then proposed A303 Stonehenge Tunnel showing
>10 m fluctuation in groundwater level across a range of geomorphological settings and chalk lithologies illustrated in Figure 8 (for more
detail see Mortimore et al. 2017).

Figure 10. Groundwater flow on horizontal fissures related to bedding structures in the Chalk. A). BGS Banterwick Barn Borehole,
Berkshire at 86.60 m depth in the Chalk Rock interval. B). BGS Lambourn Valley Borehole Berkshire BH46/1 within the Chalk Rock
interval (Tate et al. 1971) at 282 ft = 85.95 m depth.

15
Engineering in Chalk

al. 2018), provide an insight into the combined role

of matrix pores and fractures in terms of flow and
permeability with depth.
At Warloy-Baillon field testing was carried out
by BRGM (Machard de Gramont 2007; Amraoui et
al. 2008a,b; Hamm et al 2008), in unsaturated
fractured white chalk (Paris Basin equivalent of the
Seaford Chalk Formation in the Middle and Late
Coniacian) and the topmost Lewes Nodular Chalk
Formation (Figures 11–12).
With respect to measuring effective rainfall,
infiltration and flow through the unsaturated zone
the experiments included suction monitoring using
12 Jack-tensiometers designed by the Centre for
Ecology and Hydrology (CEH) at Wallingford,
England, from 10 m below ground level (mbgl) Figure 11. Arrangement of instruments deployed and location
down to water table (around 26 m), and 10 shallow of boreholes P1, P2, P3, P4, at the Warloy-Ballion experimental
UMS tensiometers from 0.2 m to 8 m below ground site in the Hallue Catchment, Somme valley, France. FLOOD 1
Project Amraoui et al. 2008a, b; Thiéry et al. 2018.
level (bgl). Water content monitoring used an
EnviroSMART probe with 16 sensors from 0.2
mbgl to 8 mbgl and two Theta probes at 0.5 and 1.2
mbgl, as well as a borehole of 9 m length for a
neutron probe (Figure11).
All the tensiometers across the range of depths
provided a similar response in matric potential
evolution (Figure 12 a, b, c). The response of
matrix potential shows the same general trend but
the amplitude of variation reduced progressively
with depth. Positive pressure values in Figure 12c
corresponded to the height of water above the
sensors following a rise in the water table. Sensors
at depths between 1.5–8 m depth were located in
weathered, closely fractured flintless white chalk
(probably CIRIA Grades C4/5 at the top becoming
C3 at 8.0 m). Below 10 m, sensors were located in
white chalk with flints and more widely spaced
fractures (probably CIRIA Grades C to B, Figure
12).
As well as monitoring effective rainfall
infiltration rates, the experiments at Warloy-Baillon
included two artificial recharge tests (Thiéry et al.
2018). The results detailed in Armouri et al. Figure 12. A, B, C results from tensiometers installed at depths
between 1.5 and 25.5 m at the BRGM Warloy-Baillon
(2008a,b) and Thiéry et al. (2018), illustrated the
experimental site. The amplitude of matrix potential (hPa)
sudden increase in permeability (hydraulic evolution becomes less with depth. Locations of boreholes P2
conductivity) for suctions less than c.50 cm and the and P3 are shown in Figure 11. FLOOD 1 Project (Amraoui et
increase in porosity as fractures became al. 2008a, b; Thiéry et al. 2018).
conductive. One issue to be fully addressed at this
site is the type of chalk (in terms of CIRIA grade,
density and texture) and the nature of the fractures 3.5 Adding laboratory test results from
(whether clean chalk on chalk, clay-mineralised or FLOOD 1 to the ground profile: pore
filled etc.), in more detail than shown in Figure 12. structure, size range flow and permeability
To extrapolate the results widely across the chalk
aquifer these characteristics of the material and To address the need to know more about the
rock mass need to be known. Nevertheless, these behaviour of chalk material and as part of the
excellent experiments and results from Warloy- FLOOD 1 investigations, laboratory tensiometer
Baillon address one of Burland‟s 1990 key tests were carried out on a wide range of chalk
observations that in chalk „...it is its wide range of lithologies at the University of Brighton (Molyneux
matrix and fracture porosities and their subtle 2012). Samples were accurately located within the
interplay which controls behaviour…‟ (Burland stratigraphy and their lithology and index
1990, p.1).

16
 Mortimore

properties (Intact Dry Density (IDD)/porosity) ground profile and geomorphology. Has similar
were also recorded (Figures 13–15). Molyneux progress been made in recognising the geotechnical
illustrated that for samples with a similar properties in relation to geomorphology of the
IDD/porosity there can be 3 to 4 orders magnitude
variation in permeability (hydraulic conductivity)
K (m/day) and, therefore, index properties are not a
good index of permeability (Figures 13–14).
Molyneux (2012) also illustrated the influence of
marl seams on K and the distribution of K by
stratigraphical horizon (Figure 15) making the
point that detailed descriptions of lithology are
essential.
Applying laboratory tests to the field behaviour
of chalk in hydrogeology and engineering has
required an investigation of the matrix pore
structure and its interaction with fracture porosity
and permeability. A particular issue with chalk
material has been characterising its pore structure Figure 13. Three core samples from the Turonian Holywell and
in terms of pore size range and pore throat New Pit Chalk formations with similar high Intact Dry Density
sizes/interconnections. (IDD) and very different K values caused by the presence of
clastic marls (FLOOD 1 Project, Molyneux 2012).
Traditional methods including mercury, water or
gas intrusion techniques (Masson 1973; Price et al.
1976, 2000; Mortimore & Pomerol 1998) provided
uncertain results. Molyneux (2012) developed the
tensiometer method for measuring air entry and
drying curves and determining Soil Moisture
Condition (SMC). His results have provided a
more accurate measure of pore size range, median
pore diameter and established moisture storage and
flow thresholds. Of particular value is Molyneux‟s
demonstration of the importance of „film-flow‟ on
fracture surfaces in chalk. Following his illustration
that index properties of IDD and porosity are poor
indicators of chalk unsaturated behaviour
Molyneux suggests saturated hydraulic
conductivity is a better predictor. From his
laboratory tests he found significant intra-
Figure 14. Permeability (m/s) compared with Intact Dry Density
formational variations in Soil Moisture Condition (IDD Mg/m3) for 200 samples of chalk illustrating the poor
(SMC) and suggested that surface storage and correlation between the key index property, density, and
surface film mobility were significant processes permeability (FLOOD 1 Project, Molyneux 2012).
and dependent on the detailed material properties
of the chalk.
As Molyneux (2012) pointed out, the poor
correlation between density (IDD) and permeability
(Figures 13–15) does not invalidate density as an
index test. Density is a more „global‟ test on a
whole sample whereas permeability is influenced
by the test conditions and the small-scale
lithological variations within a sample such as thin,
wispy-grey marls. Density (assessed using the
CIRIA C574 guidelines, Lord et al. 2002) remains
a good guide to gross engineering behaviour of the
material.

3.6 Adding results from engineering projects to

the ground profile and geomorphology:
impact of lateral variation in sediments on
physical properties
As indicated above great progress has been made in
tying the hydraulic properties of chalk to the
Figure 15. Permeability (m/s) compared with lithostratigraphy
for samples of chalk taken from cores in the South Downs
Patcham Catchment illustrating ranges of permeability to expect
in the different Chalk lithologies in the region (FLOOD 1
Project, Molyneux 2012).

17
Engineering in Chalk
Chalk? Very few construction projects have
obtained the information necessary to link the
various facets of geomorphology and geotechnical
results together. Linear construction projects such
as road schemes, railways or pipelines offer the
best chance to obtain such information.
A particular effort was made to carry-out the
required research along the A27 Brighton Bypass
(Lamont-Black 1995; Mortimore,2012) and along
the line of the Channel Tunnel Rail Link in the
North Downs (Warren & Mortimore 2003).
The A27 Brighton Bypass in particular
illustrated the conspicuous differences in properties
and engineering behaviour between the east and
west of the 16 km project within the same
Newhaven Chalk Formation. To the east the
Newhaven Chalk was thinner, softer (low to
medium density) with no or few marl seams and
capped by residual, disturbed deposits of
Palaeogene sediments associated with a wide
variety of dissolution features. To the west, the
more than 50% thicker Newhaven Chalk contained
numerous marl seams and was significantly harder
(generally medium, high and very high density)
without any capping Palaeogene (Lamont-Black
1995; Mortimore 2012).
As a consequence, the ground engineering
profile for the A27 Brighton Bypass was heavily
influenced by original sedimentary processes
including tectonically controlled highs and lows on
the sea-floor (Mortimore et al. 1996; Mortimore
2018a, b) where thinner lower density material
formed over the chalk sea-bed highs. Conversely,
thicker successions in local chalk sea-floor basins
were areas where marl accumulated and higher
density chalk developed. Post-Cretaceous uplift
was greater in the east where erosion cut deeper
into the Chalk prior to Palaeogene sedimentation.
Weathering processes, including karst
development, was also influenced by this tectonic
setting with the eastern part much more affected by
dissolution weathering than the same age chalk to
the west.
The A27 Brighton Bypass example illustrates
the need to understand intra-formational variations
in lithology as well as the structural geology
controlling uplift or subsidence and controlling
where karstic features are likely to be present.
Hadlow et al. (2018) have taken the weathered
ground profile for chalk, based on borehole and
trial pit logs, from a number of linear engineering
projects and modelled the depth changes in CIRIA
grades. Their results provide a starting point for
predicting likely ground conditions in the Chalk
outcrop, results that need to be combined with the
lithostratigraphy, sedimentology and tectonic
setting.
18
3.7 Adding results from the offshore North Sea
shallow foundation engineering to the
ground profile and geomorphology
An area that has only relatively recently been
investigated is the offshore chalk geology of the
southern North Sea in relation to wind turbine
foundation design. Shallow seismic exploration has
illustrated a complex buried chalk landscape of
valleys and plateau beneath a variety of Quaternary
sediments (Davies et al. 2011; Mortimore & James
2015). Unlike linear road and rail projects,
boreholes drilled at wind turbine locations are
across a broad array and combined with
geophysical exploration, provide a three
dimensional view of potential ground conditions in
relation to „palaeo-geomorphology‟ (Mortimore &
James, 2015). In this offshore setting, field-scale
geotechnical and geophysical tests can be
compared with location in relation to
geomorphology and index properties of the chalk in
a way that is difficult to achieve in onshore settings
(Figures 16–17).
4 FRACTURING OF THE CHALK AND
CHALK-MASS DESCRIPTIONS AND
CLASSIFICATIONS
4.1 Fracturing and tectonics
There are several stages involved in the fracturing
of the Chalk. Primary fractures are frequently
illustrated in the context of a fold (e.g. Bloomfield
1996) using the Price (1966) model for folding in
layered carbonate rocks. Such a model supports the
assertion by Arkell (1936) that the primary sets of
fractures in the Chalk developed during folding in
the Purbeck fold of Dorset. This model is,
however, misleading. As Ameen (1990) and
Ameen and Cosgrove (1990) demonstrated the
primary fractures in the Chalk of the Purbeck fold
predated the main phase of folding in the Tertiary
and the early formed fractures have been
subsequently rotated in the fold. The pre-folding
development of fractures has also been shown for
the Chalk in the South Downs of Sussex and more
widely in the Paris Basin (Mortimore,2011).
Early formed fractures in the Chalk are typically
stratabound, particular styles of fracturing
characterising the individual Chalk formations
(Mortimore 1993, 2001, 2011, 2012, 2018).
Inclined conjugate fracture sets with mineralised,
polished surfaces are typical of formations with
marl seams where bedding plane- slip along marl
seams is common (e.g. Holywell, New Pit,
Newhaven Chalk Formations and Belle Tout Beds
in southern England and Paris Basin and the
Welton and Flamborough Chalk formations in
northern England). Vertical joint sets with clean
un-mineralised surfaces characterise the purer
white, homogeneous chalk formations (e,g. Seaford
 Mortimore

and Culver formations in the Anglo-Paris Basin
and Burnham Chalk Formation in the Northern
Province).
Recognising this distribution of fracture style
and surface structure is an aid to determining the
mechanical, hydrogeological and reservoir
behaviour of chalk (Foster & Milton 1976;
Mortimore 2001, 2012). Coastal cliff stability and
slope stability in quarries, in tunnel portal slopes
and road cuttings has been strongly influenced by
this fracture distribution (e.g. A26 Cuilfail Tunnel
portal areas Lewes (Figure 18), Mortimore (2012),
figures, 20–21; the cliffs at Beachy Head (Figure
19), Mortimore et al. (2004), figure 12). Also
common in

Figure 16. A typical southern North Sea sub-seabed ground profile along line A-B in Figure 3 illustrating valleys cut into the Chalk and
filled with a range of Quaternary sediments. CPT = boreholes with Cone Penetration Tests BH xx, BH yy and CPT zz are boreholes with
borehole numbers removed. IDD = Intact Dry Density (from Mortimore & James,2015).

Figure 17. Borehole P-wave velocity profiles illustrate the influence of the sub-seabed Chalk topography on depth of weathering and the
value of plotting geotechnical properties against the ground profile (geomorphology) shown in Figure 16 (from Mortimore and James,
2015).

19
Engineering in Chalk
Figure 18. Chalk-slope collapse at the north portal of the A26
Cuilfail Tunnel, Lewes in New Pit Chalk Formation with
inclined conjugate clay-mineralised polished, striated fractures.
(From Mortimore 2012).
Figure 19. Schematic illustration of the different fracture styles
associated with each Chalk formation at Beachy Head (strata-
bound fractures). Note the dihedral angle between the inclined
conjugate fractures is lithologically controlled. (From
Mortimore et al. 2004).
the Chalk are fracture zones, generally associated
with faults, which extend through the entire chalk
succession.
In other, tectonically complex areas such as the
Flamborough Fault Zone in the Yorkshire Chalk
Wolds (Starmer 1995), groundwater flows are
strongly influenced by tectonic structure (e.g. the
chalk stream Upper and Lower Gypsy Race in East
Yorkshire, Foster & Milton 1976).
4.2 Fracturing and weathering
Overprinting the early, primary fractures are those
produced by near surface weathering following
uplift of the Chalk and erosion (illustrated in
Mortimore 2014). The greatest impact of this late
stage fracturing has come from freeze-thaw cycles
during Quaternary cold periods in tundra-type
20
conditions (Williams 1980, 1987; Murton et al.
2016).
4.3. Description and classification of the chalk-
mass
Having recognised the origins of natural fractures
in the Chalk of north west Europe a key issue is
how to take this forward into engineering and
hydrogeology? This requires a staged approach,
firstly developing a methodology for description of
field sections, cores and geophysics (e.g. Burland
1990). Secondly, having got the descriptions how
to idealize and classify this profile for engineering?
As Burland 1990 stated „….prediction always
entails simplification and idealization in order to
make an analysis’.
As a result of the presentations and discussions
at the 1989 International Chalk Symposium
(Burland et al. 1990) a new method of description
and classification was developed which became the
CIRIA C574 standard (Lord et al. 2002). Before
publication of the CIRIA guidelines the methods of
description and classification were trialled on
several construction projects, especially the CTRL
(HS1 London Kings Cross to Folkestone, Warren
& Mortimore (2003)). The 2002 CIRIA C574
methods of description and classification have now
been taken forward and successfully applied to
both onshore and offshore construction projects
(Mortimore & James 2015).
A key objective remains consistency across
industry in terms of these descriptions and
classifications which has involved training on site
as well as training courses (Mortimore 2012, 2014).
As Burland indicated „… classification is not an
end in itself – it is intended to permit correlation
with physical mass properties and as an aid to
communication and specification. It is essential
that any classification be kept as simple as
possible…‟ Burland (1990).
The CIRIA C574 scheme has followed
Burland‟s recommendations and kept the chalk-
mass classification simple with a broad division
into destructured (grades Dm and Dc) and
structured chalk (subdivided into A, B, and C
grades based on fracture aperture). The essential
elements of BS5930: Eurocode 7 (2015 and
subsequent amendments) have been retained in the
fracture frequency divisions added to the CIRIA
Grades A to C. In addition to chalk-mass
descriptions and classifications a simple scheme
was required to describe chalk hardness or strength
and, if possible, relate this to microscopic bonded
structure.

5 MICROSCOPIC STRUCTURE – THE
MATRIX OF CHALK
It is the high porosity micro-fabric and bonding
within the matrix which distinguishes the chalk
from most other soils and rocks. (Burland 1990).
5.1 Hard and soft chalks, grain bonding a
texture index in white chalks
Following Black‟s 1953 identification of the
predominantly coccolthic composition of chalk
Hancock & Kennedy (1967) illustrated typical hard
and soft chalks with scanning electron microscope
(SEM) images. Grain bonding in chalk was
investigated in relation to mechanical properties
and purity (carbonate content) by Le Roux (1973).
Scholle (1974, 1977) described petrographical
features typical of hard and soft chalks and related
the descriptions to porosity (the corollary of
density).
In an attempt to advance the analysis of grain
bonding and overall micro-structure of chalk a
texture index was developed (Mortimore 1979;
Mortimore & Fielding 1990). This index relied on
analyses of SEM images of pure white chalks
(Figure 21) across a range of chalk lithologies
related to hardness/density and at a range of
magnifications. To arrive at the final six
characteristics used to define the Texture Index
(Figures 20–22) more than 100 features were
originally analysed (Mortimore 1979) and then
whittled down to just six.
These six features were considered to be the
most representative of variations found in white
chalk textures (Mortimore & Fielding 1990) and
provided the evidence for the interpretation of the
processes causing textural changes. For example,
increased uniformity of grain size was identified by
Bathurst (1975) as an index of progressive
recrystallization in carbonates. The high density
Northern Province chalks of the Lincolnshire and
Yorkshire Wolds (e.g. the Welton Chalk from the
Lincolnshire Wolds Figure 22E), show a higher
degree of grain size uniformity than their
stratigraphically equivalent Southern Province
lower density samples.
Subsequent work on clay-rich chalks from the
Channel Tunnel samples (Figure 22) investigated
percentage acid insoluble residue, intact dry density
(IDD) alongside textural analysis. Both weathered
Mortimore
and fresh samples from the West Melbury Marly
Chalk (formerly Chalk Marl) were analysed (Figure
22A, B, D for fresh samples; Figure 22G and H in
weathered samples). The results suggested that
grain roundness (the E or Euhedral character in the
texture index), was a good indicator of degree of
secondary alteration/weathering. Identifying the
degree of weathering in a chalk sample and how
weathering might alter the strength and engineering
behaviour remains a key issue in the Chalk.
5.2 Marly (clay mineral-rich chalks)
In the marly chalks the acid insoluble residue is a
guide to the percentage clay minerals present in the
sample. Figure 23 illustrates that density (IDD) is
not a good guide to clay content. The results also
illustrate the consistently high to very high density
limestone bands in the Grey Chalk across southern
England from Dover to the South Downs at Beachy
Head and inland at Southerham Grey Pit, Lewes.
These limestones are less pure carbonate compared
to the white chalk samples shown in the same plots
(Figure 22). Textural analyses show that these
limestones contain euhedral to subhedral calcite
grains that are „bonded‟ as well as clay mineral
flakes.
5.3 Microfacies analyses and relationships to
lithology, properties and fracture
development
Microfacies analyses of North Sea chalks in the
Ekofisk area (Leddra, Jones, Pederstad, & Lønøy
1990), illustrated the influence of lithological and
stratigraphical controls on fracture distribution,
cements (both silica and carbonate cements) and
mechanical behaviour of chalk (e.g. Figure 19).
Early cemented, higher density harder layers were
found to have increased fractures and stylolites
(similar to the hardground in Figure 20), giving
increased fracture porosity and permeability.
Similarly, the increased numbers of limestone
bands in the West Melbury Marly Chalk Formation
(Chalk Marl) encountered offshore during
construction of the Channel Tunnel (Harris 1996)
was associated with increased fracturing (in more
brittle limestones), which led to increased water
flow into the excavations over the critical chainage
between kilometre 20–25 on the Marine Service
Tunnel Drive (Crawley & Pollard 1992; Mortimore
& Pomerol 1996).
21
Engineering in Chalk

Figure 20. Illustration of the range of density (IDD), porosity and permeability present in a sample of chalk from a hardground (lithified
chalk sea-floor) containing early cemented harder parts which have preserved low density high porosity networks from later compaction.
The scanning electron microscope photographs show that the cemented sea-floor is a calcisphere-rich hardground with euhedral calcite pore-
filling crystal growth and overgrowth of coccoliths (grain bonding?). In contrast the low density burrow-fills have an open, high porosity
ground mass. The high and very high density hardground contains numerous microfractures similar to microfractures present in North Sea
reservoir hard chalks. (based on Mortimore & Pomerol 1998; Mortimore 2014).

22

Figure 21. The ultra-fine-grained pure carbonate particles that
constitute typical low and medium density high porosity „clean‟
chalks of North West Europe. A an overview of disaggregated
particles magnified in B to show a typical coccolith
(Watznaueria barnesiae). C (Predicosphaera cretacea) and
D are close-ups of overgrowths on the calcite grains that form
the coccolith. E Cribospheara ehrenbergii and F (Discorhabdus
ignotus) illustrate two further examples of the variety of
nannofossils that make the Chalk. Samples are from the
Newhaven Chalk Formation of Sussex. (All analyses and SEM
photographs carried out at the University of Brighton by the
author). (From Mortimore (2014) figure 1.8).
Mortimore
Figure 22. Marly chalks compared with pure coccolithic
carbonate chalks: A and B= sample CT14A very high density
calcareous marly chalk, subhedral grains, 14% clay minerals
IDD=2.20 Mg/m3 TI=31-33: C= sample CT15B high density
calcareous marly chalk euhedral coccolith grains 26% clay
minerals IDD=2.03 Mg/m3 TI=23-27: D= sample CT1B clayey
marly chalk subhedral to anhedral grains 38% clay minerals
IDD=1.96 Mg/m3 TI=19-22: E= sample CT12, hard, high
density, pure white chalk, Welton Formation north Lincolnshire
4% insoluble residue, few clay minerals, a „clean‟ chalk;
IDD=2.17 Mg/m3 TI = 40-41; note the euhedral, angular,
interpenetrating grains providing a strong framework to
maintain open pores: F= sample S1 limestone band in West
Melbury Marly Chalk, Southerham Grey Pit euhedral to
subhedral grains 8% clay minerals IDD=2.25 Mg/m3 TI=38-39:
G and H sample S2 weathered West Melbury Marly Chalk
Formation showing rounded, subhedral to anhedral grains with
bright edges to coccoliths and clay-flakes. (All analyses and
SEM photographs carried out at the University of Brighton by
the author). (From Mortimore (2014) figure 1.9).
23
Engineering in Chalk
Figure 23. Analyses of acid insoluble residue (% by weight) and
density (IDD) in clay-rich marls, marl-limestones and pure
chalks (>90% carbonate) from the Channel Tunnel, Beachy
Head and Southerham Grey Pit, Lewes in southern England. The
CIRIA IDD scale from low to very high density is also shown.
(Results based on Mortimore 2014).
5.4 New ways of characterising chalk texture:
high resolution SEM and fluid interaction
with pore structure: NMR, FIB-SEM
Other work on chalk textures has looked at ways of
numerically characterising the 3D microstructure
and its interaction with various fluids (water,
brines, hydrocarbons including gas). The objective
of this work firstly at Stavanger, Norway, was to
understand how pore-collapse and mobilisation of
chalk in North Sea reservoirs takes place (Madland
et al. 2006, 2009, 2011). Other research in Belgium
developed a new method of microtextural analysis
24
using low-field NMR (Nuclear Magnetic
Resonance) combined with petrological and
petrophysical techniques (Faÿ-Gomord et al. 2016,
2017), and developing a diagenesis index
(Descamps et al. 2017). These techniques have
provided further insights into pore networks and
potential controls on fluid flow in the chalk matrix.
5.5 Chalk lithofacies mapping
As well as textures related to calcareous
nannofossils (the ultrafine matrix) chalk can
contain a range of other carbonate particles (Sorby
1879; Black 1953, 1980) illustrated by Bromley
(1979; Figure 24).
Figure 24. Bromley‟s 1979 illustration of the size range and
origin of the carbonate fraction of Chalk. The matrix of white
chalks comprises >95% ultra-fine fraction derived primarily
from calcareous nannofossils (coccoliths and coccolith debris).
A bonded and granular material (Burland 1990) (generally a
calcilutite with rare bands of calcarenite except in shelf areas
where calcarenites are common).
Offshore in North Sea chalk, Hampton et al.
(2010) mapped facies related to micro and
nannofossils in the Eldfisk field which in turn
influenced compaction and physical properties. Of
particular interest were the horizons with abundant
radiolarians (composed of silica microspherules)
which had withstood compaction and retained
porosity. Other horizons in the southern North Sea
comprised abundant entire and fragmented
inoceramid bivalve shells (Mortimore & James
2015). Onshore in England and the Paris Basin
similar inoceramid-rich shell beds are present in the
Holywell Chalk Formation (the Grit Beds) and at
other horizons (Black 1980). In other areas, fine-
grained basinal chalks grade laterally into coarser
grit beds on shelf areas. Lithofacies are also a
response to sea-level changes during the Late
Cretaceous (e.g. the coarser Lewes Nodular Chalk
Formation in England formed during a period of
relative lowering of sea-level, Mortimore (2011)).
Whether a clay-mineral-rich marly formation, a
coarser calcarenite, or a very fine-grained
nannofossil micrite (carbonate mudstone), chalk in
engineering terms has been shown to behave like a

bonded, granular material (Burland 1990; Vaughan
1990). Micro-structural analyses have been directed
towards identifying the grain bonds and the
geological settings causing differences in
lithofacies and bonding (e.g. the Texture Index,
Mortimore & Fielding (1990) and high resolution
SEM studies of grain bonding, Madland et al.
(2009)). Illustrations of the differences between
„bonding‟ and „cementation‟ would be helpful.
6. DISCUSSION
Progress has been made since the 1989
International Chalk Symposium in Brighton
towards modelling chalk in all fields from its
macro-field structure to its microstructure in the
contexts of hydrogeology, hydrocarbon reservoirs
and construction.
A major advance is the mapping of the Chalk in
England by the British Geological Survey (BGS).
In parallel, the development of GSI3D modelling
by BGS is progressively allowing more strata
changes and faults to be incorporated in the models
(e.g. Hadlow 2012). Further developments will
make it possible for groundwater and geotechnical
properties to be introduced into these models
increasing the relevance of this work to engineering
and hydrogeology.
Some of this broad-scale modelling has been
incorporated into aquifer models (Soley et al. 2012)
and detailed groundwater flow characteristics
(Mathias et al. 2005, 2006, 2016; Ireson & Buttler
2009, 2011, 2012, 2013; Jarvis et al. 2016) as well
as engineering behaviour. Combining
geomorphological surface modelling with
formation mapping and defining the depths of
rockhead (Hadlow et al. 2018) is an aid to
predicting probable ground conditions. The
FLOOD 1 experimental sites in France and
England have provided particularly valuable
information on the dual role of matrix and fractures
controlling the behaviour of chalk (Amraoui et al.
2008a, b; Thiéry et al. 2018; Molyneux, 2012).
Such results should also be applied to shallow
depth engineering situations.
If chalk is a bonded, granular material (Burland
1990), it would be useful to know what sort of
grains are present and what types of bonds occur
between grains and how this concept differs from
„cementation‟. A well-known but poorly
understood property of chalk is its ability to
disaggregate to fines (putty chalk) and then re-
cement (re-bond) to a rock-like consistency (around
piles in foundations (Lord et al. 1994; 2002), in
earthworks embankments (Lord et al. 2002), on
spoil conveyors on the Channel Tunnel and in
North Sea reservoirs such as Ekofisk (Scholle
1977). Pore-collapse or pore-retention also affects
the aquifer properties in terms of fluid flow through
the aquifer. Possibly the first mechanical analyses
Mortimore
of chalk was carried out by Black (1980). Black‟s
unpublished research on the composition of chalk
identified the grain size distribution in four
different chalk lithologies including soft white
chalk (Black 1980; Jeans & Rawson 1980).
The very fine-grained nature of chalk meant that
the normal optical microscope investigations used
to study bonding and cementation in other coarser-
grained rocks could not be used on chalk. It took
Black‟s work using a transmission electron
microscope to re-establish that chalk was a
biogenic-rock, formed primarily of marine algae,
the coccoliths (Black 1953), following the work of
Sorby (1879) which had largely been forgotten in
the early part of the 20th Century. The advent of
the scanning electron microscope provided 3D
images of chalk textures illustrating the difference
between hard and soft chalks (Hancock & Kennedy
1967; Scholle 1974). Rather than simply providing
images of different chalks an attempt was made to
quantify the images following a standard
petrographical method used for thin section
analyses of carbonate rocks (Folk 1959, 1962) by
estimating characters present in SEM images at a
range of magnifications per sample (Mortimore
1979; Mortimore & Fielding 1990). The values
given to each character in the samples were
summed to provide a Texture Index (TI) to
compare against an index property, density (IDD).
The indices of compaction and uniformity of grain
size had the best coefficients of correlation with
density. Angularity of grains had the least
correlation with density partly because fresh,
unaltered, weakly compacted coccolith grains had
high angularity indices. For each category of chalk,
based on hardness from extremely soft through a
range of hardnesses/densities to extremely hard, the
key features of the texture were identified and
described. Clay-mineral-rich, marly-chalks were
treated separately. A standard set of 51 samples,
carefully selected from many hundreds, were
chosen to represent the range of lithologies and
hardnesses/densities found from field and
laboratory studies of chalk (Mortimore & Fielding
1990).
A texture index provided a way of classifying
the range of sub-microscopic petrographical
features present in chalk and, in combination with
the field context, provided part of the explanation
for diagenetic processes (Bathurst 1975) and
potential differences in engineering behaviour. To
obtain a better understanding of the diagenetic
history of chalk and the nature of
bonding/cementation a different approach was
required. Microprobe analyses of individual calcite
crystals contained in cavities in chalk offered a way
into such an investigation. The results from
microprobe analyses illustrated the number of
phases and chemistry involved in cementation of
chalk and also provided an explanation for the
25
Engineering in Chalk
colour of chalk (generally white, sometimes red
and shades of green) and the clay mineral
assemblages present in a sample (Jeans,1980; Jeans
et al. 2012, 2014, 2015; Hu et al. 2014).T hese
phases of cementation suggest a different process
to the ionic „bonding‟ indicated below.
Very high resolution electron microscopy
research on chalk at the IRIS Research Institute of
Stavanger, Norway, identified grain bonding in the
highest porosity/ lowest density materials at the
atomic level as Van der Waals bonds. Although
very strong, these bonds were capable of being
broken by the addition of water molecules with
various ionic compositions and then re-bond as
water molecules were removed (Korsnes et al.
2006; Madland et al. 2009, 2011; Madland pers.
comm.; Megawati et al. 2009). For the first time
these observations and results from Norway show
the importance of a molecular layer of water in the
grain-bonding of chalk.
These results also fit with the field observation
that chalk disaggregates to watery-fines when
subjected to mechanical stress and the released
pore-water maintains „spongey‟ conditions until
water has drained away or evaporated at which
point the material re-bonds. With the advent of
more advanced scanning electron microscopes
which do not require high vacuum pressures or
sample coating, a more natural view of chalk is
proving possible, uninfluenced by the electron
beam disturbance of particles or sample charging.
These technical advances will allow many more
samples of ultra-fine-grained chalk to be analysed
faster and more cheaply leading to a better
understanding of the granular variation in chalk as
well as bonding and bonding behaviour. Water
molecule bonding may not be the only processes
causing the higher density varieties of chalk as
several phases of „cementation‟ have been
recognised by Jeans (1980) and Jeans et al (2012,
2014, 2014) in Northern Province chalks. It seems
possible that phases of deep circulating fluid flow,
activated by tectonic episodes in the northern
chalks, may also have played an important role in
diagenesis including phases of cementation (Faÿ-
Gomrod et al. 2018).
As more analyses of different chalks are
reported a greater range of variation in constituents
is being recognised at bed level resolution (e.g. the
unexpected presence of volcanic material including
feldspars in the Newhaven Chalk Formation at
Peacehaven Steps, Sussex (Wray & Jeans, 2014).
These variations in composition would be expected
to in turn affect mechanical properties. Hampton et
al. (2010) recorded horizons with abundant silica
spherules which have resisted compaction and
retained high porosities in North Sea chalks.
Similar horizons probably occur in the onshore
chalks as samples rich in silica spherules were
found in the New Pit Chalk and Lewes Nodular
26
Chalk formations in Sussex (Mortimore 1979). It is
also possible that silica-spherule horizons in the
Chalk are of volcanic origin as suggested by Pacey
(1984) for volcanic glass found in some marl seams
in the Chalk.
A bed-level resolution is increasingly the
requirement in many aspects of the applied geology
of chalk. Variations in index properties such as
porosity and density in seemingly similar chalks
may be reflecting compositional changes that are
generally not identified when undertaking standard
site investigation laboratory tests. This illustrates
the need to integrate all aspects of chalk geology
with geotechnical testing to arrive at a consistent
measure of properties including density (IDD)
where in-sample variation (Lamont-Black and
Mortimore, 1996) may reflect in-sample
compositional variations.
7. CONCLUSIONS
New British Geological Survey maps (Aldiss et al.
2012) are the crucial basis for future modelling of
the Chalk onshore for hydrogeology and
engineering. Offshore lithofacies mapping requires
a detailed, sophisticated approach using micro- and
nannofossils (Hampton et al. 2010). Integrate these
two approaches and there will be a much better
understanding of the distribution of large-scale
lithofacies and microfacies across north west
Europe (onshore and offshore), the essential first
requirement for understanding chalk behaviour as a
reservoir and engineering material.
Investigating, describing and classifying
microfacies has taken several approaches
including:
i. Characterising different „soft‟ chalks in
terms of constituents in relation to effective
settling diameter of particles (a particle size
distribution, Black (1980); Scholle (1974)).
Black also recognised that different species
of coccoliths with different shapes and sizes
contributed greatly to matrix particle size
variations.
ii. Deriving a texture index based on six key
petrographical characteristics of nannofossil
chalks and marly chalks (Mortimore &
Fielding (1990); Mortimore (2014)).
iii. Producing 3D images of porosity and pore-
throat dimensions using NMR and FIB-
SEM (Faÿ-Gomord et al. 2016, 2017, 2018),
and developing a diagenetic index for marly
„tight‟ chalks and white chalks (Descamps et
al. (2017;)) Faÿ-Gomord et al. (2018)).
iv. Using laboratory tensiometres to measure
air entry pressure changes on more than 200
chalk core samples selected for their range
of lithology and stratigraphy (Molyneux
2012).

There is a need to interlink the various studies
on microfacies which, because they have been
carried out in different disciplines and different
laboratories, show little integration despite
covering the same broad fields of investigation.
Following the 1989 International Chalk
Symposium in Brighton a descriptive and
classification scheme for chalk in engineering was
published as the CIRIA chalk grades (Lord et al.
2002). The scheme followed two key
recommendations from Burland (1990):
i. With respect to the chalk-mass (fracture
aperture and spacing) „…any classification be
kept as simple as possible.‟
ii. With respect to material properties and classes
separate „a qualitative scale of hardness‟
(rather than strength) from a description and
classification of fracturing and weatherin
„...strength is too easily misused‟.
It was subsequently agreed that the CIRIA grade
classification would indeed be simple with a Grade
D representing destructured material either matrix
(Dm) or clast (Dc) dominated and Grades A to C
representing a structured rock mass with apertures
open and usually filled (Grade C) to closed (Grade
A).
It was also subsequently agreed that the scale of
hardness should become a density scale.
Identification of „field‟ density (low medium, high
and very high) could be relatively easily achieved
by simple hand pressure or indentation tests using a
geological pick or six inch nail.
The CIRIA descriptions and classifications for
chalk fracturing and density have now been used
extensively across Europe and found to work for
offshore wind turbine construction in the North
Sea, Baltic and English Channel (Mortimore &
James 2015) as well as onshore for all major
construction projects . There are regular attempts to
„force‟ a Eurocode strength classification on chalk
descriptions and classes. Such strength classes, as
Burland (1990) recognised, are frequently misused
and do not adequately represent engineering
behaviour of chalk. It took ten years of trialling the
descriptions and classifications on projects such as
HS1 (CTRL) before being fully implemented as a
standard for chalk, replacing the previous standard
set at Mundford, Norfolk (Ward et al. 1968). It is
doubtful whether future work will be as
comprehensive so this scheme should not be
discarded lightly. There is always a need to test out
any scheme continuously to make sure it remains
valid in providing the information necessary for
engineering design. The best results using the
CIRIA scheme have been obtained if training has
been undertaken at the beginning of each contract
and follow-up check-logging/training carried out
during the contract. The ultimate objective is
reliable, consistent descriptions and classifications
across all disciplines working in chalk.
Mortimore
A major advance has been made in recognising
that water molecules control the bonded behaviour
of some chalk (Van der Waals bonds; Krosnes et al.
2006; Madland et al. 2009, 2011). This Norwegian
chalk hydrocarbon reservoir research also helps
explain the behaviour of chalk in onshore
engineering foundations and earthworks. Further
work is needed to see if water molecule bonding is
the only process involved in all chalks or whether
the harder, higher density chalks are „bonded‟ by
other forms of cementation. These other forms of
cement include overgrowths and pore-filling as
suggested by the phases of cementation identified
by Jeans (1980), Jeans et al. (2012, 2014) and, in
some chalk, recrystallisation.
Chalk hydrogeology research at the laboratory
sample scale has illustrated that density (IDD), the
key index property used to classify chalk, is not a
good indicator of material permeability (K) but is
sufficiently robust for general classification
purposes (Molyneux 2012). Molyneux suggested
that saturated hydraulic conductivity was a better
measure of K.
The FLOOD 1 experimental site at Warloy-
Baillon in the Hallue Catchment, Somme Basin,
France where cored boreholes have been combined
with an instrumented unsaturated zone, has
provided excellent results for characterising the
shallow-depth ground profile for both
hydrogeology and engineering (Armouri et al.
2008a, b; Thiéry et al. 2018).
There are still gaps in our knowledge and
understanding of chalk in its many applied facets.
One topic area is evaluating in situ stress conditions
and the stress history of chalk for various design
purposes. The work of Vandycke (2002), Vandycke
& Bergerat (1992, 2001), is particularly relevant
and illustrates that systematic measurements of
fractures in chalk can be used to evaluate stress
history of chalk (Duperret et al. 2012).
Burland (1990) identified that for chalk „...it is
its wide range of matrix and fracture porosities and
their subtle interplay which controls behaviour…‟
(in a wide variety of applications including pile
installation, cofferdam excavation, grouting and
ground treatment as well as hydrogeology).
Burland‟s observations have helped focus research
undertaken since 1990 which has greatly advanced
understanding of this interplay between matrix and
fracture porosities and the nature of chalk as a
bonded granular material. The role of water in the
bonding process and in the breakdown of bonds has
also been recognised. The advances made have
come from a multidisciplinary and multi-national
effort. Future research needs to take more account
of similar work being carried out at a number of
laboratories but in different disciplines.
27
Engineering in Chalk
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
This review paper draws heavily on the work of
others especially papers from the 1990 Chalk
Symposium and from more recent research from
colleagues in Norway, Denmark, Belgium and
France as well as the U.K. Jon Holliday, Trevor
Warman, David Pearce, and David Pope are
thanked for their technical support.
A number of research programmes and research
students have contributed. John Lamont-Black‟s
PhD research during construction of the A27
Brighton Bypass was an EPSRC (SERC) Case
Award supported by L.G. Mouchel and Partners.
Fiona Cumming‟s and Mike Millar‟s PhDs were
supported by EPSRC, Halcrow Group, Mott
MacDonald, Southern Water and Union Railways.
AMEC Tunnelling supported Tim Wright‟s
research on the Ipswich Orwell Tunnel. James
Lawrence‟s PhD was supported by European
INTERREG II (ROCC), European 5th Framework
(PROTECT) funding with the British Geological
Survey (BGS), the French Geological Survey
(BRGM), Geological Survey of Greenland and
Denmark (GEUS) and Brighton and Hove City
Council. Ian Molyneux‟s and Neill Hadlow‟s PhDs
on the FLOOD 1 project were supported by a
European INTERREG IIIA grant and by BGS,
BRGM, Southern Water, Black and Veatch,
Halcrow Group, Southern Testing, East Sussex Fire
and Rescue Service and Brighton and Hove City
Council.
A special thanks to the CIRIA Engineering in
Chalk team for taking forward research into
practice including John Burland, Andrew Lord, Fin
Jardine, Chris Clayton and David Patterson and,
equally, a special thanks to the research teams from
BGS, BRGM, GEUS and industry whose
enthusiasm and support has made chalk research a
great experience.
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