Main Document PDF 16HP1A0316,08,15,18

JAWAHARLAL NEHRU TECHNOLOGICAL UNIVERSITY
KAKINADA
A Project Report On
COMBUSTION ANALYSIS ON VCR DIESEL ENGINE USING N-

BUTANOL AND DIESEL BLENDS
Submitted In Partial Fulfilment of Requirements for The Award of Degree of
BACHELOR OF TECHNOLOGY
IN
MECHANICAL ENGINEERING
Submitted By
Ch.Chaithanya Kumar (16HP1A0308)
P.KiranSai (16HP1A0315)
S.Konda Reddy (16HP1A0316)
N.MaheshBabu (16HP1A0318)
Under the guidance of

MR.G.G.SRINIVAS M.Tech(Ph.D)
Assistant professor
Department of mechanical engineering
DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

ANDHRA LOYOLA INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY
(Approved by AICTE & Affiliated to JNTUK, Kakinada)
An ISO 9001-2008 Certified Institution
VIJAYAWADA-52008, A.P.
2016-2020
DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING
CERTIFICATE
This is to certify that the seminar report entitled “COMBUSTION ANALYSIS ON

VCR ENGINE USING N-BUTANOL AND DIESEL BLENDS.” is a Bonafide record
of work carried out by CH.CHAITHANYA KUMAR (16HP1A0308), P.KIRAN SAI
(16HP1A0315), S.KONDA REDDY (16HP1A0316), N.MAHESH BABU
(16HP1A0318)submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the award of the
degree of BACHELOR OF TECHNOLOGY IN MECHANICAL ENGINEERING,
JAWAHARLAL NEHRU TECHNOLOGICAL UNIVERSITY Kakinada, during
academic session 2016-2020.
G.G.SRINIVAS DR.B.V.SUDHEERKUMAR
ASST.PROFESSOR OF ALIET HEAD OF THE DEPARTMENT
INTERNAL EXAMINER EXTERNAL EXAMINER

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL
ENGINEERING
2016-2020
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
At the outset we sincerely Thank God for having got my project completed in time. Firstly
we would thank our parents who have been a motivating factor throughout our lives.
We are most obliged and grateful to our project guide Mr.G.G.SRINIVAS, Assistant
Professor for giving us guidance in completing this project successfully.
Secondly we sincerely thank our principal Dr.O.Mahesh and our Head of the
department Dr.B.V.SUDHEER KUMAR for their kind cooperation and Encouragement
for the successful completion of project work and providing the necessary facilities
CH.CHAITHANYA KUMAR (16HP1A0308)

P.KIRAN SAI (16HP1A0315)
S.KONDA REDDY (16HP1A0316)
N.MAHESH BABU (16HP1A0318)
ABSTRACT
This project focus on the point of reducing the utilization of diesel fuel by using a mixture
of N- butanol and diesel blends on CI engines. At present diesel engines are heavily used
for transportation. This can lead to increase of the pollutants of the surroundings. Increase
in conventional fuels utilization can cause the pollution and their rapid depletion. This
project is based on that to reduce the pollution by utilizing the blends of n-butanol and diesel
blends.
In the initial stage diesel was tested on VCR engine at two compression ratios 17.5:1,
19.5:1 and base line data was generated. Later experimental investigations were carried out
on a with N-butanol-diesel blends and blends are named as B10 (N-butanol 10% and 90 %
diesel) and B20 (n-butanol 20% and diesel 80%).
The experiments were planned and performed in 3 distinct phases at a constant speed of
1500 rpm and at varying engine load (0, 3, 6, 9, 12 kg). The engine loads, blending ratio,
compression Ratio were taken as input parameters and their effects on engine performance,
emissions and combustion phenomenon were investigated experimentally and analytically.
The best results of emissions were observed for N20 blend at compression
ratio19.5:1 i.e. 36.07% lesser than normal diesel and 20.46% lesser than N10 at maximum
load, and also CO emission was lowest for N20 blend at compression ratio17.5:1 i.e. 20%
lesser than normal diesel and 32.7% lesser than N10 at maximum load. In the compression
ratio 19.5:1, N10 release more HC emissions at lower loads and at higher loads it had
released HC emissions similar to diesel. But in compression ratio 17.5:1, at higher loads,
N10 released more HC than the diesel and N20 blends. It can be observed from the figures,
that the emission of NO is comparatively high for both chosen compression ratios (17.5:1,
19.5:1). Among these N20 blend has given the less NO emissions in both the cases. For
compression ratio 17.5:1 , at lower load , the N20 blend has less CO2 emissions than diesel
and N10 blend, but, at higher loads, the N10 blend emits more (3.316% and 4.38%) CO2
emissions than the diesel and N20 Blend. For compression ratio 19.5:1, at lower loads the
diesel emits more CO2 emissions than the N10 and N20 blends. At higher loads, the N10
blend is slightly more than the diesel i.e 11.9% and N20 blend i.e 8.10% and compare the
diesel and N20 blend, N20 bland emits slightly more carbon dioxide emissions i.e 3.53% at
full load. Overall, smoke opacity was lowest for N10 blend at compression ratio19.5:1, it is
lesser (at 22.97%) than normal diesel and8.88% lesser than N20 at maximum load, and
smoke opacity is lowest for N20 blend at compression ratio17.5:1 i.e. 28.3% lesser than
normal diesel and45.95% lesser than N20 at maximum load.
CONTENTS
LIST OF FIGURES
LIST OF TABLES
NOMENCLATURE
CHAPTER-1 INTRODUCTION 1
1.1. Fuels
1.2. Alternate Fuels
1.3. Butanol
1.4. N-Butanol
1.5. N-Butanol Characteristics
1.6. N-Butanol Uses
1.7. Emissions
1.7.1.Nox Emissions
1.7.2.Hydrocarbon(HC) Emission
1.7.3. Carbon Monoxide (CO) Emission
1.7.4. Carbon Dioxide (CO2)
1.7.5. Smoke
1.8.Bharat stage emission standards

1.9. European emission standards
1.9.1.Emission standards for light commercial vehicles
CHAPTER-2 LITERATURE SURVEY

2.1. Introduction
2.2. Review of Literature Survey
CHAPTER-3 PREPARATION OF N-BUTANOL
3.1. Introduction
3.2. Properties of N-Butanol
3.3.History of Bio-Butanol Production from Biomass
3.4. Preparation of N-butanol
3.4.1. Bio-chemical production route
3.4.2. Metabolic pathway-ABE fermentation
3.4.3.Typical feedstock for butanol production
3.4.3.1.First generation bio-butanol
3.4.3.2. Second generation bio-butanol
3.4.3.3. Third generation bio-butanol
3.4.4. Inhibitions and Other Problems Associated with ABE fermentation
3.5.Chemical Synthesis of N-Butanol from Ethanol.
3.5.1. Reaction Mechanism of N-Butanol Formation from Ethanol
3.5.2. Dehydrogenation
3.5.3.Aldol condensation
3.5.3. Hydrogenation
3.5.4. Catalysts Used for N-Butanol Synthesis
3.6. Uses of N-Butanol
3.6.1. Industrial Uses
3.6.2. Other Uses
CHAPTER-4 EXPERIMENTAL SETUP
AND METHODOLOGY
4.1. Introduction
4.2. Experimental set up
4.2.1. Exhaust Gas Analyzer
4.2.1.1. Installation
4.2.1.2. Emissions Analyzer
4.3. Preparation of Blends
CHAPTER-5 ENGINE SETUP

5.1. Introduction
5.2. Features
5.3. Specifications
CHAPTER-6 FUEL CHARACTERIZATION
6.1. Introduction
6.2. Viscosity
6.3. Latent heat of vaporization
6.4. Cetane number
6.5. Density
6.6. Kinematic viscosity
6.7. Calorific value
CHAPTER-7 EXPERIMENT OBESERVATION
7.1. Introduction
7.2. Experimental observation for diesel
7.3. Experimental observation for N10
7.4. Experimental observation for N20
CHAPTER-8 RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS
8.1. Introduction
8.2. Carbon monoxide (CO)
8.3. Hydrocarbon (HC) emission
8.4. Nitric oxide (NO) emission
8.5. Smoke opacity
8.6. Carbon dioxide emissions
8.7. Mean effective pressure
8.8. Mass fraction burned
8.9. Net Heat release rate
8.10. Cylinder pressure
8.11. Brake thermal efficiency
Conclusions
LIST OF GRAPHS
S.NO NAME OF GRAPH
1. Graph1.1 Comparison between European, US, and Bharat stage emission
2. Graph1.2 European emission standards for Diesel cars
3. Graph8.1.1 Brake Power versus CO
4. Graph8.1.2 Brake Power versus CO
5. Graph8.2.1 Brake Power versus HC
6. Graph8.2.2 Brake Power versus HC
7. Graph8.3.1 Brake Power versus NO
8. Graph8.3.2 Brake Power versus NO
9. Graph8.4.1 Brake Power versus smoke
10. Graph8.4.2 Brake Power versus smoke
11. Graph8.5.1 Brake Power versus CO2
12. Graph8.5.2 Brake Power versus CO2
13. Graph.8.6.1 Crank angle versus MEP
14. Graph.8.6.2 Crank angle versus MEP
15. Graph.8.7.1 Crank angle versus MFB
16. Graph.8.7.2 Crank angle versus MFB
17. Graph.8.8.1 Crank angle versus NHRR
18. Graph.8.8.2 Crank angle versus NHRR
19. Graph.8.9.1 Crank angle versus Cyl pressure
20. Graph.8.9.2 Crank angle versus Cyl pressure
21. Graph.8.10.1 Crank angle versus BTE
22. Graph.8.10.2 Crank angle versus BTE
LIST OF FIGURES
S.NO NAME OF FIGURES
1. Fig.1.1 Butanol, a C-4 hydrocarbon
2. Fig.3.1 preparation of N-Buntaol
3. Fig.3.2 Biochemical pathway of ABE fermentation
4. Fig.3.3 The reaction mechanism for production of n-butanol

5. Fig.4.1. Experimental setup
6. Fig.5.1 VCR engine
LIST OF TABLES
S.NO NAME OF TABLES
1. Table.1.1 comparison Different Fuels
2. Table-1.2 comparison of Kinematic viscosity at 20℃ of different fuel
3. Table1.3 Indian emission standards (4-wheeled vehicles)
4. Table1.4 Emission standards for diesel truck and bus engines, g/kWh
5. Table1.5 Emission standards for light-duty diesel vehicles, g/km
6. Table1.6EES for passenger cars (Category M)*, g/km
7. Table1.7EES for light commercial vehicles ≤1305 kg
8. Table1.8EES for light commercial vehicles 1305–1760 kg
9. Table1.9EES for light commercial vehicles >1760 kg
10. Table.3.1first generation biomass used in butanol fermentation

11. Table3.2 second generation biomass used in butanol fermentation
12. Table.3.3 of third generation biomass used in butanol fermentation
13. Table.3.4 of few catalysts and conditions studied in the literature.
NOMENCLATURE
Kg/KW hr = Kilogram per kilo watt – hour

KW = Kilo watt
Kj/Kg = Kilo joule per kg
m = Meter
Rpm = Revolution per minute
Sec = Seconds
BP = Brake power
BSEC = Brake specific energy consumption
BSFC = Brake specific fuel consumption
BTE = Brake thermal efficiency
CO = Carbon monoxide
D100 = Pure diesel
N10 = 10% n butanol and 90% diesel
N20 = 20% n butanol and 80 % diesel
IP = Indicated power
HC = Hydro carbons
FP = Frictional power
ISFC = Indicated specific fuel consumption
ITE = Indicated thermal efficiency
Va = Actual volume
NOx = Nitro oxides
CHAPTER-1
INTRODUCTION
Development of clean and alternative fuels for IC engines has at traced substantial
research in recent years. Diesel engines are more efficient than SI engines but suffer from
high smoke emission. Smoke emission can be controlled by improving fuel, improving the
combustion process or by suitable after-treatment. Out of these options, use of improved
fuels would be an easy solution as it would be applicable for new as well as old engines
without structural modifications.
A variety of alternative fuels and additives such as n-butanol diesel blends can be used
in compression ignition (CI) engines with adequate performance and reduced emissions.
Improved fuels can also be obtained by adding suitable percentages of these alternatives to
diesel. Among these, oxygenated additives have drawn more attention because of their
capability to reduce emissions without much affecting the engine performance. Alcohols are
bio-oxygenated compounds. The presence of oxygen; low viscosity and high volatility of
alcohols make them suitable fuels for diesel engines. Among alcohols, n-butanol has a higher
heating value and lower latent heat of vaporization. Its Cetane number is higher as compared
to methanol and ethanol, and it is completely miscible with diesel. The calorific value of n-
butanol is also higher than methanol and ethanol. This implies that same amount of n-butanol
produces higher power from the same engine running on ethanol/methanol-diesel blends. N-
Butanol can be produced by fossil matter as well as by waste biomass (namely bio-butanol),
however, the properties of n-butanol produced from both sources are same.
In an experimental study, it was reported that smoke and NOx can be reduced by
blending of fuel and management of injection pressure, injection timing & EGR rate without
affecting the engine performance. It was found that for diesel at higher injection pressure
and retarded injection timing, smoke reduced and NOx increased. Better atomization and
high mixing rate were found as main factors leading to reduced smoke. Increased ignition
delay and high volatility of n-butanol-diesel blends (N20 and N10) provide sufficient time
for better mixing of fuel in the air before starting the combustion. The blending of n-butanol
at advanced ignition and at low injection pressure creates conditions similar to low-
temperature pre-mixed combustion, in which approximately all fuel is injected before the
commencement of combustion and this, in turn, reduces smoke and NOx emissions. On the
whole, there is strong evidence from past research, that the mixing of n-butanol in diesel,
biodiesel, vegetable oil and diesel-biodiesel/vegetable blends results in improved emissions.
Different studies with oxygenated fuels (mainly n-butanol) have been reviewed and
summarized. It is observed from the literature review the majority of research agrees that in
general, the addition of n-butanol in diesel or biodiesel/vegetable oil-diesel blends reduces
smoke significantly and reduces NOx slightly. However, some of the studies have reported
higher NOx emission for n-butanol-diesel blends. NOx emission mainly depends on two
factors: (i) peak temperature in the combustion zone and (ii) time duration of sustenance of
this peak temperature. The conflicting results pertaining to NOx may be because of
variations in these two factors as well as other factors including n-butanol content, engine
operating conditions, engine set-up, the use of different injection techniques, injection
pressure etc. With the technical merits of n-butanol, several researchers have studied the use
of n-butanol in the diesel engine in the past few years. However, the study on the effect of
n-butanol-diesel blends on engine operating parameters is limited. This is the main
motivation for the research work presented in this paper. Moreover, extensive research on
emissions with the use of various blends has shown to have a lot of variations; which makes
it difficult to come to a conclusion about an optimal blend. This forms another motivation
for current research.
The current research thus focuses on experimental and analytical investigations using n-
butanol-diesel blends to determine the optimum blending ratio and operating parameters of
the engine. The effect of blending of n-butanol in diesel on compression ratio, injection
timing and injection pressure was analyzed. However, the emission analysis was kept limited
to smoke and NOx only. This study, therefore, considers two variables: (i) n-butanol-diesel
blends and (ii) Engine operating parameters, for optimum engine performance and
emissions.
1.1 FUELS
A fuel (from old French feuaile, from few fire, ultimately from Latin focus-
fireplace, hearth) is a substance that may be burned air (or any other oxidant-containing
substance), i.e. that so quickly reacts with oxygen that heat and light is emitted in the form
of a sustained flame. Although the chemical reactions of wood in air, animal fat in air, coal
in air, natural gas in air (approximated by CH4/O2/N2), hydrogen in oxygen(H2/O2), silicon
in oxygen(Si/O2), sodium in chlorine fuels(Na(s)/C12(g)), zirconium powder in carbon
dioxide (Zr/CO2), nitrocellulose (-(C6H10O5)n- with n=300..2000) in any medium, etc. are
all of the same chemical type (self propagation highly-exothermic re- dox reactions ,i.e.
combustion processes),usually fuels and combustion only refer to easily flammable
substances in air.
Fuels are mostly used as convenient energy stores because of their high specific
energy release when burnt with omnipresent ambient air. The same fuel substance may also
be used as a feedstock in chemical synthesis (eg. polymers from petroleum), lubricants, and
paints and so on, but these uses are minority. primary fuels (natural fuels) may be difficult
to find, and secondary fuels (artificial fuels) may be difficult to manufacture, but, once at
hand, fuels are very easy to store, transport, and use, with only the musiance of safety
(uncontrolled combustion) and pollution (toxic emissions during storage and when burnt,
dirtiness.
Fuels are dangerous, because they accumulate a lot of chemical energy that may be
accidently released, causing deathly thermal an chemical effects.
1. Fuels are pollutant when burnt (and even before; most liquid fuels are canmcerous); they
are presently the major contribution to environmental pollution, both locally and at a global
scale.
2. Fuels are scarce (fossil sources are being depleted) and the sources are unevently spread
(most petroleum reserves are in the Middle East, causing economic and political
instabilities).
3. Fuels are difficult to handle. coal is very dirty, crude-oil is too viscous, natural gas has
very low density, to say the less.
1.2 ALTERNATIVE FUELS
Known as non-conventional and advanced fuels, are any materials or substances that
can be used as fuels, other than conventional fuels like; fossil fuels (petroleum (oil), coal,
and natural gas), as well as nuclear materials such as uranium and thorium, as well as
artificial radioisotope fuels that are made in nuclear reactors.
Some well known alternative fuels include bio-diesel, bio-alcohol

(methanol, ethanol, butane), refuse-derived fuel, chemically stored electricity (batteries
and fuel cells), hydrogen, non-fossil methane, non-fossil natural gas, vegetable
oil, propane and other biomass sources.
1.3 BUTANOL
May be used as a fuel in an internal combustion engine. It is more similar

to gasoline than it is to ethanol. A C4-hydrocarbon, butanol is a drop-in fuel and thus works
in vehicles designed for use with gasoline without modification. It can be produced
from biomass (as "bio-butanol") as well as fossil fuels (as "petro-butanol"). Both bio-
butanol and petro-butanol have the same chemical properties. Butanol from biomass is called
bio-butanol. Although intriguing in many ways, butanol fuel is rarely economically
competitive.
Fig.1.1Butanol, a C-4 hydrocarbon is a promising bio-derived fuel, which shares

many properties with gasoline.
1.4 N-BUTANOL
Butanol better tolerates water contamination and is less corrosive than ethanol and
more suitable for distribution through existing pipelines for gasoline.] In blends
with diesel or gasoline, butanol is less likely to separate from this fuel than ethanol if the
fuel is contaminated with water. There is also a vapor pressure co-blend synergy with
butanol and gasoline containing ethanol, which facilitates ethanol blending. This facilitates
storage and distribution of blended fuels.
Butanol combustion is: C4H9OH + 6O2 → 4CO2 + 5H2O + heat
The octane rating of n-butanol is similar to that of gasoline but lower than that of
ethanol and methanol. n-Butanol has a RON (Research Octane number) of 96 and a MON
(Motor octane number) of 78 (with a resulting "(R+M)/2 pump octane number" of 87, as
used in North America) while t-butanol has octane ratings of 105 RON and 89 MON. t-
Butanol is used as an additive in gasoline but cannot be used as a fuel in its pure form because
its relatively high melting point of 25.5 °C (79 °F) causes it to gel and solidify near room
temperature. On the other hand, iso-butanol has a lower melting point than n-butanol and
favorable RON of 113 and MON of 94, and is thus much better suited to high fraction
gasoline blends, blends with n-butanol, or as a standalone fuel.
A fuel with a higher octane rating is less prone to knocking (extremely rapid and
spontaneous combustion by compression) and the control system of any modern car engine
can take advantage of this by adjusting the ignition timing. This will improve energy
efficiency, leading to a better fuel economy than the comparisons of energy content different
fuels indicate. By increasing the compression ratio, further gains in fuel economy, power
and torque can be achieved. Conversely, a fuel with lower octane rating is more prone to
knocking and will lower efficiency. Knocking can also cause engine damage. Engines
designed to run on 87 octanes will not have any additional power/fuel economy from being
operated with higher octane fuel.
Table.1.1 comparison of different fuels
Air-
Energy Specific Heat of AK
Fuel fuel RON MON
density energy vaporization I
ratio
Gasoline and 2.9

91– 81– 87
32 MJ/L 14.7 MJ/kg 0.36 MJ/kg
99 89 -95
biogasoline air
3.6
Butanol fuel 29.2 MJ/L 11.1 MJ/kg 0.43 MJ/kg 96 78 87
air
3.0
Anhydrous Ethanol
19.6 MJ/L 9.0 MJ/kg 0.92 MJ/kg 107 89
fuel
air
3.1
Methanol fuel 16 MJ/L 6.4 MJ/kg 1.2 MJ/kg 106 92
air
1.5 BUTANOL CHARACTERISTICS: AIR-FUEL RATIO, SPECIFIC

ENERGY, VISCOSITY, SPECIFIC HEAT
Alcohol fuels, including butanol and ethanol, are partially oxidized and therefore
need to run at richer mixtures than gasoline. Standard gasoline engines in cars can adjust the
air-fuel ratio to accommodate variations in the fuel, but only within certain limits depending
on model. If the limit is exceeded by running the engine on pure ethanol or a gasoline blend
with a high percentage of ethanol, the engine will run lean, something which can critically
damage components. Compared to ethanol, butanol can be mixed in higher ratios with
gasoline for use in existing cars without the need for retrofit as the air-fuel ratio and energy
content are closer to that of gasoline.
Alcohol fuels have less energy per unit weight and unit volume than gasoline. To
make it possible to compare the net energy released per cycle a measure called the fuels
specific energy is sometimes used. It is defined as the energy released per air fuel ratio. The
net energy released per cycle is higher for butanol than ethanol or methanol and about 10%
higher than for gasoline.
Table-1.2 comparison of Kinematic viscosity at 20℃ of different fuel
Kinematic
Substance viscosity
at 20 °C
Butanol 3.64 cSt
Diesel >3 cSt
Ethanol 1.52 cSt
Water 1.0 cSt
Methanol 0.64 cSt
Gasoline 0.4–0.8 cSt
The viscosity of alcohols increase with longer carbon chains. For this reason, butanol
is used as an alternative to shorter alcohols when a more viscous solvent is desired. The
kinematic viscosity of butanol is several times higher than that of gasoline and about as
viscous as high quality diesel fuel.
The fuel in an engine has to be vaporized before it will burn. Insufficient vaporization
is a known problem with alcohol fuels during cold starts in cold weather. As the heat of
vaporization of butanol is less than half of that of ethanol, an engine running on butanol
should be easier to start in cold weather than one running on ethanol or methanol.
1.6 N-BUTANOL USAGE
1 N-butanol can be used a chemical intermediate to create other chemicals (e.g. Esters, n-
butyl acetate and amino resins); alternatively it can be used as a solvent in the creation of
consumer products.
2 N-butanol is used as a solvent for paints, coatings, varnishes, fats, oils, waxes, rubber and
plasticizers.
3 Other uses include coating fabric in the textiles industry, as a cleaning or polishing agent,
gasoline, brake fluid and in consumer products such as make-up, nail products, hygiene
products and shaving products in the cosmetic industry.
4 The main user end market of this product is the chemical, petrochemical, textiles, cleaning
and cosmetics industries.
5 n-butanol/diesel blends up to 10% can be utilized in acetylene fuelled CI engine without

major modification.
6 Addition of n-butanol improves combustion characteristics followed by the performance.

Lower emissions of NOx, CO and smoke emissions with a marginal penalty of HC
emissions.
7 The CI diesel engine can run by using N-butanol/diesel fuel blends. Increasing N-butanol
fraction in diesel fuel reduces the smoke, CO and NOX emissions. Also, the HC emissions
shows increasing trend.
8 The BSFC and the BTE increase with the increasing n-butanol fraction in diesel fuel.
1.8 . EMISSIONS
1.8.1NOx EMISSIONS:
Thermal NOx is produced during the combustion process when nitrogen and
oxygen are present at elevated temperature. The two elements combine to form NO and
NO2. NOx is generated by many combustion processes other than boiler operation. It
combines with other pollutants in the atmosphere and creates O3, a substance known as
ground level ozone.
1.8.2 HYDROCARBON EMISSIONS:
Diesel fuel is a mixture of hydrocarbons which - during an ideal combustion
process –would produce only carbon dioxide (CO2) and water (H2O). indeed, diesel
exhaust gases are primarily composed of CO2, H2O and the unused portion of engine
charging air.
1.8.3 CARBON MONOXIDE EMISSIONS:
Making carbon monoxide … when combustion of carbon is incomplete, i.e, there is
a limited supply of air, only half as much oxygen adds to the carbon, and instead you form
carbon monoxide (CO). Carbon monoxide is formed as a pollutant when hydrocarbon fuels
(natural gas, petrol and diesel) are burned.
1.8.4 CARBON DIOXIDE EMISSIONS:
An engine to move a vehicle down the road, it must convert the energy stored in the
fuel into mechanical energy to drive the wheels. This process produces carbon dioxide (CO2
).Burning 1 L of gasoline produces approximately 2.3 kg of CO2 .But how can 1 L of
gasoline, which weighs only 0.75 kg, produce 2.3 kg of CO2 ? The answer lies in the
chemistry! Gasoline contains carbon and hydrogen atoms. During combustion, the carbon
(C) from the fuel combines with oxygen (O2) from the air to produce carbon dioxide (CO2).
The additional weight comes from the oxygen.
1.8.5 SMOKE EMISSIONS:
Smoke is a collection of airborne particulates and gases emitted when a material
undergoes combustion or pyrolysis, together with the quantity of air that is entrained or
otherwise mixed into the mass. The smoke kills by a combination of thermal
damage, poisoning and pulmonary irritation caused by carbon monoxide, hydrogen
cyanide and other combustion products.
1.9 BHARAT STAGE EMISSION STANDARDS
Bharat stage emission standards (BSES) are emission standards instituted by

the Government of India to regulate the output of air pollutants from compression ignition
engines and Spark-ignition engines equipment, including motor vehicles. The standards and
the timeline for implementation are set by the Central Pollution Control Board under
the Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change.
The standards, based on European regulations were first introduced in 2000. Progressively
stringent norms have been rolled out since then. All new vehicles manufactured after the
implementation of the norms have to be compliant with the regulations.Since October 2010,
Bharat Stage (BS) III norms have been enforced across the country. In 13 major cities, Bharat
Stage IV emission norms have been in place since April 2010 and it has been enforced for
entire country since April 2017. In 2016, the Indian government announced that the country
would skip the BS V norms altogether and adopt BS VI norms by 2020. In its recent
judgment, the Supreme Court has banned the sale and registration of motor vehicles
conforming to the emission standard Bharat Stage IV in the entire country from 1 April 2020
The phasing out of 2-stroke engine for two wheelers, the cessation of production of
the Maruti 800, and the introduction of electronic controls have been due to the regulations
related to vehicular emissions.
While the norms help in bringing down pollution levels, it invariably results in increased
vehicle cost due to the improved technology and higher fuel prices. However, this increase
in private cost is offset by savings in health costs for the public, as there is a lesser amount
of disease-causing particulate matter and pollution in the air. Exposure to air pollution can
lead to respiratory and cardiovascular diseases, which is estimated to be the cause for
620,000 early deaths in 2010, and the health cost of air pollution in India has been assessed
at 3% of its GDP
Table 1.3 Indian emission standards (4-wheeled vehicles)
Standard Reference Year Region
India 2000 Euro 1 2000 Nationwide
2001 NCR*, Mumbai, Kolkata, Chennai
Bharat Stage II Euro 2 2003-04 NCR*, 13 Cities†
2005-04 Nationwide
2005-04 NCR*, 13 Cities†
Bharat Stage III Euro 3
2010-04 Nationwide
2010-04 NCR*, 13 Cities†
Bharat Stage IV Euro 4
2017-04 Nationwide
Bharat Stage V Euro 5 (To be skipped)
Bharat Stage VI Euro 6 2018-04 Delhi

2019-04 NCR*
2020-04 [14] Nationwide
* National Capital Region (Delhi)
† Mumbai, Kolkata, Chennai, Bengaluru, Hyderabad, Ahmedabad, Pune, Surat, Kanpur,

Lucknow, Sholapur, Jamshedpur and Agra
Table1.4 Emission standards for diesel truck and bus engines, g/kWh
Year Reference Test CO HC NOx PM
1992 – ECE R49 17.3–32.6 2.7–3.7 – –
1996 – ECE R49 11.20 2.40 14.4 –

2000 Euro I ECE R49 4.5 1.1 8.0 0.36*
2005† Euro II ECE R49 4.0 1.1 7.0 0.15
ESC 2.1 0.66 5.0 0.10
2010† Euro III
ETC 5.45 0.78 5.0 0.16
ESC 1.5 0.46 3.5 0.02
2010‡ Euro IV
ETC 4.0 0.55 3.5 0.03
* 0.612 for engines below 85 kW
† Earlier introduction in selected regions, see Table 1. ‡ Only in selected regions, see
Table 1.
Table1.5 Emission standards for light-duty diesel vehicles, g/km
Year Reference CO HC HC+NOx NOx PM
17.3– 2.7–
1992 – – – –
32.6 3.7
5.0–
1996 – – 2.0–4.0 – –
9.0
2.72– 0.97– 0.14–

2000 Euro 1 – –
6.90 1.70 0.25
1.0– 0.08–
2005† Euro 2 – 0.7–1.2 –
1.5 0.17
0.64 0.56 0.50 0.05

2010† Euro 3 0.80 – 0.72 0.65 0.07
0.95 0.86 0.78 0.10
0.50 0.30 0.25 0.025

2010‡ Euro 4 0.63 – 0.39 0.33 0.04
0.74 0.46 0.39 0.06
† Earlier introduction in selected regions, see Table 1.
‡ Only in selected regions, see Table 1.

Graph 1.1 Comparison between European, US, and Bharat stage (Indian) emission
standards for diesel passenger cars. The sizes of the green circles represent the limits
for particulate matter.
1.9 EUROPEAN EMISSION STANDARDS
European emission standards define the acceptable limits for exhaust emissions of
new vehicles sold in the European Union and EEA member states. The emission standards
are defined in a series of European Union directives staging the progressive introduction of
increasingly stringent standards. In the European Union, emissions of nitrogen oxides
(NOx), total hydrocarbon(THC), non methane hydro carbons (NMHC), carbon
monoxide (CO) and particulate matter (PM) are regulated for most vehicle types, including
cars, trucks (lorries), locomotives, tractors and similar machinery, barges, but excluding
seagoing ships and aero planes. For each vehicle type, different standards apply. Compliance
is determined by running the engine at a standardized test cycle.
Table1.6European emission standards for passenger cars (Category M)*, g/km
Date
Date (First NO HC+NO PN
Tier (Type CO THC NMHC
Registration) PM
Approval) x x [#/km]
Diesel
Euro 2.72 0.97 0.14

July 1992 January 1993 - - - -
1† (3.16) (1.13) (0.18)
Euro January
January 1997 1.0 - - - 0.7 0.08 -
2 1996
Euro January
January 2001 0.66 - - 0.50 0.56 0.05 -
3 2000
Euro January
January 2006 0.50 - - 0.25 0.30 0.025 -
4 2005
Euro September
January 2011 0.50 - - 0.180 0.230 0.005 -
5a 2009
Euro September
January 2013 0.50 - - 0.180 0.230 0.0045 6×1011
5b 2011
Euro September September

0.50 - - 0.080 0.170 0.0045 6×1011
6b 2014 2015
Euro September
- 0.50 - - 0.080 0.170 0.0045 6×1011
6c 2018
Euro
September September
6d- 0.50 - - 0.080 0.170 0.0045 6×1011
2017 2019
Temp
Euro January
January 2021 0.50 - - 0.080 0.170 0.0045 6×1011
6d 2020
* Before Euro 5, passenger vehicles > 2500 kg were type approved as light commercial
vehicles N1 Class I
** Applies only to vehicles with direct injection engines
*** 6×1012/km within first three years from Euro 6b effective dates
† Values in parentheses are conformity of production (COP) limits
1.9.1 Emission standards for light commercial vehicles
Table 1.7 European emission standards for light commercial vehicles ≤1305 kg
reference mass (Category N1 Class I), g/km
Date
Date (First
(Type TH NMH HC+N PN
Tier Registratio CO NO
Approva C C O PM [#/km
n) x
l) x ]
Diesel
Euro October October

2.72 - - - 0.97 0.14 -
1 1993 1994
Euro January October

1.0 - - - 0.7 0.08 -
2 1997 1997
Euro January January

0.64 - - 0.50 0.56 0.05 -
3 2000 2001

0.50 - - 0.25 0.30 0.025 -
4 2005 2006
Euro Septembe January 0.50 0.18

- - 0.230 0.005 -
5a r 2009 2011 0 0
Euro Septembe January 0.50 0.18 0.004 6×101

- - 0.230 1
5b r 2011 2013 0 0 5
Euro Septembe September 0.50 0.08 0.004 6×101
- - 0.170 1
6b r 2014 2015 0 0 5
Euro September 0.50 0.08 0.004 6×101

- - - 0.170 1
6c 2018 0 0 5
Euro
6d- Septembe September 0.50 0.08 0.004 6×101
- - 0.170 1
Tem r 2017 2019 0 0 5
p
Euro January January 0.50 0.08 0.004 6×101

- - 0.170 1
6d 2020 2021 0 0 5
* Applies only to vehicles with direct injection engines
Table1.8 European emission standards for light commercial vehicles 1305–1760 kg

reference mass (Category N1 Class II), g/km
Date
Date (First
(Type TH NMH HC+N PN
Tier Registratio CO NO
Approva C C O PM [#/km
n) x
l) x ]
Diesel
Euro October October

5.17 - - - 1.4 0.19 -
1 1993 1994
Euro January October
1.25 - - - 1.0 0.12 -
2 1998 1998

0.80 - - 0.65 0.72 0.07 -
3 2001 2002

0.63 - - 0.33 0.39 0.04 -
4 2006 2007
Euro Septembe January 0.63 0.23

- - 0.295 0.005 -
5a r 2010 2012 0 5
Euro Septembe January 0.63 0.23 0.004 6×101

- - 0.295 1
5b r 2011 2013 0 5 5
Euro Septembe September 0.63 0.10 0.004 6×101

- - 0.195 1
6b r 2015 2016 0 5 5
Euro September 0.63 0.10 0.004 6×101

- - - 0.195 1
6c 2019 0 5 5
Euro
6d- Septembe September 0.63 0.10 0.004 6×101
- - 0.195 1
Tem r 2018 2020 0 5 5
p
Euro January January 0.63 0.10 0.004 6×101

- - 0.195 1
6d 2021 2022 0 5 5
* Applies only to vehicles with direct injection engines

Table1.9 European emission standards for light commercial vehicles >1760 kg
reference mass max 3500 kg. (Category N1 Class III & N2), g/km
Date
Date (First
Tier (Type CO THC NMHC NO HC+NO PN
Registration) PM
Approval) x x [#/km]
Diesel
Euro October
October 1994 6.9 - - - 1.7 0.25 -
1 1993
Euro January
October 1999 1.5 - - - 1.2 0.17 -
2 1998
Euro January
January 2002 0.95 - - 0.78 0.86 0.10 -
3 2001
Euro January
January 2007 0.74 - - 0.39 0.46 0.06 -
4 2006
Euro September
January 2012 0.740 - - 0.280 0.350 0.005 -
5a 2010
Euro September
January 2013 0.740 - - 0.280 0.350 0.0045 6×1011
5b 2011
Euro September September

0.740 - - 0.125 0.215 0.0045 6×1011
6b 2015 2016
Euro September
- 0.740 - - 0.125 0.215 0.0045 6×1011
6c 2019
Euro
September September
6d- 0.740 - - 0.125 0.215 0.0045 6×1011
2018 2020
Temp
Euro January
January 2022 0.740 - - 0.125 0.215 0.0045 6×1011
6d 2021
Graph 1.2 Simplified chart showing the progression of European emission standards
for Diesel cars.
CHAPTER-2
LITERATURE SURVEY
2.1Introduction
Development of clean and alternative fuels for IC engines has attracted substantial
research in recent years. Diesel engines are more efficient than SI engines but suffer from
high smoke emission. Smoke emission can be controlled by improving fuel, improving the
combustion process or by suitable after-treatment. Out of these options, use of improved
fuels would be an easy solution as it would be applicable for new as well as old engines
without structural modifications. A variety of alternative fuels and additives such as
alcohols, biodiesels and vegetable oils can be used in compression ignition (CI) engines with
adequate performance and reduced emissions. Improved fuels can also be obtained by adding
suitable percentages of these alternatives to diesel. Among these, oxygenated additives have
drawn more attention because of their capability to reduce emissions without much effecting
the engine performance. Oxygenated additives are renewable innature and support the local
agriculture industry. Alcohols are bio-oxygenated compounds. The presence of oxygen; low
viscosity and high volatility of alcohols make them suitable fuels for diesel engines. Among
alcohols, n-butanol has a higher heating value and lower latent heat of vaporization. Its
Cetane number is higher as compared to methanol and ethanol, and it is completely miscible
with diesel. The calorific value of n-butanol is also higher than methanol and ethanol. This
implies that same amount of n-butanol produces higher power from the same engine running
on ethanol/methanol-diesel blends. N-Butanol can be produced by fossil matter as well as
by waste biomass (namely bio-butanol), however, the properties of n-butanol produced from
both sources are same. In an experimental study, it was reported that smoke and NOx can be
reduced by blending of fuel and management of injection pressure, injection timing & EGR
rate without affecting the engine performance. It was found that for diesel at higher injection
pressure and retarded injection timing, smoke reduced and NOx increased. Better
atomization and high mixing rate were found as main factors leading to reduced smoke.
Increased ignition delay and high volatility of n-butanol-diesel blends (B20 andB10) provide
sufficient time for better mixing of fuel in the air before starting the combustion. The
blending of n-butanol at advanced ignition and at low injection pressure creates conditions
similar to low-temperature pre-mixed combustion, in which approximately all fuel is
injected before the commencement of combustion and this, in turn, reduces smoke and NOx
emissions. On the whole, there is stronger evidence from past research, that the mixing of n-
butanol in diesel, blends results in improved emissions.
2.2 Review of Literature Survey
Chen et al. [1] the engine setup is modified, 4-stroke, water-cooled, single cylinder
research diesel engine with EGR. The blend is prepared by adding 40% n-Butanol on volume
basis (v/v) in diesel. Due to the lower smoke, higher NOx emission and butanol with medium
EGR has resulted in increased thermal efficiency.
Yamamoto et al. [2]Has conducted test on Single cylinder, water cooled, naturally
aspirated, Direct Injection (DI), YANMAR Co. Ltd., NFD 170-(E). Ethanol and n-butanol
were added at 30%, 40% and 50% on volume basis (v/v) to the diesel. This study provides
Lower smoke, higher NOx emissions. In the comparison butanol has better significant than
ethanol.
Lopez et al. [3] the engine setup is 4-cylinder, 2.5 l, turbocharged (TC), direct
injection, diesel engine. Ethanol and n-butanol were added at 10% volume basis (v/v) in
diesel. This results in reduced particulate matter and NOx emission.
Zoeldy et al. [4]a project on 4 Cylinder, 4 stroke, indirect injection PSA XUD 9A/L, diesel
engine is done, using n-Butanol 2.5–10% volume basis(v/v) is blended in diesel. Up to 5%
butanol is very effective in reducing NOx emission and Particular matters are under 50 nm
in size.
Choi et al. [5]has conducted experiment on 4 cylinder, common rail fuel injection, cooled
EGR and intercooler turbocharged, diesel engine. the blend was prepared by adding n-
Butanol at 10% and 20% volume basis(v/v) in diesel. The study gave reduced Particular
matter (30–80%) and slightly reduced NOx emission in European Stationary Cycle tests.
Sahin and Aksu [6] A project is conducted on 4 cylinder, 4-stoke, water-cooled, TC,
common-rail injection, 1.461 L Renault DI, diesel engine. The blend is prepared by adding
n-Butanol at 2–6% volume basis (v/v) in diesel. In the study the maximum smoke reduced
is 21.75% with 4% butanol adding to diesel and maximum NOx emissions reduced is 5.03%
with 2% butanol adding to the diesel.
Sahin et al. [7] has conducted experimental tests on 4 cylinder, 4-stoke, water-cooled, TC,
common-rail injection, 1.461 L Renault DI, diesel engine. The blends are prepared by adding
n-Butanol and fumigated n-butanol at 2–6% volume basis (v/v) in diesel. In the study they
observed that the smoke and NOx emissions are reduced for all combinations except 4% and
6% (v/v) blends.
Merola et al. [8] A project is done on 4-cylinder, turbocharged, water cooled, Direct
injection, diesel engine. The n-Butanol is added in diesel at 20% volume basis (v/v) .There
is a best trade-off between smoke-NOx at higher Injection Pressure (Inj. Pr.). N20 reduced
smoke drastically with a slight increment in NOx and a small increment in brake specific
fuel consumption at moderate injection pressure.
Siwale et al. [9] has conducted an experiment on 4-cylinder, 1Z type, 1.9 L-66 kW Turbo-
Direct Injection (TDI) Volkswagen, diesel engine. The blend is prepared by adding N-
Butanol at 5–20% volume basis (v/v) in diesel. In the observation, For N20 maximum smoke
reduction is 85.1% with significant increment in NOx emission.
Fushimi and Kinoshita [10] a project is done on Single cylinder, 4-stroke, DI diesel engine.
1-butanol, 2-butanol and isobutanol (10–50%, by mass) are used to prepare the blends.in the
survey , up to 40% blend Brake thermal efficiency unchanged, smoke has been reduced (up
to 85%), up to 30% blend NOx emissions are unchanged and at 40% blend NOx emissions
are reduces slightly.
Chen et al. [11] has conducted experiment on High-speed, turbocharged - inter-cooled,
direct injection (DI), diesel engine. The blend is prepared by adding n-Butanol at 20–40%
(v/v) in diesel. In the analysis he observed that there is Increase in Brake thermal efficiency
up to 2.7%, decrease in smoke up to 50.3%, increase in NOx up69 to 15.8% at rated power.
Zhang et al. [12]a project on Single cylinder, four-stroke, DI, diesel engine (L70AE,
Yanmar Corporation), 4.5 kW. The blend is prepared by adding Butanol and pentanol at
(10–20% v/v) in diesel. He observed the same Brake thermal efficiency and N20 blend is
better in reducing Particular matter.
Ibrahim [13] has conducted experiment on Single cylinder, 4-stroke, DI, air-cooled,
TD212, diesel engine. The blend is prepared by mixing Butanol and biodiesel in diesel. He
observed that Biodiesel Increase brake thermal efficiency (BTE) up to 6.5% and slightly
increase in NOx emissions.
Liu et al. [14] has conducted experiment on Modified single-cylinder, 4-stroke, water-
cooled, diesel engine, EGR (0–62%). He used n-Heptane; iso-octane, n-butanol, 2-butanol
and methyl Octynoateto prepare blends and added in diesel at 20% volume basis (v/v). He
noticed that smoke is reduced (32.8%) for B20, same Brake thermal efficiency and NOx at
different blends, increased EGR results in reduced thermal efficiency.
Zheng et al. [15]has conducted experiment tests on 4-Cylinder, 4-stroke, re-configured to

single cylinder, common rail, When the n-Butanol is blended diesel and used with high-
pressure direct injection system. He noticed that NOx and smoke reduced substantially
without EGR and earlier Injection Timing (Inj. T.) causes very high rates of pressure rise
while delayed injection timings prone to make engine misfire.
Huang et al. [16] a project is done on 4-cylinder, variable-geometry TC, EGR, DI, high-
pressure common rail fuel injection, diesel engine. The blend is prepared by adding n-
Butanol at 20–30% volume basis (v/v) in diesel. He observed that smoke and NOx emissions
are reduced with the addition of n-butanol and the smoke and NOx emissions also reduced
with the advance pilot injection.
Rakopoulos et al. [17] has conducted experimental tests on Single-cylinder, 4-stroke, water
cooled, Ricardo–Cussons, “Hydra”, high-speed engine (steady state condition).The blend is
prepared by adding n-Butanol at 8%, 16% and 24% volume basis(v/v) in diesel. In his study,
he observed that smoke has been reduced significantly , NOx emissions are reduced slightly
and improved brake thermal efficiency.
Rakopoulos et al. [18] has conducted experiment on 4-stroke, 6-cylinder, Mercedes-Benz,

OM 366 LA, DI, TC, water cooled, diesel engine (steady state condition). The blends are
prepared by adding n-Butanol at 8% and 16% volume basis (v/v) in diesel. He noticed that
smoke is reduced significantly, NOx emissions are reduced slightly and Brake thermal
efficiency is improved.

OM 366 LA, DI, TC, water cooled, diesel engine (steady state condition).the blends are
prepared by adding Ethanol (5% and 10% v/v/)and n-butanol (8% and 16% v/v) in diesel.
He noticed that smoke is reduced significantly, NOx emissions are reduced slightly and
Brake thermal efficiency is increased slightly.
Rakopoulos et al. [20] has conducted experiment tests on 4-stroke, 6-cylinder, Mercedes-
Benz, OM 366 LA, DI, TC, water cooled, diesel engine (transient conditions). The blends
are prepared by adding Biodiesel (30% by vol.) and n-butanol (25% by vol.) in diesel. In his
observation he noticed that smoke is reduced for butanol and increased for biodiesel. NOx
emissions are increased for both fuels.

OM 366 LA, DI, TC, water cooled, diesel engine (transient conditions). The blends are
prepared by adding Bio diesel (30% by vol.) and n-butanol (25% v/v) in diesel. He noticed
the Increase in NOx emissions mainly because of turbo charging irrespective of fuel, NOx
is higher for biodiesel than butanol and smoke is Reduced (max 57.9%) for butanol.
Zhou et al. [22]A constant volume chamber bore 110 mm, height 65 mm. This chamber can
imitate spray and combustion practice of a diesel engine. The blend is prepared by adding
Butanol 12% (v/v) and other compounds 8% (v/v) in diesel. He noticed Better combustion
efficiency and emitted approximately zero smoke as compared to diesel.
Atmanli et al. [23, 24] has conducted experiment tests on 4-cylinder, 4-stroke, TC, DI, Land
Rover 110, diesel engine. The blends are prepared by adding Vegetable oil at 20% vol. and
n-Butanol at 10% vol. in diesel. He observed that NOx emissions are increased, brake
specific fuel consumption is also increased and brake thermal efficiency is decreased.
Atmanli et al. [25] has conducted experiment testes on 4-cylinder, On an DJC type, indirect
injection, diesel engine. The blend is prepared by adding n-Butanol (20%-60% v/v) in diesel-
vegetable oil. In his study, he noticed that brake thermal efficiency is decreased and NOx
emissions are increased.
CHAPTER-3
PREPARATION OF N-BUTANOL
3.1 INTRODUCTION
Fig.3.1 Preparation of n-Butanol

Butanol (ethyl alcohol) is a four-carbon alcohol which has been mainly used as a
solvent, chemical intermediate, and extracting in cosmetics and pharmaceutical industries
and also for the production of butyl acrylate and methacrylate. This alcohol class is
sometimes known as bio-butanol when produced biologically from fermentation of starchy
and sugar feedstock. Butanol is mainly comprised of four isomeric structures, i.e. n-butanol
(n-C4H9OH), sec-butanol (sec-C4H9OH), iso-butanol (isoC4H9OH) and tert-butanol (tert-
C4H9OH).
In recent years, n-butanol has caught the attention of researchers as an alternative
bio-fuel to bio-ethanol. Although most researchers and industries previously focused on
ethanol as a fuel than butanol, butanol could be a better direct option The straight chain
alcohol (n-butanol) is considered as the next generation bio-fuel due to many advantages
over ethanol (see Table ), such as higher energy content, lower volatility, and does not
readily absorb moisture. The other added advantage is carbon atoms of butanol double that
of ethanol. It’s known that the higher the number of carbon atoms, the more energy is
contained (approximately 30% more energy) in butanol compared to ethanol. The high
boiling point of butanol than that of ethanol causes butanol to take much longer to be burned
in the motor engine than ethanol. It is also less corrosive and more suitable for distribution
through existing petrol pipelines. The Reid vapour pressure of n-butanol is 7.5 times lower
than that of ethanol, thus making it less evaporative/explosive. If use in a blend, n-butanol
can be mixed in higher ratios than ethanol with petrol for use in existing cars without the
need for modification as the air-fuel ratio and energy content are closer to that of petrol. In
addition, high octane rating makes the alcohol more suitable to be used in internal
combustion engines. A fuel with lower octane rating is more prone to knocking (extremely
rapid and spontaneous combustion by compression) and will lower efficiency. Knocking can
also cause engine damage. Unlike other alcohols, the Environmental Energy Company (US)
confirmed that n-butanol can be used as a total replacement for petrol without any
modifications to car engines.
Despite all benefits associated with the use of the alcohol as a fuel, there are
glitches associated with the bio-production of butanol such as low production yield and high
substrate cost. Many efforts are being directed toward utilization of lower-costs substrate
such as maize Stover, agricultural waste and rice straw, barley straw and switchgrass. First
generation bio-butanol causes problem ranging from a negative impact on food security,
increased food prices and net energy losses.
Other studies have focused on the utilisation of crude glycerol that is obtained as
a by-product during biodiesel production to lower the impact of bio fuels production on food
security. Search for cheaper second generation substrates, technology and other carbon
sources will be required if renewable bio fuels are to make more significant advantages into
the world's energy portfolio. Lignocelluloses is potentially the best feedstock for bio-butanol
production and therefore more efficient bioconversion of cellulose and hemicelluloses to be
sought for economic success of the industrial production of bio-butanol. Research into more
effective conversion of biomass material using economically feasible processes is thus of
principal importance. This chapter is a detailed review of the current production options for
n-butanol from biomass using biochemical and chemical strategies. In addition, the review
discusses the history of butanol, the various synthesis mechanisms, their advantages and
drawbacks and also the future in the current bio-butanol industry on the global scenario.
3.2 Properties of N-Butanol
3.3 History of Bio-Butanol Production from Biomass
The acetone butanol ethanol (ABE) fermentation was discovered by a French
Microbiologist known as Louis Pasteur in 1861. Restoring of research in butanol became
alive again as large quantities of acetone were demanded in World War I when filed a patent
for the process which was tested in the United Kingdom (UK). However, there was a need
for an organism that could increase acetone production. Strange and Chaim Weizmann
succeeded in isolating Clostridium acetobutylicumin from a garden soil for ABE
fermentation that could produce large amounts of acetone.
During World War I, it was important to produce high quantities of acetone yield
since in Britain it was used as an essential chemical for the production of cordite that was
used as an alternative to gunpowder during World War I. With the increasing demand for
butanol after the war, the first large-scale industrial plants were created in Canada and USA.
After 1936 a number of ABE production industries were established in Soviet Union, Japan,
China, South Africa, and Egypt. By 1945, during the start of the Second World War, Japan
commenced the production of butanol from sugar plants mainly as fuel for airplanes.
In the 1950s, a petrochemical route for n-butanol production emerged. The
process was mostly based on aldol condensation of acetaldehydes, followed later by
dehydration and then hydrogenation of crotonaldehyde. With this fast-growing industrial
discovery also known as the Oxo synthesis, the fermentation processes were abandoned. For
example, by the 1960s, most of the industrial ABE fermentation facilities were closed due
to cheap oil prices that favored the chemical production route. The last factory was closed
in 1986 in South Africa. The chemical route did not last for a long time until rise in crude
oil prices when industrial ABE fermentation facilities started to emerge again in China and
Brazil. To date, many plants have been established in several locations globally including
the USA, Slovakia, France and UK where bio-butanol is produced for use a fuel.
The n-butanol (as bio fuel) application was demonstrated by running an old Buick
on pure n-butanol in the year 2005. The reported fuel consumption increase was 9% higher
than traditional petrol. Regardless of the increase, emissions of carbon monoxide (CO),
hydrocarbons, and nitrogen oxides (NOx) were substantially reduced; due to the positive
characteristic effects that butanol has on the environment. This trend is regarded as a positive
impact towards the environment. This resulted the Fuel Butyl Company to increase the
capacity to produce 10 L of n-butanol per 25 kg of maize. A year after 2005, two major
global players, BP and DuPont, also announced plans for manufacturing plants to produce
n-butanol through fermentation process. The first new commercial plant was built by BP in
Saltend (UK) with a capacity to produce 420 million L of n-butanol through fermentation.
3.4 Preparation of N-butanol
3.4.1 Bio-chemical production route
The most attractive routes for production of bio-butanol are through fermentation
of sugar glycerol or lignocellulose feedstock in the presence of different micro-organisms
from the Clostridiaceae family. Acetone–butanol–ethanol (ABE) fermentation has many
benefits since it largely depends on the availability of inexpensive and abundant raw
materials. Bio-butanol fermentation from biodiesel derived glycerol is also considered as an
alternative route, since it uses waste products from biodiesel production. The renewed
interest of butanol production has not only highlighted its use as a chemical, but also as an
alternative bio-fuel, due to a rise in oil prices.
3.4.2. Metabolic Pathway-ABE fermentation
The metabolic pathway utilizes glucose derived from the hydrolysis of
carbohydrates (Fig. , step 1) that is broken down by amylase enzyme to form fatty acids, and
solvents by C. acetobutylicum via anaerobic fermentation. The mechanism of ABE has been
elucidated, carbon from carbohydrates in form of pentose and hexose sugars (mono-, di- tri-
, and polysaccharides) are metabolized via the Emden–Meyerhof pathway (Step 2) to
pyruvate. The degradation of 1 mole of sugar leads up to 2 moles pyruvate with a net
formation of 2 moles of adenosine triphosphate (ATP) and 2 moles of nicotinamide adenine
dinucleotide (NADH). Pyruvate is further converted to acetyl-CoA and Carbon dioxide
(CO2) (Fig.3.1 step 3). Thereafter, step 4 shows acetyl CoA being converted to other
intermediates (acetaldehyde, butyraldehyde) which ultimately lead to oxidized products
(acetone, acetate), and/ reduced products such as butanol and ethanol. The first occurrence
of intermediates and acid formation is known as acid genesis, and this occurs under specific
growth conditions, such as pH values >5 and iron limitation. Therefore, ATP is continuously
generated during this process. During the accumulations of organic acids, the culture pH
reduces, due to the metabolic switch of C. acetobutylicum from acid genesis to
solvontogenesis. Organic acids are utilized for the formation of solvents (Solvontogenesis).
The second phase of ABE fermentation is solventogenesis, a stage during which acids are
re-assimilated to produce acetone, butanol, ethanol, acetic acid, butyric acid, hydrogen, and
carbon dioxide as the main products. This stage of fermentation occurs frequently in various
bacterial strains of Clostridia species utilizing a wide range of carbon sources such as starch.
An abundant and cheaper feedstock investigated and identified as alternative substrates for
butanol production via ABE fermentation is lignocellulosic biomass, which includes
agricultural residues namely maize fibber, wheat straw and switch grass. Acetate and
butyrate are assimilated to their corresponding CoA derivatives catalyzed by the acetoacetyl-
CoA: acyl-CoAtransferase, with acetoacetyl-CoA as the CoA donor. The utilization of
acetate and butyrate occurs via the acetoacetyl-CoA:acetate/butyrate:CoAtransferase
(CoAT) pathway with the formation of acetone. Butyryl-CoA converts to butaraldehydes,
and finally to ethanol and butanol. Meanwhile, acotoacetyl-CoA converts to acetone and
acetaldehydes to ethanol.
Figure 3.2 Biochemical pathway of ABE fermentation
3.4.3 Typical feedstock for butanol production

Bio-butanol is usually produced from food crop biomass which are first generation
feedstock, nevertheless second generation feedstock which are not considered for human
consumption are preferred. Second generation feedstock are desired in ABE fermentation
due to the fact that they are non-food and do not compete for land use. Therefore, these new
methods that can make use of a greater proportion of plant material are considered to have
long-term economic advantages. Research is also currently in progress for third generation
feedstock, but not much literature has been found on the third generation feedstock. Bio-
butanol can be produced by a variety of different microorganisms from the Clostridiaceae
bacterial family. Clostridia are well-known to produce several products which cannot be
achieved by use of chemical synthesis. Clostridia are rod-shaped, sporeforming gram-
positive bacteria and very strict anaerobes. The yield of butanol varies, depending on the
type of biomass and bacteria used, and different parameters are relevant. The forthcoming
section shows a summary and understanding of literature that has been previously found on
butanol production by different clostridium species and biomass, thereof.
3.4.3.1. First generation bio-butanol
First-generation bio-butanol requires a relatively simple process to be produced mostly
afforded by fermentation of mostly hexose sugars. These sugars are derived through
hydrolysis of starch-rich crops such as maize, wheat, rice and cassava. Prior to use, the raw
materials (grains) are usually hydrolysed into dextrose, which can be subsequently bio-
converted into glucose using glucoamylase enzyme. Several researchers have demonstrated
that first generation butanol production can be achieved at significantly high yields. Table 3
shows the literature associated with different types of feedstock for first generation bio-
butanol, the various micro-organisms used and their product yields.
Table.3.1 Examples of first generation biomass used in butanol fermentation

First generation feedstock Cassava starch Glucose Butanol Oil palm sap
Fermentation conditions 37 and 5 37 and over 4 37 and 6

(T ℃ and pH)
Clostridium species C.beijerincki C.acetobutylicum C.acetobutylicum
tyrobutyricum CICC DSM 1731
6.66 14.4
Yields g L1
g g1 0.18 0.35
Productivity (g L1 h1 ) 0.13
0.96
Product distribution Butanol Butanol Butanol

3.4.3.2. Second generation bio-butanol
Biofuels from different agricultural residues and part of the plant biomass are often
termed second generation because the fuels are derived from feedstock that are non-edible
residues of food crop production or non-edible plant biomass (e.g. grasses, trees and energy
crops). The main advantage of the production of second-generation biofuels is that there is
no competition with food-feed chain and their availability is diverse. Lignocellulosic
materials are associated with low cost, sufficiently abundance and usually generate low net
greenhouse emissions, thus must be ideal precursors to produce biofuels. Second generation
liquid biofuels are generally produced by two fundamentally different approaches i.e.
biological or thermochemical processing, due to their structural complexity. Table reveals
literature on some of different second generation biomass that is currently used to produce
butanol, and the corresponding clostridium bacteria strains. Several research attempts have
been developed to utilize second generation biomass with appropriate fermenting bacteria to
yield higher butanol. Studies developed a C. acetobutylicum strain that can directly utilize
cellulose as feedstock. There is evidence that C. acetobutylicum ATCC 824 contains a
cellulosome, that is, a cellulose-degrading multi-enzyme complex consisting of several
catalytic components surrounding a scaffold protein. In an effort to make C. acetobutylicum
utilize cellulose directly, the cellulase gene from C. cellulovorans or the gene encoding the
scaffold protein from C. cellulolyticum and C. thermocellum were introduced into C.
acetobutylicum.
Although the gene has been identified, more studies still need to be done for the
characterization of the existing cellulase gene cluster in C. acetobutylicum before further
metabolic engineering. As a result this will further increase feasibility of lignocellulosic
material usage compared to first generation biofuels. The production of second-generation
biofuel requires most sophisticated processing production equipment, more investment per
unit of production and larger-scale facilities. To achieve the potential energy and economic
outcome of second-generation biofuels, further research, development and application are
required on feedstock production and conversion technologies. The future production of
ethanol is expected to include both the use of traditional grain/sugar crops and lignocellulosic
biomass feedstock
Table3.2 Examples of second generation biomass used in butanol fermentation
Glycerol Rice straw Oil palm trunk fiber
Fermentation conditions 37 and over 6.5 37 and over 6 37 and 6

(T ℃ and pH)
Clostridium species C.acetobutylicum C. sporogenes BE01 C. beijerinckii
KF 158795 TISTR 1461
13.57 5.52 10
Yields g L1
g g1 0.41
Productivity (g L1 h1 )
Various studies have been conducted using different second generation feedstock.
Batch fermentations of barley silage liquor which were supplemented with gelatinised barley
grain, the results produced good ferment ability butanol yields of 0.20, 0.17 and ABE yields
of 0.28, 0.26 g g1 monosaccharide were obtained . The study showed that starch in silage
could be a possible replacement of media components that provide the nutrients for butanol
fermentation.
On first and second generation bio-butanol and stringent food regulations, there are
still drawbacks associated with the feedstock. This is ascribed to demand of large space for
cultivation; processing and storing of second generation during harvest season can be a
challenge. However, the disadvantages can be overcome by third generation biomass as an
alternative resource for bio-butanol which can produce large quantity of biomass on much
smaller areas.
3.4.3.3 Third generation bio-butanol
An alga has increasingly become one of the promising feedstock, arising from its
vast availability. It is categorised as a third generation feedstock. A few reports on bio-
butanol production from algae. Reason for this, most species have high oil content of
approximately 50%, and that makes it suitable for biodiesel production. The remaining green
waste which left after oil extraction can be further used for the production of bio-butanol.
The two distinct types of algae is microalgae and macro algae. Microalgae are made of
unicellular organisms which are classified as microscopic. The latter, contains multiple cells
with a structure like a plant with roots, stems and leaves. They are categorized into i.e. red,
green and brown, depending on their pigmentation. The specific characteristics of
macroalgae are; lower protein and lipid content, but higher carbohydrates content compared
to microalgae. Most research reports have mainly focused on microalgae over macro-algae,
e.g. seaweed.
3.3.4.4 Inhibitions and other problems associated with ABE fermentation
Although a number of feedstock and microorganisms have successfully been utilized
to produce bio-butanol, there are numerous drawbacks associated with ABE fermentation
which hinders it to compete economically with petrochemical synthesis. Some of the
identified limitations of the ABE based on the process aspect are as follows:
1. Low final butanol concentration caused by inhibition during fermentation,
2. Low yield of butanol due to hetero-fermentation (0.28–0.33 g g1),
3. High cost of butanol recovery from low-concentration yields
Not only is inhibition a major challenge for the ABE fermentation, research has also
shown that lack of feedstock biomass alternatives is widespread. Current ABE fermentation
depends on very expensive feedstock and efforts must be directed towards decreasing
substrate costs and several other drawbacks. Rational approaches and advanced knowledge
necessary for the effective strategies to limit the inhibitors whilst improving the yields of the
products of ABE fermentation are needed.
3.5 Chemical synthesis of n-butanol from ethanol
As the interests in bio-butanol keeps on growing, there is also a rising attention on
the use of chemical routes to produce n-butanol. Since the use of fermentation still faces
significant technical and economic challenges such as finding efficient microorganisms to
convert fermentable sugars to bio-butanol, therefore it is still mandatory to find other
alternate routes. On the other hand, the chemical route usually involves simple step in the
presence of catalysts which are employed to achieve suitable ethanol conversion into n-
butanol at relatively higher yield and conversions. The primary advantage of chemical route
is that only one-step is required for producing n-butanol from ethanol, whereas bio-chemical
route may involve several steps. Chemical processes for n-butanol are wide-spread and have
been well documented.
3.5.1. Reaction mechanism of n-butanol formation from ethanol
The first liquid phase reaction is the dehydrogenation of ethanol to form
acetaldehydes, followed by aldol condensation of acetaldehyde and then hydrogenation to
n-butanol (see Fig.). a mechanism for the gas phase reaction of ethanol over a zeolite catalyst
to synthesize butanol. According to gas phase reaction does not involve the formation of
intermediates such as acetaldehydes There are three consecutive reactions associated with
the conversion of n-butanol from ethanol. And crotonaldehydes. To date, few reports are
made on the gas phase reaction formation of n-butanol and the reaction mechanism. Ethanol
to n-butanol conversion is an important industrial process which has been used to increase
the carbon number of alcohols by coupling two molecules. Aldol condensation was first
studied by Marcel Guerbet in the 1890s, and it is widely known as Guebert reaction.
Although this method is rarely utilized nowadays, it may again become significant in the
future.
3.5.2. Dehydrogenation
Dehydrogenation of ethanol allows the removal of hydrogen in a chemical reaction.
In this instance, ethanol is mostly used to synthesize ethyl acetate and acetaldehydes.
Demonstrated that dehydrogenation is of outmost importance in industrial process to
produce fine chemicals, petrochemicals, and oleochemicals. In Scheme 1, the first step
(labelled as step 1) presents dehydrogenation of a molecule and followed by Adol
condensation in the presence heterogeneous catalysts to produce a desired product.
3.5.3Aldol condensation
Described aldol condensation as well-known phenomenon used to produce a b-
hydroxyaldehyde or b-hydroxyketone. This occurs in an organic reaction containing enrol
or an enolate ion that reacts with a carbonyl compound and followed by dehydration to give
a desired product. Aldol condensation is one of the important organic synthesis method with
advantage to form carbon–carbon bonds. Guerbet reaction is one of aldol condensation
types, whereby an in-situ aldehyde is formed from an alcohol and then self-condenses to the
dimerized alcohol.
3.5.4 Hydrogenation
The subsequent step after aldol-condensation is hydrogenation of aldol-adducts to
increase their solubility in the aqueous phase. In addition, selective hydrogenation of the
furan ring in HMF and furfural can lead to additional carbonyl-containing compounds that
can undergo aldol self-condensation to form heavier alkanes. Thermodynamic
considerations favour hydrogenation of the C¼C bond over the C¼O bond for
hydrogenation reactions involving unsaturated aldehydes Reaction kinetics considerations
also favour hydrogenation of the C¼C bond over the C¼O bond for small molecules. Where
as steric constraints for larger molecules decrease the rates for hydrogenation of C¼C bonds.
Figure.3.3 The reaction mechanism for production of n-butanol from ethanol in a

liquid phase
Accordingly, the C¼C bonds of furfural are less reactive than the C¼O bond, probably due to steric
effects, making the production of tetra hydrofurfural (THF2A) by hydrogenation of furfural difficult.
The chemical approach is improving by the ongoing research to develop appropriate catalyst, or pair
of catalysts, for the hydro formulation of alkenes to form aldehydes and the subsequent
hydrogenation of the aldehydes to produce alcohols.
Table.3.3 Examples of third generation biomass used in butanol fermentation.
Mixed microalgae Micro algae Macroalgae

biodiesel residue
Fermentation 35 and 6.5 37 and over 6 37 and 6

conditions (T ℃ and
pH)
Clostridium species C.Saccharoperbutylacetonicum C. acetobutylicum C. beijerinckii
N1-4 ATCC 824 ATCC 35702
3.74 4
Yields g L1
g g1 0.13
Productivity (g L1 h)
3.5.5 Catalysts used for n-butanol synthesis

Several researchers, to name few have devoted their work on a quest to discovering suitable
catalysts which would be able to produce high yields of n-butanol (see Table 3.4). These
new technologies are compared to that of existing biological technologies in order to
understand the two approaches. Table presents several catalysts which have been previously
used to produce nbutanol with ethanol as a feedstock. Researches have been conducted on
the direct conversion of ethanol to n-butanol. Different findings have been observed with
different suitable conditions of the catalytic reaction. Studied Mg and Al mixed oxides for
the conversion of ethanol to n-butanol. The results showed butanol selectivity over 20%.
The results proved that Mg and Al can be used as a suitable combination for butanol
production. However the findings were not as promising as the other studies conducted by
other researchers. Used ZrO2- supported Cu catalysts with different Cu content (5–30 wt
%). The final observations of the study provided the highest selectivity with Cu content
10%.studied direct catalytic one-pot valorisation of bio-ethanol to 1-butanol over different
alumina supported catalyst. N-Butanol selectivity was found to be 80%. a commercial
hydroxyapatite catalyst, and 50% selectivity of butanol was formed. The influence of adding
sodium to zirconia on the acid base properties of the surface and on the catalytic conversion
of ethanol. According to the study, an overall selectivity of ethanol to butanol was improved
when using 1.0 wt% Na/ZrO2. Performed a continuous process of ethanol to butanol
conversion. Approximately 62% -butanol selectivity was found. Used a series of exchanged
cobalt/calcium (Co2+ + /Ca2+). According to modified MgO was able to convert ethanol
into 1-butanol. Hydro apatite based catalysts have been proven to show high selectivity
towards n-butanol, but suffer from deactivation by high molecular weight by-products that
form during the reaction. Metal oxide based catalysts deactivates slower, but suffer from low
selectivity. Showed that magnesium (Mg) and aluminium (Al) mixed oxides catalysts with
a high sensitivity of strong basic sites are the most selective to n-butanol. The same authors
also observed a very high selectivity to ethylene, which is associated with the presence of
acid sites on the surface of these mixed oxides. Also verified that the selectivity to n-butanol
increases when the density of strong basic sites increases as was observed when Cu–Mg–
Al-based catalysts were used. It was concluded that the formation of n-butanol requires both
basic and acid sites. According to some researchers, a specific surface atomic arrangement
composed of two acid sites and one basic site is needed in order to absorb the acetaldehyde
molecules during the aldol condensation step. The use of various heterogeneous catalysts for
ethanol conversion to n-butanol has been extensively researched by the aforementioned
studies. However, the studies are limited to the evaluation of catalyst performance, and they
give less information on the use of these catalysts at a commercial scale. In developing
countries such as South Africa, butanol production has not been well documented. It is
necessary to evaluate all the possible technologies which can aid in fuel production to boost
the country's economy. This will also allow the comparison of different processes and their
impacts on the entire production process, which would be much harder to achieve in an
experimental scale.
Table.3.4 Examples of few catalysts and conditions studied in the literature.
CATAL YST N-BUTANOL

CATALYTIC TEST
LOADING SELECTIVITY
TEMPERATURE
(%)
(℃)
mg wt%
Mg and Al 300 500 >20

mixed oxides
ZrO2- 500 300 >10
supported Cu
Ni/Al2O3 10-50 250 80
Hydroxyapatite 350-450 50
Na to ZrO2 1 340-400 -
Ni/C-alumina 3000- 250 62
3500
Co2++/Ca2+ 1.35 120-240 -
hydroxyapatite
3.6 Uses of N-Butanol

3.6.1 Industrial Use
Constituting 85% of its use, n-butanol is mainly used in the production
of varnishes. It is a popular solvent, e.g. for nitrocellulose. A variety of butyl esters are used
as solvents, e.g. butoxyethanol. Many plasticizers are based on butyl esters, e.g., dibutyl
phthalate. The monomer butyl acrylate is used to produce polymers. It is the precursor to n-
butylamines.
3.6.2 Other Uses
Butanol is used as a solvent for a wide variety of chemical and textile processes, in
organic synthesis, and as a chemical intermediate. It is also used as paint thinner and a
solvent in other coating applications where a relatively slow evaporating latent solvent is
preferable, as with lacquers and ambient-cured enamels. It is also used as a component
of hydraulic and brake fluids.
A 50% solution of butanol in water has been used since the 20th century to retard the
drying of fresh plaster in fresco painting. The solution is usually sprayed on the wet plaster
after the plaster has been trowel led smooth and extends the working period during which
frescos can be painted up to 18 hours.
Butanol is used in the synthesis of 2-butoxyethanol. A major application for butanol

is as a reactant with acrylic acid to produce butyl acrylate, a primary ingredient of water
based acrylic paint.
It is also used as a base for perfumes, but on its own has a highly alcoholic aroma.
Salts of butanol are chemical intermediates; for example, alkali metal salts of tetra-butanol
are tert-butoxides.
CHAPTER-4
EXPERIMENTAL SETUP AND METHODOLOGY
4.1 INTRODUCTION:
All the experimental setups and instruments used will be discussed in this section.
The procedure followed to grade the oil will be conversed about. All the setups are
mentioned in chronological order of their usage. The significance of combustion,
performance and emission parameters calculated will also be elaborated below.
The released engine test result is shown in the below figure. It consistent of engine
coupled with eddy current dynamometer, smoke meter, exhaust gas analyzer, control panel,
computer system, thermo couples and various sensors to measure temperature at different
parts of the engine.
4.2 EXPERIMENTAL SETUP:
A single cylinder, four stroke, direct injection, water cooled, vertical type and
naturally aspirated variable compression ratio engine is used for research study. This
compact size test engine has been manufactured by technical teaching equipment,
Bangalore, India. Engine can start in both ways – by hand or by self-start provided with
centrifugal speed governor. Engine’s compression ratio can be changed by changing the
position of cylinder head up and down. Between cylinder and cylinder liner water jacket is
provided.
Eddy current dynamometer is coupled with the engine using pipe coupling to
measure the torque of the engine. Load applied on the engine is measured by using a strain
gauge type load cell. Load can be varied on the engine with the help of a permanently inter
face of cd computer and instrumentation set up.
Highly integrated c++ language based software the engine test express was used to
Fig.4.1. Experimental setup of the experiment
Post processing software has been developed in MS Excel and used for arranging and
graphical representation of exported data.
All digital indicators(with digital display) and the PV - Pɵ converts (without display)
are grouped together and connected to one RS232 to RS485 converter whose RS232 output
is connected to comm. 1 port of the PC. Data acquired and calculation will be displayed in
a tabular form and graphs can display by selecting view of PC on line.
4.2.1 EXHAUST GAS ANALYSER:
Exhaust gas has been measured by using i3sys exhaust gas analyzer (EPM1601). It
is used to measure the following exhaust emissions from the engine i.e. hydro carbons (HC),
carbon monoxide (CO), carbon dioxide (CO2), oxides of nitrogen (NOx), oxides of sulphur
(SOx), and oxygen (O2).
4.2.2 INSTALLATION:
1. The probe consists of 1/4 th S.S pipe with a spring loaded clamp to fix it to the tail
pipe. In the flexible probe, the sampling end is made of flexible steel tube lined with
a Teflon tube. Otherwise it is similar to the straight probe.
2. Clamp to prevent the probe from slipping out of the exhaust gas.
3. A convenient handle for the easy handling of the probe.
4. Primary particle pre-filter:- this consists of a double disk filter, which removes
particulates load and passes the filtered gas to the water separator.
5. Required length of the sample tube 4 meters.
6. A fine filter-cum-moisture eliminator is fitted to the back panel to filter out fine
particles and to remove any moisture that condenses.
7. Flow meter or rotameter :- to measure the flow through the analyzer.
The analyzer needs to be placed on a flat surface and plugged to a 230V AC out let using
the power chord provided. For easy viewing it is recommended that the analyzer be placed
at a convenient height.
A lite weight trolley is available as an optional accessory.
PRECAUTIONS:-
 Before plugging in the unit to an electrical outlet, please ensure that it is a 3 – pin
socket with the proper ground connection. Failure to do this may damage the unit.
 In case the power supply from a generator, it is essential to use a voltage stabilizer.
4.2.3 ANALYSER:
Non – dispersive infrared for CO, CO2 and electrochemical sensors for O2 and NO.
Exhaust smoke density and opacity has been measured by using AVL smoke meter. It is
used to measure smoke opacity, absorption, and rpm of an engine and oil temperature.
The exhaust gas sucked by the pump through the analyzer is released to the
atmosphere, after measurement, through a tube at the back of the analyzer marked as outlet.
The paper roll should be in the correct position and its leading edge threaded in
through the paper inlet. The procedure for the paper loading is described.
Ref inlet is provide for fresh air intake during zero setting .a charcoal filter module
is connected to this port to remove HC present in atmospheric air.
Water condenses in the bowl filter with is provide with a water level indicator .when
water level rises above the permissible level, the measurement will abort automatically and
shows an error message.
4.3 PREPARATION OF BLEND:

For fuel combustion test different blends are made in a measuring cylinder. In total
volume of 100cc for making blend N10, we took 10cc of N-butanol and 90cc of diesel in a
100cc measuring flask. Similarly the N20 blends are made. The engine automatically loaded
with loads. The different exhaust gas emissions is analysed with these blends.
CHAPTER-5
ENGINE SETUP
5.1 INTRODUCTION
The setup consists of single cylinder, four stroke, CRDI VCR (Variable
Compression Ratio) engine connected to eddy current dynamometer. It is provided
with necessary instruments for combustion pressure, crank-angle, airflow, fuel flow,
temperatures and load measurements. These signals are interfaced to computer through
high speed data acquisition device. The setup has stand-alone panel box consisting of
air box, twin fuel tank, manometer, fuel measuring unit, transmitters for air and fuel
flow measurements, process indicator and piezo powering unit. Rota meterare provided
for engine cooling water flow measurement.
CRDI VCR engine works with programmable Open ECU for Diesel injection, fuel
injector, common rail with rail pressure sensor and pressure regulating valve, crank
position sensor, fuel pump and wiring harness. The setup enables study of CRDI VCR
engine performance with programmable ECU at different compression ratios and with
different EGR.
Engine performance study includes brake power, indicated power, frictional
power, BMEP, IMEP, brake thermal efficiency, indicated thermal efficiency, Mechanical
efficiency, volumetric efficiency, specific fuel consumption, Air fuel ratio, heat balance and
combustion analysis.
Fig.5.1 VCR ENGINE
5.2FEATURES
 Performance optimization with Open ECU
 Tests at different CR and EGR
 Plotting of Torque and Power Curves
 Determination of Specific Fuel Consumption
 Determination of Volumetric Efficiency and Air – Fuel Ratio
 Determination of Mechanical Efficiency
 Determination of the Frictional Power
 Heat Balance Sheet
 Performance Test under different Load
 P Θ and PV Diagram
 Combustion analysis
5.3 Specifications
Product - CRDI VCR Engine test (Computerised) Code 244.

Engine
 Make Kirloskar
 Single cylinder
 4 stroke
 water cooled
 stroke 110 mm
 Bore 87.5 mm, 661 cc.
 Power 3.5 KW
 1500 rpm
 CR range 12-20
Dynamometer
Type eddy current, water cooled with loading
CHAPTER-6
FUEL CHARACTERIZATION
6.1 Introduction
The character and property of test fuel influences the output performance results since the
chemical reaction depends on its properties. So it is necessary to find out the fuel and blend
properties to explain and analyze the test result properties such as viscosity, latent heat of
vaporization, cetane number, density, kinematic viscosity, calorific value, oxygen content,
boiling point and Stoichiometric air fuel ratio affects the combustion of air fuel mixture
inside the chamber.
The carbon content and other dissolved materials cause the emission of different unwanted
gases when incomplete combustion takes place. So it is necessary to provide suitable for
complete combustion to decrease the emission. For IC engines low viscous, high miscible
fuel triggers high atomization and there by increases the combustion rate also the cetane
number proportionally related to the ignition of fuel in the chamber. The discretion of
different properties of fuel and there effects are given below.
6.2 Viscosity:
Viscosity is a property of the fluid which opposes the relative motion between the
two surfaces of the fluid that are moving at different velocities. In simple terms, viscosity
means friction between the molecules of fluid.
6.3 Latent Heat of Vaporization:

Latent heat of vaporization is actually the total amount of enthalpy (a kind of energy
heat) necessary to accomplish a phase change for a liquid or gas at the boiling condensation
point. Phase changes are generally considered at constant pressure, rather than constant
volume.
6.4 Cetane number:
Cetane number (or CN) is an inverse function of a fuel’s ignition delay, sand the time period
between the start of injection and the first identifiable pressure increase during combustion
of the lower cetane fuels. Cetane numbers are only used for the relatively light distillate
diesel oils. For heavy (residual) fuel oil two other scales are used, CCAI (Calculated Carbon
Aromatically Index) and CII.
6.5 Density:
The density, or more precisely the volumetric mass density, of a substance is its mass
per unit volume. The symbol most often used for density is p (the lower case Greek letter
rho), although the Latin letter D can also be used. Mathematically, density is identified as
mass divided by volume.
6.6 Kinematic viscosity:
Kinematic viscosity is the ratio of - absolute (or dynamic) viscosity to density- a
quantity in which no force is involved. Kinematic viscosity can be obtained by dividing the
absolute viscosity of a fluid with the fluid mass density.
6.7 Calorific value:
The calorific value is the total energy released as heat when a substance undergoes
complete combustion with oxygen under standard condition. The chemical reaction is
typically a hydrocarbon or other organic molecule reacting with oxygen to form carbon
dioxide and water and release heat.
Boiling point: The boiling point of a substance is the temperature at which the vapor
pressure of the liquid equals the pressure surrounding the liquid and the liquid changes into
a vapour.
Stoichiometric: Stoichiometric is founded on the law of conservation of mass where the
total mass of the reactants equals the total mass of the products, leading to the insight that
the relation among quantities of reactants and products typically form a ratio of positive
integers. This means that if the amounts of the separate reactants are known, then the amount
of the product can be calculated. Conversely, if one reactant has a known quantity and the
quantity of the products can be empirically determined, then the amount of the other
reactants can also be calculated.
Table. 6.1 properties of N10 and N20
Properties diesel N-butanol N10 N20
Cetane index 50 25 47.5
Kinematic Viscosity t(400c)-mm2/sec 26 3.6 23.76 21.52

Density at (300C-kg/m3) 840 810 837 834
Calorific value 43000 33100 42010 41020
Oxygen content 0 21.5 2.15 4.3
Boiling point (0C) 0 360 118 335.8 311.6
Stoichiometric air – fuel ratio 15.5 11.2 15.07 14.64
Latent heat of vaporization (kJ/kg) 250 585 283.5 317

CHAPTER-7
EXPERIMENT OBESERVATION
7.1 Introduction
Fuel combustion analysis tests are carried out on VCR engine using blends of N-
butanol and diesel. All tests are conducted by starting the engine with diesel only. After
the engine was warmed up it was then switched to blends. At the end of the test, the fuel
was switched back to diesel and the engine was kept running for some time to flush out
the blends by diesel from the fuel line and the injection system, in order to prevent the
fuel system from the accumulation of blends which may damage the system
7.2 Experimental observation for diesel
Experiment is conducted on the specific diesel engine using diesel at various

compression ratios 17.5 and 19.5 and various loads (like 0%, 25%, 50%, 75%, 100%).
And also observations are tabulated below using various loads at constant speed and
same injection pressure. The readings are used to observation the emissions and results
are tabulated. Connect the exhaust pipe to the smoke meter and exhaust gas analyzer and
corresponding readings are tabulated
Table.7.1 Experimental observation for diesel at CR 17.5:1
Load Co % HC CO2 O2 NOx Lambda Opacity

% PPM % % PPM %
0 .009 14 2.59 16.9 590 5.54 16.2
25 .012 26 3.72 15.2 1041 3.836 28.6
50 .025 39 5.12 13.1 1453 2.78 39.2
75 .087 51 6.42 10.9 1878 2.161 43.5
100 .375 72 7.84 8.55 2021 1.702 53.9
Table.7.2 Experimental observation for diesel at CR 19.5:1
Load Co % HC CO2 O2 NOx Lambda Opacity

% PPM % % PPM
%
0 0.11 10 2.6 16.91 799 5.558 15.4
25 0.28 21 3.59 15.32 1170 3.985 25
50 0.047 36 4.89 13.26 1453 2.87 33.6
75 0.243 54 6.33 10.91 1680 2.14 46.5
100 0.777 69 7.63 8.36 1796 1.65 63.7

7.3 Experimental observation for N10
Experiment is conducted on the specific diesel engine using N10 at various

compression ratios 17.5 and 19.5 and observations are tabulated below using various loads
at constant speed and same injection pressure. The readings are used to observation the
emissions and results are tabulated. Connect the exhaust pipe to the smoke meter and exhaust
gas analyser and corresponding readings are tabulated.
Table.7.1 Experimental observation for N10 at CR 17.5:1
Load % Co % HC CO2 O2 NOx Lambda Opacity

PPM % % PPM %
0 0.043 23 2.39 17.48 536 6.008 6.9
25 .033 37 4.08 15.05 1318 3.54 23.8
50 .051 46 5.37 13.17 1665 2.69 30.2
75 .185 65 6.84 10.87 2027 2.06 43.9
100 .645 70 8.54 8.36 2008 1.06 51.8


PPM % % PPM %
0 .067 32 2.1 17.73 215 6.65 2.5
25 .035 37 3.8 15.34 995 3.78 17.7
50 .047 50 5.08 13.4 1450 2.82 28.7
75 .132 75 6.67 11.21 1880 2.38 40.8
100 .502 102 8.1 8.8 1993 1.68 61.3
7.4 Experimental observation for N20:

Experiment is conducted on the specific diesel engine using N20 at various
compression ratios 17.5 and 19.5 and observations are tabulated below using various loads
at constant speed and same injection pressure. The readings are used to observation the
emissions and results are tabulated. Connect the exhaust pipe to the smoke meter and exhaust
gas analyzer and corresponding readings are tabulated.


PPM % % PPM %
0 .076 46 1.97 17.7 149 6.67 1.3
25 .029 56 3.61 15.37 826 3.92 19.1
50 .037 75 4.85 13.45 1340 2.90 26.6
75 .1 85 6.3 11.37 1910 2.22 42.9
100 .175 94 7.76 8.97 2373 1.77 42

PPM % % PPM %
0 0.002 39 2.01 17.56 489 7.05 3.8
25 0.012 43 3.59 15.42 1262 3.99 9
50 .026 60 5 13.52 1600 2.87 23.3
75 .112 78 6.14 11.51 2001 2.27 39.7
100 .57 96 7.9 8.93 2088 1.7 56.4

CHAPTER-8
RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS
8.1 Introduction
The experiments are conducted on the single cylinder, four stroke, CRDI VCR (Variable
Compression Ratio) engine connected to eddy current dynamometer diesel engine at
constant speed (1500 rpm) with varying loads with diesel and different blends of N-Butanol
like N10, N20. Various emissions of combustion analysis such as Carbon monoxide (CO),
hydrocarbon (HC), Carbon dioxide, Nitric oxide, and Smoke opacity. And also parameters
such as Cylinder pressure, Mean effective pressure, Mass fraction burned, Net heat release
rate of heat, cumulative heat release rate, and break thermal efficiency.
8.2 Carbon monoxide (CO) emissions

Carbon monoxide (CO) emissions Fig.8.1.1, 8.1.2 depicts the variation of CO emission for
diesel, its butanol blends with load. CO emission in CI engines is mainly due to insufficient
oxygen, poor mixture formation and lesser time available for CO to CO2 conversion. CO
emission in a CI engine is considerably lower compared to SI engine as it is always operated
with excess oxygen. It can be observed from the figures, that the emission of CO is
comparatively high for both chosen compression ratios (17.5:1, 19.5:1). CO is lowest for
N20 blend at compression ratio19.5:1 i.e. 36.07% lesser than normal diesel and20.46%
lesser than N10 at maximum load, and also CO is lowest for N20 blend at compression
ratio17.5:1 i.e. 20% lesser than normal diesel and 32.7% lesser than N10 at maximum load.
Among these N20 blend has given the less CO emissions in both the cases. The CO emission
for diesel operation is the highest among all the fuels tested in the study. This is because
diesel is free from oxygen. The oxygen present in the fuel molecule supplements
combustion. Butanol added to diesel in smaller proportions still lowers the CO emission at
part loads and full load. The enhanced oxygen supply due to butanol addition is the reason
for the reduction in the CO emissions.
CO VS BP
0.9
0.8
0.7
0.6 CO % N10&diesel90 CR
0.5 (19.5)
CO %
0.4
CO % N20&diesel80
0.3 CR(19.5)
0.2
0.1 CO % DIESEL(19.5)
0
0 1 2 3 4
BRAKE POWER (KW)
Fig.8.1.1 Brake Power versus CO
CO VS BP
0.6
0.5
0.4
CO%
0.3 CO % N10 CR(17.5)

CO % N20CR(17.5)
0.2
CO % DIESEL CR(17.5)
0.1
0
0 1 2 3 4
BP (KW)
Fig.8.1.2 Brake Power versus CO
8.3 Hydrocarbon (HC) emission

Hydrocarbon (HC) emissions from CI engine are lesser than SI engines. The
variation of UHC emission with load for diesel and its butanol blends is shown in Figures
HC emission is mainly due to the following factors: trapping of fuel in the crevice volume
(the volume between the piston and the cylinder liner) of a combustion chamber, low
temperature bulk quantity of oxidation reaction, locally over lean or over rich mixtures,
excessive wall impingement or incomplete fuel evaporation. HC emission of blends is found
to be higher. This may be due to its higher oxygen content of molecules which improves the
quality of combustion and less amount of fuel injected. However, blending n-butanol small
quantities marginally increases the HC. From the study, N20 blend releases more HC
emissions than the diesel and N10 blend. In the compression ratio 19.5:1, N10 release more
HC emissions at lower loads and at higher loads it releases HC emissions similar to diesel.
But in compression ratio 17.5:1, at higher loads, N10 releases more HC than the diesel and
N20 blends.
HC VS BP
120
100
80 HC N10&DIESEL90
HC (PPM)
CR(19.5)
60
HC N 20&DIESEL80 CR
40 (19.5)
20 HC DIESEL CR(19.5)
0
0 1 2 3 4
BP (KW)
Fig.8.2.1 Brake Power versus HC

HC VS BP
120
100
80 HC N10&DIESEL90
HC(PPM)
CR(17.5)
60
HC N20
40 &DIESEL80CR(17.5)
20 HC DIESEL CR(17.5)
0
0 1 2 3 4
BP (KW)
Fig.8.2.2 Brake Power versus HC
8.4 Nitric oxide (NOx) emission

The variation of nitric oxide emission with engine load for diesel, and its butanol blends is
depicted in Fig. CI engines are more prone to form higher oxides of nitrogen (NOx) since they are
always operated with a slightly lean air-fuel ratio. NO formation depends on air surplus coefficient
(the amount of air left over when the requirement has been met), oxygen concentration, in-cylinder
temperature. It can be observed from the figures, that the emission of NO is comparatively high for
both chosen compression ratios (17.5:1, 19.5:1). Among these N20 blend has given the less NO
emissions in both the cases. When compared n20 with the diesel and N10 blend at compression ratio
17.5:1, N20 got 17.4 % less emissions than the diesel and 19.06% less emissions than the N10 Blend
at full load. When compared n20 with the diesel and N10 blend at compression ratio 19.5:1, N20 got
11.80 % less emissions than the diesel and 3.99% less emissions than the N10 Blend at full load. the
NO emission for DBN20 operation is the highest among all the fuels tested in the study. As can be
observed from the figure, for the blends, the NO emission initially increases till N10 blend, while it
decreases further. The increased NO emission is due to the higher oxygen content in the blends
compared to diesel
NOX VS BP
2500
2000
NOX (ppm)
1500 NOX N10 &DIESEL 90 CR

(19.5)
1000 NOX N20&DIESEL80 CR
(19.5)
500 NOX DIESEL CR (19.5)
0
0 1 2 3 4
BP (KW)
Fig.8.3.1 Brake Power versus NOx
NOX VS BP
2500
2000
NOX (ppm)
NOX N10 &DIESEL 90 CR

1500
(17.5)
1000 NOX N20&DIESEL80
CR(17.5)
500 NOX DIESEL CR(17.5)
0
0 1 2 3 4
BP (KW)
Fig.8.3.2 Brake Power versus NOx

8.5 SMOKE OPACITY
Many scientists have described the major reasons for smoke formations are deficient
of oxygen molecules during combustion phenomena. It was found that smoke emissions
decrease considerably for N Blend fuelled CI engine, when n-butanol was added to neat
diesel smoke gets reduced drastically because of sufficient amount of oxygen was available
for stable and efficient combustion of the N fuel mixture. Overall, smoke opacity is lowest
for N10 blend at compression ratio19.5:1, it is lesser (at 22.97%) than normal diesel
and8.88% lesser than N20 at maximum load, and smoke opacity is lowest for N20 blend at
compression ratio17.5:1 i.e. 28.3% lesser than normal diesel and45.95% lesser than N20 at
maximum load.
SMOKE OPACITY VS BP
70
60
SMOKE OPACITY %
50
SMOKE OPACITY
40 N10&DIESEL90 CR (19.5)
30 SMOKE OPACITY N20
20 &DIESEL80CR(19.5)
SMOKE OPACITY DIESEL
10
CR (19.5)
0
0 1 2 3 4
BP (KW)
Fig.8.4.1 Brake Power versus smoke opacity

SMOKE OPACITY VS BP
70
60
SMOKE OPACITY %
50
SMOKE OPACITY
40 N10&DIESEL90 CR(17.5)
30 SMOKE OPACITY
20 N20&DIESEL80 CR (17.5)
10 SMOKE OPACITY DIESEL
CR(17.5)
0
0 1 2 3 4
BP (KW)
Fig.8.4.2 Brake Power versus smoke opacity
8.6 Carbon dioxide (CO2)

The carbon dioxide emissions for the diesel and N10 and N20 blends for the
compression ratios 17.5:1 and 19.5 :1 are shown in the below figure. For compression ratio
17.5:1 , at lower load , the N20 blend has less CO2 emissions than diesel and N10 blend,
but, at higher loads, the N10 blend emits more (3.316% and 4.38%) CO2 emissions than the
diesel and N20 Blend. For compression ratio 19.5:1, at lower loads the diesel emits more
CO2 emissions than the N10 and N20 blends. At higher loads, the N10 blend is slightly more
than the diesel i.e 11.9% and N20 blend i.e 8.10% and compare the diesel and N20 blend,
N20 bland emits slightly more carbon dioxide emissions i.e 3.53% at full load.
CO2 VS BP
9
8
7
6 CO2 N10&DIESEL90
5 CR(19.5)
CO2
4 CO2 N20&DIESEL80 CR
3 (19.5)
2 CO2 DIESEL CR(19.5)
1
0
0 1 2 3 4
BP (KW)
Fig.8.5.1 Break Power versus CO2
CO2 VS BP
9
8
7
6 CO2 N10 &DIESEL90 CR
5 (17.5)
CO2
4 CO2 N20 & DIESEL80

3 CR(17.5)
2 CO2 DIESEL CR(17.5)
1
0
0 1 2 3 4
BP (KW)
Fig.8.5.2 Brake Power versus CO2

8.7 Mean effective pressure vs crank angle:
Mean effective pressure is a quantity relating to the operation of a reciprocating
engine is valuable measure of an engines capacity to do work that is independent of engine
displacement. The deviations of mean effective pressure for the diesel, N10 and N20 blends
under the compression ratios (17.5:1 , 19.5:1) are observed from the below figures. For both
compression ratios (17.5:1, 19.5:1) N20 blend has a slight more MEP value than the diesel
and N10 blend. N10 blend has slightly less MEP than N20 bland. Diesel has less MEP value
than both N10 and N20 blends for both the compression ratios (17.5:1, 19.5:1).
MEP VS CRANK ANGLE

7
6
mean effective pressure
5
4 DP/Dq N10 &DIESEL90
3 CR(17.5)
2 DP/Dq N20 & DIESEL80
1 CR(17.5)
0 DP/Dq DIESEL CR(17.5)
-400 -200 -1 0 200 400
-2
-3
crank angle (deg)
Fig.8.6.1 Crank angle versus MEF

DP/DQ VS CRANK ANGLE
7
6
5
4 DP/Dq n10 &diesel 90 CR
3 (19.5)
dp/dq
2 DP/Dq n20 &diesel80 CR

1 (19.5)
0 DP/Dq dieselCR cr(19.5)
-75 -60 -45 -30 -15-1 0 15 30 45 60 75
-2
-3
crank angle (deg)
Fig.8.6.2 Crank angle versus MEF

8.8 Mass fraction burned vs crank angle:
The mass fraction burned for the diesel , N10 and N20 blends for the compression
ratios 17.5:1 and 19.5:1 are observed from the below figures. From the study we observed
that the deviation in MFB for diesel and its blends N10 and N20 are negligible. They flow
the same flow path and are almost similar to each other. So, the MFB for diesel, N10 and
N20 blends are almost equal to each other for the compression ratios (17.5:1, 19.5:1).
MFB VS CRANK ANGLE

120
100
80 MFB N 10& DIESEL90

CR(17.5)
60
MFB
MFB N20 &DIESEL 80

40 CR(17.5)
20 MFB DIESEL CR (17.5)
0
-400 -200 0 200 400
-20
crank angle (deg)
Fig.8.7.1 Crank angle versus MFB

MFB VS crank angle
120
100
80 MFB n10 DIESEL90
CR(19.5)
MFB
60
MFB n20 CR (19.5)
40
20
MFB diesel CR (19.5)
0
-400 -200 0 200 400
crank angle (deg)
Fig.8.7.2 Crank angle versus MFB
8.9 Net Heat release rate vs crank angle:

The variation of heat release rate with the crank angle at full load for the fuels tested
in this study is depicted in Fig. The maximum heat release rate depends on the delay period,
the amount of fuel that takes part in the premixed combustion and the air-fuel mixture
formation. Due to the relatively shorter delay period, higher viscosity and lower heating
value, the maximum heat release rate for N20 is higher than that of diesel at full load .The
diesel exhibit lower heat release rate than N20 and N10 blends at full load. The latent heat
of vaporization and energy content of the blends dominate the heat release rate. The heat
release rate for N20 is the higher among the tested fuels,this may be due to the less latent
heat of vaporization.
NHRR VS CRANK ANGLE
60.00
50.00
40.00
Net heat e release
Net HR dQn/dq
30.00 N10&diesel80 CR (17.5)
20.00 Net HR dQn/dq
10.00 N20&diesel80 CR(17.5)
Net HR dQn/dq diesel
0.00
CR(17.5)
-75 -60 -45 -30 -15 0 15 30 45 60 75
-10.00
-20.00
crank angle (deg)
Fig.8.8.1 Crank angle versus NHRR
NHRR VS CRANKANGLE
60.00
50.00
40.00
NET HEAT RATIO
Net HR dQn/dq
30.00 n10&diesel90 CR (19.5)
20.00 Net HR dQn/dq
n20&diesel80 CR(19..5)
10.00
Net HR dQn/dq diesel
0.00
CR(19.5)
-400 -200 0 200 400
-10.00
-20.00
crank angle (deg)
Fig.8.8.2 Crank angle versus NHRR

8.10 Crank angle vs cylinder pressure:
Cylinder peak pressure of a CI engine mainly depends on the amount of fuel accumulated in
the delay period and the combustion rate in the premixed combustion phase. It is also affected by the
fuel or mixture formation during the delay period. The variation of the cylinder pressure with crank
angle at full load for diesel, N10 and N20 is portrayed in the figure. A minor difference in the
combustion characteristics is noticed due to the variation in the fuel properties between diesel andits
n-butanol blends.The cylinder peak pressure of N20 at direct injection timing at full load is the lowest
among all the fuels tested. The peak pressure of N20 occurs slightly higher than that of diesel because
of the advancement of injection resulting due to higher density and shorter ignition delay caused by
higher cetane number of N20 for both the compression ratios(17.5:1, 19.5:1).The peak pressure of
N10 occurs little later than that of N20.This may be due to the longer ignition delay of diesel-
butanolblends as a result of reduced cetane number.
80
70 Cyl pressure(bar)
N10&Diesel90 CR(17.5)
60
CYL PRESSURE(bar)
Cyl pressure (bar)

50 N20&Diesel80 CR(17.5)
Cyl pressure(bar) diesel
40
CR(17.5)
30 Linear (Cyl pressure(bar)
N10&Diesel90 CR(17.5))
20
Linear (Cyl pressure (bar)
10 N20&Diesel80 CR(17.5))
Linear (Cyl pressure(bar)
0 diesel CR(17.5))
-75 -60 -45 -30 -15 0 15 30 45 60 75
CRANK ANGLE
Fig.8.9.1 Crank angle versus CYL Pressure

100
90
80
Cyl pressure(bar) n 10
CR(19.5)
cylinder pressure (bar)
70
Cyl pressure(bar) n20 CR
60 (19.5)
50 Cyl pressure(bar) diesel CR

(19.5)
40 Linear (Cyl pressure(bar)
n 10 CR(19.5))
30
20 n20 CR (19.5))
10 diesel CR (19.5))
0
-400 -200 0 200 400
crank angle (deg)
Fig.8.9.2 Crank angle versus CYL Pressure
8.11 Brake thermal efficiency vs BP :

The brake thermal efficiency of diesel, N10 and N20 blends for the compression ratios 17.5:1
and 19.5:1 are observed from the below figures. For compression ratio 17.5:1, at higher loads, both
the N10 and N20 blends have same BTHE and are greater then the diesel. But for the compression
ratio 19.5:1, at higher loads, both the diesel and N20 blend has equal BTHE and N10 blend has
slightly less BTHE than the diesel and N20 blend.
BTHE VS BP
35
30
25
BTHE (%) N 10 CR
BTHE (%)
20 (19.5)
15 BTHE (%) N10 CR (19.5)
10
BTHE (%) DIESEL CR
5
(19.5)
0
0 1 2 3 4
BP (KW)
Fig.8.10.1 Crank angle versus BTHE
BTHE VS BP
40
BREAK THERMAL EFFINCE (%)
35
30
25 BTHE (%) N10 CR (17.5)
20
15 BTHE (%) N20 CR (17.5)
10
BTHE (%) DIESELCR
5 (17.5)
0
0 1 2 3 4
BP (KW)
Fig.8.10.2 Crank angle versus BTHE
8.12 Cumulative heat release rate vs crank angle:

The deviations in the cumulative heat release rate for the diesel, N10 and N20 blends
for the compression ratios 17.5:1 and 19.5:1 are observed in the below figure. For the
compression ratio 17.5:1, at low crank angle the N20 blend has higher CHRR than diesel
and N10 blend, whereas the diesel and N10 has almost same CHRR and at higher crank
angle N20 blend has more CHRR than diesel and N10 blend. For the compression ratio
19.5:1, at low crank angle the diesel has highest CHRR and at high crank angle the N10
blend has the highest CHRR than diesel and N20 blend.
1.20
1.00
Cum HR
0.80 (KJ)N10&Diesel90
CHRR(kj)
CR(17.5)
0.60
cum hr (kj)
N20&Diesel80
0.40 CR(17.5)
Cum HR (KJ) Diesel
0.20 CR(17.5)
0.00
-400 -200 0 200 400
crank angle
Fig.8.11.1 Crank angle versus CHRR
C H R R VS CRANK ANGLE
1.20
1.00
Cum HR (KJ)
0.80 n10&diesel90CR(19.5
CHRR(kj)
)
0.60
Cum HR (KJ)
0.40 n20&diesel80CR(19.5
)
0.20 Cum HR (KJ)
dieselcr(19.5)
0.00
-400 -200 0 200 400
crank angle (deg)
Fig.8.9.1 Crank angle versus CHRR

CONCLUSIONS
In this investigation, an analysis was made to assess the emissions of n-butanol blends on a
single cylinder, four-stroke, water-cooled, VCR diesel engine to assess the emission
parameters of the engine. Two n-butanol blends namely K10 and K20 were tested in the test
engine.
The best results of CO emissions were observed for N20 blend at compression ratio19.5:1
i.e. 36.07% lesser than normal diesel and 20.46% lesser than N10 at maximum load, and
also CO emission was lowest for N20 blend at compression ratio17.5:1 i.e. 20% lesser than
normal diesel and 32.7% lesser than N10 at maximum load.
The best results of HC emissions were observed in the compression ratio 19.5:1, N10 release
more HC emissions at lower loads and at higher loads it had released HC emissions similar
to diesel. But in compression ratio 17.5:1, at higher loads, N10 released more HC than the
diesel and N20 blends.
The emission of NO is comparatively high for both chosen compression ratios (17.5:1,
19.5:1). Among these N20 blend has given the less NO emissions in both the cases.
The best results of CO2 emissions were observed For compression ratio 17.5:1 , at lower
load , the N20 blend has less CO2 emissions than diesel and N10 blend, but, at higher loads,
the N10 blend emits more (3.316% and 4.38%) CO2 emissions than the diesel and N20
Blend. For compression ratio 19.5:1, at lower loads the diesel emits more CO2 emissions
than the N10 and N20 blends. At higher loads, the N10 blend is slightly more than the diesel
i.e 11.9% and N20 blend i.e 8.10% and compare the diesel and N20 blend, N20 bland emits
slightly more carbon dioxide emissions i.e 3.53% at full load.
Smoke opacity was lowest for N10 blend at compression ratio19.5:1, it is lesser (at 22.97%)
than normal diesel and8.88% lesser than N20 at maximum load, and smoke opacity is lowest
for N20 blend at compression ratio17.5:1 i.e. 28.3% lesser than normal diesel and45.95%
lesser than N20 at maximum load.
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JAWAHARLAL NEHRU TECHNOLOGICAL UNIVERSITY

COMBUSTION ANALYSIS ON VCR DIESEL ENGINE USING N-

Submitted In Partial Fulfilment of Requirements for The Award of Degree of

Under the guidance of

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

This is to certify that the seminar report entitled “COMBUSTION ANALYSIS ON

INTERNAL EXAMINER EXTERNAL EXAMINER

CH.CHAITHANYA KUMAR (16HP1A0308)

1.8.Bharat stage emission standards

CHAPTER-2 LITERATURE SURVEY

CHAPTER-5 ENGINE SETUP

4. Fig.3.3 The reaction mechanism for production of n-butanol

2. Table-1.2 comparison of Kinematic viscosity at 20℃ of different fuel

3. Table1.3 Indian emission standards (4-wheeled vehicles)

5. Table1.5 Emission standards for light-duty diesel vehicles, g/km

6. Table1.6EES for passenger cars (Category M)*, g/km

7. Table1.7EES for light commercial vehicles ≤1305 kg

8. Table1.8EES for light commercial vehicles 1305–1760 kg

9. Table1.9EES for light commercial vehicles >1760 kg

10. Table.3.1first generation biomass used in butanol fermentation

Kg/KW hr = Kilogram per kilo watt – hour

Some well known alternative fuels include bio-diesel, bio-alcohol

May be used as a fuel in an internal combustion engine. It is more similar

Fig.1.1Butanol, a C-4 hydrocarbon is a promising bio-derived fuel, which shares

Butanol combustion is: C4H9OH + 6O2 → 4CO2 + 5H2O + heat

Gasoline and 2.9

1.5 BUTANOL CHARACTERISTICS: AIR-FUEL RATIO, SPECIFIC

Table-1.2 comparison of Kinematic viscosity at 20℃ of different fuel

Butanol 3.64 cSt

Diesel >3 cSt

Ethanol 1.52 cSt

Water 1.0 cSt

Methanol 0.64 cSt

Gasoline 0.4–0.8 cSt

1.6 N-BUTANOL USAGE

5 n-butanol/diesel blends up to 10% can be utilized in acetylene fuelled CI engine without

6 Addition of n-butanol improves combustion characteristics followed by the performance.

1.9 BHARAT STAGE EMISSION STANDARDS

Bharat stage emission standards (BSES) are emission standards instituted by

Standard Reference Year Region

India 2000 Euro 1 2000 Nationwide

2001 NCR*, Mumbai, Kolkata, Chennai

Bharat Stage II Euro 2 2003-04 NCR*, 13 Cities†

2005-04 NCR*, 13 Cities†

Bharat Stage III Euro 3

2010-04 NCR*, 13 Cities†

Bharat Stage IV Euro 4

Bharat Stage V Euro 5 (To be skipped)

Bharat Stage VI Euro 6 2018-04 Delhi

2020-04 [14] Nationwide

* National Capital Region (Delhi)

† Mumbai, Kolkata, Chennai, Bengaluru, Hyderabad, Ahmedabad, Pune, Surat, Kanpur,

Year Reference Test CO HC NOx PM

1992 – ECE R49 17.3–32.6 2.7–3.7 – –

1996 – ECE R49 11.20 2.40 14.4 –

2005† Euro II ECE R49 4.0 1.1 7.0 0.15

ESC 2.1 0.66 5.0 0.10

2010† Euro III

ETC 5.45 0.78 5.0 0.16

ESC 1.5 0.46 3.5 0.02

ETC 4.0 0.55 3.5 0.03

* 0.612 for engines below 85 kW

Table1.5 Emission standards for light-duty diesel vehicles, g/km

Year Reference CO HC HC+NOx NOx PM