Course Title: Research Methods in Mass Communication I

Course Code: 5629

Submitted to: Mr. Muhammad Shahbaz Dar
Submitted By: Momina Israr
Roll Number: CA565162
Q.1 Explain steps involved in scientific method of Research Process?

Scientific Methods
Psychologists use the scientific method to conduct their research. The Scientific Method is a
Standardized way of making observations, gathering data, forming theories, testing predictions,
and interpreting results.
Researchers make observations in order to describe and measure behavior. After observing certain
events repeatedly, researchers come up with a theory that explains these observations.
A Theory is an explanation that organizes separate pieces of information In a coherent way.
Researchers generally develop a theory only after they have collected a lot of evidence and made
sure their research results can be reproduced by others.

Example: A psychologist observes that some college sophomores date a lot, while others do not.
He observes that some sophomores have blond hair, while others have brown hair. He also
observes that in most sophomore couples at least one person has brown hair. In addition, he notices
that most of his brown-haired friends date regularly, but his blond friends don’t date much at all.
He explains these observations by theorizing that brown-haired sophomores are more likely to date
than those who have blond hair. Based on this theory, he develops a hypothesis that more brown-
haired sophomores than blond sophomores will make dates with people they meet at a party. He
then conducts an experiment to test his hypothesis. In his experiment, he has twenty people go to
a party, ten with blond hair and ten with brown hair. He makes observations and gathers data by
watching what happens at the party and counting how many people of each hair color actually
make dates. If, contrary to his hypothesis, the blond-haired people make more dates, he’ll have to
think about why this occurred and revise his theory and hypothesis. If the data he collects from
further experiments still do not support the hypothesis, he’ll have to reject his theory.

Featured on Spark notes

Making Research Scientific
Psychological research, like research in other fields, must meet certain criteria in order to be
considered scientific. Research must be:
 Replicable
  Falsifiable
 Precise
 Parsimonious
 Research Must Be Replicable
Research is Replicable when others can repeat it and get the same results. When psychologists
report what they have found through their research, they also describe in detail how they made
their discoveries. This way, other psychologists can repeat the research to see if they can replicate
the findings.

After psychologists do their research and make sure it’s replicable, they develop a theory and
translate the theory into a precise hypothesis. A Hypothesis is a testable prediction of what will
happen given a certain set of conditions. Psychologists test a hypothesis by using a specific
research method, such as Naturalistic Observation, a Case Study, a Survey, or an Experiment. If
the test does not confirm the hypothesis, the psychologist revises or rejects the original theory.
A good theory must do two things: organize many observations in a logical way and allow
researchers to come up with clear predictions to check the theory.

Research Must Be Falsifiable

A good theory or hypothesis also must be Falsifiable, which means that it must be stated in a way
that makes it possible to reject it. In other words, we have to be able to prove a theory or hypothesis
wrong. Theories and hypotheses need to be falsifiable because all researchers can succumb to the
confirmation bias. Researchers who display Confirmation Bias look for and accept evidence that
supports what they want to believe and ignore or reject evidence that refutes their beliefs.
Example: Some people theorize that the Loch Ness Monster not only exists but has become
intelligent enough to elude detection by hiding in undiscovered, undetectable, underwater caves.
This theory is not falsifiable. Researchers can never find these undiscovered caves or the monster
that supposedly hides in them, and they have no way to prove this theory wrong.
By stating hypotheses precisely, psychologists ensure that they can replicate their own and others’
research. To make hypotheses more precise, psychologists use operational definitions to define the
variables they study. Operational Definitions state exactly how a variable will be measured.
Example: A psychologist conducts an experiment to find out whether toddlers are happier in
warm weather or cool weather. She needs to have an operational definition of happiness so that
she can measure precisely how happy the toddlers are. She might operationally define happiness
as “the number of smiles per hour.”

Research Must Be Parsimonious

The Principle of Parsimony, also called Occam’s razor, maintains that researchers should apply
the simplest explanation possible to any set of observations. For instance, psychologists try to
explain results by using well-accepted theories instead of elaborate new hypotheses. Parsimony
prevents psychologists from inventing and pursuing outlandish theories.
Parsimony
Parsimonious means “being thrifty or stingy.” A person who values parsimony will apply the
thriftiest or most logically economical explanation for a set of phenomena.

Example: Suppose a student consistently falls asleep in her statistics class. She theorizes that
before each class, her statistics professor secretly sprays her seat with a nerve gas that makes her
very drowsy. If she had applied the principle of parsimony, she would not have come up with this
theory. She can account for her sleepiness with a much simpler and more likely explanation: she
finds statistics boring.
Q.2 What are the criteria of selecting a good research topic? Illustrate the
criteria by giving your own example.
The following steps outline a simple and effective strategy for writing a research paper. Depending
on your familiarity with the topic and the challenges you encounter along the way, you may need
to rearrange these steps.
Step 1: Identify and develop your topic
Selecting a topic can be the most challenging part of a research assignment. Since this is the very
first step in writing a paper, it is vital that it be done correctly. Here are some tips for selecting a
topic:
Select a topic within the parameters set by the assignment. Many times your instructor will give
you clear guidelines as to what you can and cannot write about. Failure to work within these
guidelines may result in your proposed paper being deemed unacceptable by your instructor.
Select a topic of personal interest to you and learn more about it. The research for and writing of
a paper will be more enjoyable if you are writing about something that you find interesting.
Select a topic for which you can find a manageable amount of information. Do a preliminary search
of information sources to determine whether existing sources will meet your needs. If you find too
much information, you may need to narrow your topic; if you find too little, you may need to
broaden your topic.
Be original. Your instructor reads hundreds of research papers every year, and many of them are
on the same topics (topics in the news at the time, controversial issues, subjects for which there is
ample and easily accessed information). Stand out from your classmates by selecting an interesting
and off-the-beaten-path topic.
Still can't come up with a topic to write about? See your instructor for advice. Once you have
identified your topic, it may help to state it as a question. For example, if you are interested in
finding out about the epidemic of obesity in the American population, you might pose the question
"What are the causes of obesity in America?" By posing your subject as a question you can more
easily identify the main concepts or keywords to be used in your research.
Step 2: Do a preliminary search for information
Before beginning your research in earnest, do a preliminary search to determine whether there is
enough information out there for your needs and to set the context of your research. Look up your
keywords in the appropriate titles in the library's Reference collection (such as encyclopedias and
dictionaries) and in other sources such as our catalog of books, periodical databases, and Internet
search engines.
Additional background information may be found in your lecture notes, textbooks, and reserve
readings. You may find it necessary to adjust the focus of your topic in light of the resources
available to you.
Step 3: Locate materials
With the direction of your research now clear to you, you can begin locating material on your
topic. There are a number of places you can look for information:
If you are looking for books, do a subject search in the Alephcatalog. A Keyword search can be
performed if the subject search doesn't yield enough information. Print or write down the citation
information (author, title,etc.) and the location (call number and collection) of the item(s). Note
the circulation status. When you locate the book on the shelf, look at the books located nearby;
similar items are always shelved in the same area. The Aleph catalog also indexes the library's
audio-visual holdings.

Use the library's electronic periodical databases to find magazine and newspaper articles. Choose
the databases and formats best suited to your particular topic; ask at the librarian at the Reference
Desk if you need help figuring out which database best meets your needs. Many of the articles in
the databases are available in full-text format.

Use search engines (Google, Yahoo, etc.) and subject directories to locate materials on the Internet.
Check the Internet Resources section of the NHCC Library web site for helpful subject links.

Step 4: Evaluate your sources

See the CARS Checklist for Information Quality for tips on evaluating the authority and quality
of the information you have located. Your instructor expects that you will provide credible,
truthful, and reliable information and you have every right to expect that the sources you use are
providing the same. This step is especially important when using Internet resources, many of which
are regarded as less than reliable.
Step 5: Make notes
Consult the resources you have chosen and note the information that will be useful in your paper.
Be sure to document all the sources you consult, even if you there is a chance you may not use that
particular source. The author, title, publisher, URL, and other information will be needed later
when creating a bibliography.

Step 6: Write your paper

Begin by organizing the information you have collected. The next step is the rough draft, wherein
you get your ideas on paper in an unfinished fashion. This step will help you organize your ideas
and determine the form your final paper will take. After this, you will revise the draft as many
times as you think necessary to create a final product to turn in to your instructor.

Step 7: Cite your sources properly

Give credit where credit is due; cite your sources.
Citing or documenting the sources used in your research serves two purposes: it gives proper credit
to the authors of the materials used, and it allows those who are reading your work to duplicate
your research and locate the sources that you have listed as references. The MLA and the APA
Styles are two popular citation formats.
Failure to cite your sources properly is plagiarism. Plagiarism is avoidable!

Step 8: Proofread
The final step in the process is to proofread the paper you have created. Read through the text and
check for any errors in spelling, grammar, and punctuation. Make sure the sources you used are
cited properly. Make sure the message that you want to get across to the reader has been thoroughly
stated.
Q.3 What is problem statement in research? Explain the significance of
problem statement for any research study and elaborate the techniques of
stating research problem.

A problem statement, also known as a statement of the problem, is a description of the research
problem. It provides the context for the research paper and states the questions that the research
intends to answer. In short, this statement encapsulates the central focus of your research.

The first and most important step in any research is to identify and delineate the research problem:
that is, what the researcher wants to solve and what questions he/she wishes to answer. A research
problem may be defined as an area of concern, a gap in the existing knowledge, or a deviation in
the norm or standard that points to the need for further understanding and investigation. Although
many problems turn out to have several solutions (the means to close the gap or correct the
deviation), difficulties arise where such means are either not obvious or are not immediately
available. This then necessitates some research to reach a viable solution.

A statement of the problem is used in research work as a claim that outlines the problem addressed
by a study. The statement of the problem briefly addresses the question: What is the problem that
the research will address?

What are the goals of a statement of the problem?

The ultimate goal of a statement of the problem is to transform a generalized problem (something
that bothers you; a perceived lack) into a targeted, well-defined problem; one that can be resolved
through focused research and careful decision-making.

Writing a statement of the problem should help you clearly identify the purpose of the research
project you will propose. Often, the statement of the problem will also serve as the basis for the
introductory section of your final proposal, directing your reader’s attention quickly to the issues
that your proposed project will address and providing the reader with a concise statement of the
proposed project itself.

What are the key characteristics of a statement of the problem?

A good research problem should have the following characteristics:

It should address a gap in knowledge.

It should be significant enough to contribute to the existing body of research

It should lead to further research

The problem should render itself to investigation through collection of data

It should be of interest to the researcher and suit his/her skills, time, and resources

The approach towards solving the problem should be ethical

What are the techniques for stating of research problem?

A persuasive statement of problem is usually written in three parts:

Part A (The ideal): Describes a desired goal or ideal situation; explains how things should be.

Part B (The reality): Describes a condition that prevents the goal, state, or value in Part A
from being achieved or realized at this time; explains how the current situation falls short of the
goal or ideal.

Part C (The consequences): Identifies the way you propose to improve the current situation
and move it closer to the goal or ideal.

Here is an example:

Statement 1

The Ministry of Youth is dedicated to allocating enterprise development funds to both the youth
and women. These funds are made available in order to start entrepreneurial ventures that create
and expand employment. (Provide relevant statistics and quote)

Statement 2

One of the main focuses of the ministry is consistency. Unfortunately, consistency in allocating
funds to the next generation of recipients requires prior knowledge of previous allocations and
established practices. The current continuous disbursement method does not allow for adequate
analysis of previous disbursements before a current disbursement is done.
Statement 3

Continuing with this current disbursement method prevents consistency and causes decisions to
become grossly political, which in turn inhibits the achievement of the goals of the funds.
Developing a more informed disbursement system could help better implement the consistency
focus of the ministry and at the same time help the ministry better monitor and evaluate its funds.

This proposed research aspires to explore options for a new funds disbursement system that would
focus on consistency. To do this, the researcher will carry out a full stakeholder analysis and use
it to propose appropriate policy interventions.
Q.4 What is a variable in research? How a variable is different from concept
and construct? Discuss the various kinds of variables.

A variable is, as the name applies, something that varies. A variable is any property,
characteristic, number, or a quantity that increases or decreases over time or can take on different
values (as opposed to constants, such as n, that do not vary) in different situations. When
conducting research, experiments often manipulate variables. For example, an experimenter
might compare the effectiveness of four types of fertilizers.

In this case, the variable is the ‘type of fertilizers.’ A social scientist may examine the possible
effect of early marriage on divorce. Her early marriage is the variable.

Examples of Variable

These are all examples of variables because each of these properties varies or differs from one
individual to another.

 Age,
 sex,
 export,
 income and expenses,
 family size,
 country of birth,
 capital expenditure,
 class grades,
 blood pressure readings,
 preoperative anxiety levels,
 eye color, and
 Vehicle type.

Difference between variable, concept and construct.

A variable, in research is simply that factor or element that can be controlled, changed or measured.
In investigating a phenomenon or doing an experiment, after identifying the research questions,
we look at the variables at play. Then we design our research or experiment around them.

There are 4 types of variables but there are 2 main ones - independent and dependent. According
to Kwan & Wolf, constructs, simply put is a concept or an idea that has added meaning in that it
has been creatively, deliberately and consciously invented or adopted for a scientific purpose. For
example, we can say that 'society' is a construct, an idea that theorizes that human beings, living
together influence each other through social dynamics and is the basis of culture, language,
creation of belief systems as well as enforcement of ways of thinking, doing and living. Concept,
A general idea or understanding of something constructs are based on hypothetical knowledge. A
theory that is not based on facts is a construct. When there is factual evidence, it is a concept.
These theories are based on facts.

Various kinds of variables

Typically, there will be an independent variable, dependent variable, and control variable in

every experiment or study conducted.

 Independent variables. Independent variables are the variables in your experiment

that are being manipulated. They are referred to as independent variables due to the fact

that their value is independent of other variables, which means that the other variables

cannot change the independent variable.

They can, however, change the other variables in your experiment. They are sometimes

referred to as an experimental variable or a predictor variable and are the cause in the

cause and effect.

 Dependent variables. Dependent variables are the variables in your experiment that

rely on other variables and can be changed or manipulated by the other variables being

measured.
 They are the effect in the cause and effect and are sometimes referred to as the outcome

variable. Those conducting the experiments will usually attempt to determine what causes

this variable to change and how it is affected.

 Control variables. Control variables are the variables in your experiment that are

constant. They do not change over the course of the experiment or study and will have no

direct effect on the other variables being measured.

Control variables are not technically part of the experiment, but they can help ensure

more accurate results and actually make it easier to reproduce the experiment or study.
Q.5 Highlight the differences between the various levels of measurement.
Data is a valuable asset – so much so that it’s the world’s most valuable resource. That makes
understanding the different types of data – and the role of a data scientist – more important than
ever. In the business world, more companies are trying to understand big numbers and what they
can do with them. Expertise in data is in high demand. Determining the right data and measurement
scales enables companies to organize, identify, analyses and ultimately use data to inform
strategies that will allow them to make a genuine impact.
Qualitative data refers to information about qualities, or information that cannot be measured. It’s
usually descriptive and textual. Examples include someone’s eye color or the type of car they
drive. In surveys, it’s often used to categories ‘yes’ or ‘no’ answers.

Quantitative data is numerical. It’s used to define information that can be counted. Some examples
of quantitative data include distance, speed, height, length and weight. It’s easy to remember the
difference between qualitative and quantitative data, as one refers to qualities, and the other refers
to quantities.

Discrete data
Discrete data is a whole number that can’t be divided or broken into individual parts, fractions or
decimals. Examples of discrete data include the number of pets someone has – one can have two
dogs but not two-and-a-half dogs. The number of wins someone’s favorite team gets is also a form
of discrete data because a team can’t have a half win – it’s either a win, a loss, or a draw.

Continuous data
Continuous data describes values that can be broken down into different parts, units, fractions and
decimals. Continuous data points, such as height and weight, can be measured. Time can also be
broken down – by half a second or half an hour. Temperature is another example of continuous
data.

Discrete versus continuous

There’s an easy way to remember the difference between the two types of quantitative data: data
is considered discrete if it can be counted and is continuous if it can be measured. Someone can
count students, tickets purchased and books, while one measures height, distance and temperature.

What is qualitative (categorical) data?

Qualitative data describes the qualities of data points and is non-numerical. It’s used to define the
information and can also be further broken down into sub-categories through the four scales of
measurement.
Types of data, Quantitative vs Qualitative
Properties and scales of measurement Scales of measurement is how variables are defined and
categorized. Psychologist Stanley Stevens developed the four common scales of measurement:
nominal, ordinal, interval and ratio. Each scale of measurement has properties that determine how
to properly analyze the data. The properties evaluated are identity, magnitude, equal intervals and
a minimum value of zero.

Properties of Measurement
Identity: Identity refers to each value having a unique meaning.
Magnitude: Magnitude means that the values have an ordered relationship to one another, so
there is a specific order to the variables.

Equal intervals: Equal intervals mean that data points along the scale are equal, so the
difference between data points one and two will be the same as the difference between data points
five and six.

A minimum value of zero: A minimum value of zero means the scale has a true zero point.
Degrees, for example, can fall below zero and still have meaning. But if you weigh nothing, you
don’t exist.

The four scales of measurement

By understanding the scale of the measurement of their data, data scientists can determine the kind
of statistical test to perform.

1. Nominal scale of measurement

The nominal scale of measurement defines the identity property of data. This scale has certain
characteristics, but doesn’t have any form of numerical meaning. The data can be placed into
categories but can’t be multiplied, divided, added or subtracted from one another. It’s also not
possible to measure the difference between data points.
Examples of nominal data include eye color and country of birth. Nominal data can be broken
down again into three categories:
Nominal with order: Some nominal data can be sub-categorized in order, such as “cold, warm, hot
and very hot.”
Nominal without order: Nominal data can also be sub-categorized as nominal without order, such
as male and female.
Dichotomous: Dichotomous data is defined by having only two categories or levels, such as “yes’
and ‘no’.
2. Ordinal scale of measurement
The ordinal scale defines data that is placed in a specific order. While each value is ranked, there’s
no information that specifies what differentiates the categories from each other. These values can’t
be added to or subtracted from.
An example of this kind of data would include satisfaction data points in a survey, where ‘one =
happy, two = neutral, and three = unhappy.’ Where someone finished in a race also describes
ordinal data. While first place, second place or third place shows what order the runners finished
in, it doesn’t specify how far the first-place finisher was in front of the second-place finisher.

3. Interval scale of measurement

The interval scale contains properties of nominal and ordered data, but the difference between data
points can be quantified. This type of data shows both the order of the variables and the exact
differences between the variables. They can be added to or subtracted from each other, but not
multiplied or divided. For example, 40 degrees is not 20 degrees multiplied by two.
This scale is also characterized by the fact that the number zero is an existing variable. In the
ordinal scale, zero means that the data does not exist. In the interval scale, zero has meaning – for
example, if you measure degrees, zero has a temperature.
Data points on the interval scale have the same difference between them. The difference on the
scale between 10 and 20 degrees is the same between 20 and 30 degrees. This scale is used to
quantify the difference between variables, whereas the other two scales are used to describe
qualitative values only. Other examples of interval scales include the year a car was made or the
months of the year.

4. Ratio scale of measurement

Ratio scales of measurement include properties from all four scales of measurement. The data is
nominal and defined by an identity, can be classified in order, contains intervals and can be broken
down into exact value. Weight, height and distance are all examples of ratio variables. Data in the
ratio scale can be added, subtracted, divided and multiplied.
Ratio scales also differ from interval scales in that the scale has a ‘true zero’. The number zero
means that the data has no value point. An example of this is height or weight, as someone cannot
be zero centimeters tall or weigh zero kilos – or be negative centimeters or negative kilos.
Examples of the use of this scale are calculating shares or sales. Of all types of data on the scales
of measurement, data scientists can do the most with ratio data points.
To summarize, nominal scales are used to label or describe values. Ordinal scales are used to
provide information about the specific order of the data points, mostly seen in the use of
satisfaction surveys. The interval scale is used to understand the order and differences between
them. The ratio scales gives more information about identity, order and difference, plus a
breakdown of the numerical detail within each data point.
Using quantitative and qualitative data in statistics once data scientists have a conclusive data set
from their sample, they can start to use the information to draw descriptions and conclusions. To
do this, they can use both descriptive and inferential statistics.

Descriptive statistics
Descriptive statistics help demonstrate, represent, analyze and summarize the findings contained
in a sample. They present data in an easy-to-understand and presentable form, such as a table or
graph. Without description, the data would be in its raw form with no explanation.

Frequency counts
One way data scientists can describe statistics is using frequency counts, or frequency statistics,
which describe the number of times a variable exists in a data set. For example, the number of
people with blue eyes or the number of people with a driver’s license in the sample can be counted
by frequency. Other examples include qualifications of education, such as high school diploma, a
university degree or doctorate, and categories of marital status, such as single, married or divorced.
Frequency data is a form of discrete data, as parts of the values can’t be broken down. To calculate
continuous data points, such as age, data scientists can use central tendency statistics instead. To
do this, they find the mean or average of the data point. Using the age example, this can tell them
the average age of participants in the sample.
While data scientists can draw summaries from the use of descriptive statistics and present them
in an understandable form, they can’t necessarily draw conclusions. That’s where inferential
statistics come in.

Inferential statistics
Inferential statistics are used to develop a hypothesis from the data set. It would be impossible to
get data from an entire population, so data scientists can use inferential statistics to extrapolate
their results. Using these statistics, they can make generalizations and predictions about a wider
sample group, even if they haven’t surveyed them all.
An example of using inferential statistics is in an election. Even before the entire country has voted,
data scientists can use these kinds of statistics to make assumptions regarding who might win based
on a smaller sample size.
Using data visualization to communicate insights Data visualization describes the techniques used
to create a graphic representation of a data sample by encoding it with visual pieces of information.
It helps to communicate the data to viewers in a clear and efficient way.

Characteristics of effective graphical displays

Effective visualization can help individuals analyze complex data values and draw conclusions.
The goal of this process is to communicate findings as clearly as possible. A graphic display that
features effective messaging will show the data clearly and allow the viewer to gain insights and
trends from the data set and reveal the different findings between the data.
Data visualization examples
The best visual representation of a data set is determined by the relationship data scientists want
to convey between data points. Do they want to present the distribution with outliers? Do they
want to compare multiple variables or analyze a single variable over time? Are they presenting
trends in your data set? Here are some of the key examples of data visualization.
A bar chart is used to compare two or more values in a category and how multiple pieces of data
relate to each other.
A line chart is used to visually represent trends, patterns and fluctuations in the data set. Line charts
are commonly used to forecast information.
A scatter plot is used to show the relationship between data points in a compact visual form.
A pie chart is used to compare the parts of a whole.
A funnel chart is used to represent how data moves through different steps or stages in a process.

Quantitative messages
Quantitative messages describe the relationships of the data. Depending on the sample, there are
different ways to communicate quantitative data.

Nominal comparison: Sub-categories are individually compared in no particular order.

Time series: An individual variable is tracked over a period of time, usually represented in a
line chart.

Ranking: Sub-categories are ranked in order, usually represented in a bar chart.

Part-to-whole: Sub-categories are represented as a ratio in comparison with the whole, usually
represented in a bar or pie chart.

Deviation: Sub-categories are compared with a reference point, usually represented in a bar
chart.

Frequency distribution: Sub-categories are counted in intervals, usually represented in a

histogram.

Correlation: Two sets of measures are compared to identify if they move in the same or opposite
directions, usually represented in a scatter plot.

Expand your data science expertise

With data science becoming a skill in even greater demand, now is a perfect time to expand your
knowledge of the world’s most valuable resource: data. A degree in data science will enable you
to identify, analyze and present complex and interwoven webs of data. You can then leverage these
insights to make predictions and create strategies, specifically in a business environment. The
UNSW Master of Data Science can give you the skills you need to unlock the power of data and
help businesses make better decisions, empowering them to drive significant changes and results.