Oscillation, Damping

and Resonance
Abstract
In this note, we will introduce oscillation system in different conditions which cause
damping and resonance, and simulate mechanical wave to discover mathematics behind those
behaviors, hoping to provide an easier way to memorize it with a clear structure and steps to
follow. Before we start, note that there are four major parts in this note :
1. Oscillation
2. Damping
3. Resonance
4. Mechanical wave

Oscillation
In this section, we will solve the equation of a spring-mass system. As shown in figure 1,
there is a spring with spring constant k attach to a object whose mass is m. By Newton’s 2nd
Law and Hooke’s Law, we know

d 2 x (t)
F =m = k x (t)
dt 2

k
where we define ω 2 = , so
m figure 1

d 2 x (t)
= ω 2 x (t)
dt 2

Now, we solve the linear differential equation x (t) using Euler's formula. First, we
assume f (t) and g(t) that

f (t) = f (0)e at and g(t) = g(0)e −at

which satisfy
d d f (t) d
= a f (t) = a 2 f (t)
dt dt dt
d dg(t) d
= ( ag(t)) = a 2 g(t)
dt dt dt

thus, we know h(t) = Ce at + De at

is one of the solution.
 Second, we consider Imaginary number i

i2 = − 1 and ω 2 = (iω)2

so
a 2 = ω 2 , a = ± iω

Finally, we solve x (t)

x1(t) = Ae iωt , x 2(t) = Be iωt

and by Euler's formula

e iθ = cos θ + i sin θ

we then get
1 iωt 1 iωt
x3(t) = e + e = cos ωt
2 2
1 iωt 1 iωt
x4(t) = e − e = sin ωt
2 2
and
x (t) = Ce iωt + De iωt
= A0 cos(ωt + α)

Damping
In this section, we will overlook a damped harmonic oscillator and discuss three types of
damping. Now, in figure 2, we put the oscillator into a box of honey which drag the mass and
cause lost of energy.

figure 2
Knowing that the drag force is proportional to the velocity of the mass, we get

d2 x (t) d x (t)
F =m = − k x (t) − b
dt2 dt

and
 d 2 x (t) b d x (t)
+ + ω02 x (t) = 0
dt 2 m dt

Now, Solve x(t)

From the first section, we can assume
x (t) = Ae βt
thus
b
β 2 Ae βt + βAe βt + ω02 Ae βt = 0
m
b
⇒(β 2 + β + ω02 )Ae βt = 0
m
b
⇒β 2 + β + ω02 = 0
m
solve β

− mb ± ( mb ) − 4ω02 b
β1,2 = , where ( ) − 4ω02 = Δ
2 m
Therefore, x (t) has different solutions with different Δ

Critical Damping (Δ = 0)
For Δ = 0, it is known that
−b
β1 = β2 =
2m
Then we get two solutions,
b
Sol1 : x1(t) = Ae − 2m t
1 −1
Sol1 : x 2(t) = Ce β1t + De β 2 t, where C = and D =
β1 − β2 β1 − β2

e β1t − e β2 t
= lim
β1→β 2 β1 − β2

d
= e βt
dβ
β=β 2

b
= te − 2m t
Overdamped (Δ > 0)
As proven before, we know

x (t) = A1e β1t + A2 e β2 t

Now, we compare two types of damping to find which one decay faster.
First, assume that

1 1
x (t) = A0 e β1t + A0 e β2 t for over damping
2 2 Critical damping 1

Overdamped
By AM-GM Inequality, we know
A0 e β1t + A0 e β2 t −b Critical damping 2
≥ A02 e β1t e β2 t = A0 e 2m t
2
thus overdamped ≥ critical damping. Graph 1
Therefore, critical damping decay faster as shown in the graph 1.

Underdamped (Δ < 0)
Knowing that Δ < 0, we have

b 2
4ω02 − ( ) >0
m

then, let
b 2
4ω02 − ( ) = 4(ω′)2
m
k b2 2 k
⇒ − = (ω′) , where = ω02
m 4m 2 m
Thus
−b
β1 = 2m
+ iω′
−b −b
β2 = 2m
− iω′ x (t ) = e 2m cos(ω t )

−bt
x1(t) = e β1t = e 2m e iω′t
−bt
β2t iω′t
x 2(t) = e = e 2m e

Finally, Graph 2
x (t) + x 2(t) −b
x (t) = 1 = e 2m t cos(ω′t)
2







Resonance
In this section, we will introduce resonance, Q factor and some applications of it. Now,
we add a periodical driving force to the damping system as shown in the figure 3.

figure 3

It is known that F(t) = F0 cos(ωt), and combine with the drag force, we have

m a(t) + b v(t) + k x (t) = F0 cos(ωt)

then

d2 b d 2
F0 2 k
x (t) + x (t) + ω0 x (t) = cos(ωt) , where ω0 =
dt 2 m dt m m

After the system achieve its stable state, we can solve x (t) that

x (t) = A cos(ωt + α)

Now, solve A and α

As above, we have

b F
Aω 2 cos(ωt + α) − ω A sin(ωt + α) + ω02 A cos(ωt + α) = 0 cos(ωt)
m m

[ ] m
b F
⇒ A (ω02 − ω 2) cos(ωt + α) − ω sin(ωt + α) = 0 cos(ωt)
m

( m )
2
bω F
(ω0 −ω ) + − × sin (ωt + α + β) = 0 cos(ωt)
2 2 2
⇒A
m

where

ω02 − ω 2
β = arccos
(ω02 − ω 2) + ( m )2
2 bω
 sin(ωt + α + β ) F 1
⇒A = 0
cos(ωt) m
(ω02 − ω 2) + ( m )2
2 bω

Then we simplify the function A(t) to the maximum amplitude A, so that it is irrelevant
to time.
F0 1
A=
m (ω02 − ω 2 )2 + (
bω 2
)
m

F0 2 1
A2 = ( )
m (ω02 − ω 2 )2 + ( bω )2
m
F0 2 1
=( )
m (ω0 − ω)2(ω0 + ω)2 + ( bω )2
m

Finally, we can plot the graph of A 2(ω) A2 2

Amax

Next, find Δω
2
Amax
2
It is known that Δω is the bandwidth at half of Amax Δω Δω 2

Δω = | ω0 − ω |

For ω0 → ω, we simplify A 2 that

F0 2 1 ω0 ω
A2 = ( )
m 4ω 2(ω − ω)2 + ( bω0 )2
0 0 m Graph 3

1 2
and assume A 2 = A , we have
2 max
bω0 2 bω
4ω02(ω0 − ω)2 + ( ) = 2( 0 )2
m m

( 2m )
2
2 b
⇒ (ω0 − ω) =

Hence
b
Δω = | ω0 − ω | =
2m
Q factor
The Quality factor or Q factor is dimensionless parameter that describe how
underdamped an oscillator is. It is defined as the ratio of the initial energy stored in the
system to the energy lost in each the cycle of oscillation, which written as
1 d x(t) 2 k
< 2 m( dt
) + 2 x 2(t) >
Q= d x(t) d x(t)
< b dt dt ω2π >
0

where x (t) = A cos(ωt + α)

Then, after skip a lot of calculations, we get

< m( ) >
d x(t) 2
dt
Q=
< b ω2π ( ) >
d x(t) 2

0 dt
m ω0
=( )
b 2π
ω0 1
=
(2Δω) 2π

Therefore, we conclude that Q factor is related to Δω, and narrower the bandwidth is,
the better the oscillator is.

Applications in electronics
Mechanical wave
In this section, we will introduce mechanical wave, phase velocity and group velocity .
Now, by connecting multiple spring-mass oscillators in series, we can simulate mechanical
wave as shown in the figure 4.

k k k k
m m m m
a a a a

Ψn−1(t) Ψn(t) Ψn+1(t)

Figure 4
It is known that each oscillator move at distance Ψ(t) as the n’s oscillator oscillate with
a phase delay of k n a, where a is spring length.

Ψn(t) = A cos(ωt − k n a)

Frequency
By Newton’s 2nd Law and Hooke’s Law, we know

d 2 Ψn(t)
F =m = k (Ψn+1(t) − Ψn(t)) − k (Ψn(t) − Ψn−1(t))
dt 2

Recall that
Ψn(t) = A cos(ωt − k n a)
then
m ω 2 A cos(ωt − k n a) = k A [cos(ωt − k (n + 1)a) − cos(ωt − k n a)
+cos(ωt − k (n − 1)a) − cos(ωt − k n a)]

k
⇒ ω 2 cos(ωt − k n a) = [−2cos(ωt − k n a)+cos(ωt − k n a − k a)
m
+cos(ωt − k n a + k a)]

and we compute the red part first

cos(ωt − k n a + k a) + cos(ωt − k n a − k a) = 2 cos(ωt − k n a)cos(k a)

thus
−2k
⇒ ω 2 cos(ωt − k n a) = cos(ωt − k n a)[1 − cos(k a)]
m
 Finally
−2k
ω2 = [1 − cos(k a)]
m
ka
= 4ω02 sin2( )
2
ka
⇒ ω = 2ω0 sin( )
2
Initial Energy
Now, we compute average initial energy of the whole system. Note that < > means
“average of”’.

( )
1 d Ψn(t) 2 1
+ k (Ψn+1(t) − Ψn(t)) >
2
E=< m
2 dt 2

Knowing that Ψn(t) = A cos(ωt − k n a), we have

[2
1 1
E = < A2 m ω 2 sin2(ωt − k n a)) + k (cos2(ωt − k n a) + cos2(ωt
2
−k n a − n a) − 2 cos(ωt − k n a)cos(ωt − k n a − n a))] >

and we compute the rad part first, which is equal to

−2 [cos(ωt − k n a)cos(k a) + sin(ωt − k a)sin(k a)] cos(ωt − k n a)

also recall that

1 1
< sin2 θ t > = and < cos2 θ t > =
2 2
Hence

[2 ]
1 1 1
E = A2 m ω 2 + k (1 − cos k a)
2 2

[ ( 2 ) ] ( 2 )
ka 1 − cos k a k ka
= A 2 k sin2 +k , where ω 2 = 4 sin2
2 m
ka
= 2k A 2 sin2
2

Finally, we know that

( 2 )
2k A 2 ka
Energy stored per unit length = sin2
a
Power
It is known that the average power per unit mass is
W = < kΔΨ ⋅ V >
d Ψn(t)
= < k (Ψn+1(t) − Ψn(t)) >
dt
d Ψn(t) d Ψn(t)
= k < Ψn+1(t) > , since < Ψn(t) >=0
dt dt
= k < ω A sin(ωt − k n a)Acos(ωt k n a − k a) >

= k ω A 2 < sin(ωt k n a)sin(ωt − k n a)sin(k a) >

1
= k ω A 2 sin(k a)
2

Phase Velocity
Phase velocity is often seen as the velocity of a wave, and by definition

ω 2 k ka
Vph = = sin( )
k k m 2

ka
Note that in non dispersive medium, as ωa ≪ 1, ω = 2ω0 sin ≈ ω0 a k, Vph is not
2
related to ω, and Vph = VG.

Group Velocity
First, we compute the energy transfer velocity VE that

averge power per unit mass

VE =
averge energy stored per unit lenth
1
2
k ω A 2 sin(k a)
= 2 ka
a
k A 2 sin2( 2 )
ka
2ω0 sin( 2 )sin(k a)
= 1
a
sin2( ka
2
)
ka
= a ω0 cos( )
2
dω
=
dk
Assuming that there are two wave superpose such that
A cos (ωt − k a)+A cos [(ω + Δω)t − (k + Δk)a]
α +β α−β
= 2A cos α cos β

, where
(2ω + Δω)t (2k + Δk)

{α − β = (ω + Δω)t − (k + Δk)a
α + β = ωt − k x α= 2
− 2
a ≈ ωt − k a
⇒
Δω Δk
β=− 2
t + 2
a

then

( ) ( 2 2 )
(2ω + Δω)t (2k + Δk) Δω Δk
2A cos α cos β = 2A cos − a cos − t+ a
2 2

Therefore,
Δω dω
VG = = as two wave are near.
Δk dk

Compute Speed of Sound

γP0
Vs =
ρ0