CIVL2006 Soil Mechanics

Topic 0: Introduction

Dr. Fiona Kwok

Room 521, Haking Wong Building
The University of Hong Kong
Tel: (852) 2859 2655
Email: fiona.kwok@hku.hk
Course Administration
Topics 1 – 6: Dr. Fiona Kwok
E-mail: fiona.kwok@hku.hk
Room 521, Haking Wong Building
Tel: 2859 2655
Topics 7 – 12: Dr. Beatrice Baudet
E-mail: baudet@hku.hk
Room 523, Haking Wong Building
Tel: 2859 2673

Teaching Assistants:
Mr. Zhou Jianmei Ms. Shi Yi
E-mail: u3001691@hku.hk E-mail: u3001952@hku.hk
Soil Lab (L02), Haking Wong Building

Assessment:

Type Percentage of Total (%)

Written examination (3 hours) 60
Laboratory work (9 hours) 20
Tutorial and coursework (1 hour/week) 20
Text books
Knappett, J.A. and Craig, R.F. (2012).
Craig’s Soil Mechanics. Spon Press (Essential)
Main Library 624.15136 K677 c88, 624.1513 C88 (2004 edition)
Electronic book (2004 edition) on ebrary as well

‘The best introductory text into the world of geotechnics. Clear, concise and easy to
understand.’

Atkinson, J. (2007).
The Mechanics of Soils and Foundations. Taylor & Francis
Main Library 624.15136 A87
Electronic book on ebrary as well

‘For those who want to learn soil mechanics a little bit more. Cover some advanced
topics. The author is renowned for outlining basic concepts in a very clear and
straightforward manner.’

Das, B.M. (2010).

Principles of Geotechnical Engineering. Cengage Learning
Main Library 624.15136 D22 p

‘An American-style textbook with a careful balance between theory and practical
applications. Particularly well-written in topics such as consolidation theory, settlement
analysis and earth pressure problems.’
Course Outline
1. Basic characteristics of soils 2 hours
2. Soil testing and classification 2 hours
3. Seepage 2 hours
4. Effective stress 1 hour
5. Consolidation theory and settlement analysis 4 hours
6. Soil compaction 1 hour

7. Soil testing techniques 2 hours

8. Shear strength and failure criteria 4 hours
9. Applications of soil mechanics in engineering practice 2 hours
10. Lateral pressures and retaining structures 2 hours
11. Bearing capacity of foundations 2 hours
12. Slopes and embankments 2 hours
Total Lecture Hours 26 hours
Laboratory work (20% Total course mark)
1. Sieve analysis and grain size analysis (§ 1.4-1.5)
2. Liquid and plastic limits (§ 1.3)
3. Permeability test (§ 2.2)
4. Shear box test (§ 5.4-5.5)
5. Consolidation test (§ 4.2, 4.4-4.6)
6. Unconfined compression test (§ 4.2)

NOTE:
 You must attend your assigned laboratory sessions and hand in the
reports on time.
 Some groups may have been assigned to do the lab well before they
are taught the relevant topics in lectures (due to timetabling problems).
 Please read the relevant chapters in Craig’s book (marked § above)
and the laboratory manual to familiarise yourself before going to the lab.
Typical soil tests covered in this course
Laboratory Tests ASTM British Note
Standard
USCS Soil Classification D2487 N/A Classification of soils and soil-aggregate mixtures for highway
construction purposes
British Soil Classification System (BSCS) N/A BS 1377-2:1990 Methods of test for soils for civil engineering purposes.
Classification tests
Atterberg Limit Tests D4318 BS 1377-2:1990 Liquid limit, plastic limit, and plasticity index of soils
Permeability Tests D2434 BS 1377-5:1990 Permeability of granular soils (constant head)
Shear Box Test D3080 BS 1377-7:1990 Direct shear test of soils under consolidated drained conditions
Consolidation Test D2435 BS 1377-6:1990 One-dimensional consolidation properties of soil
Unconfined Compressive Strength Test D2166 BS 1377-5:1990 Unconfined compressive strength of cohesive soil (oedometer)
Relative Density Tests D4253 BS 1377-2:1990 Maximum index density and unit weight using a vibratory table
D4254 Minimum index density and unit weight
Proctor/ Modified Proctor Test D698 BS 1377-4:1990 Laboratory compaction characteristics
D1557
Triaxial Stress Tests D2850 BS 1377-8:1990 Unconsolidated Undrained tests, cohesive soil
D4767 Consolidated Undrained tests, cohesive soil

Field Tests ASTM British Note

Standard
Standard Penetration Test (SPT) D1586 BS EN ISO Penetration test and split-barrel sampling of soils
22476-3:2005
Cone Penetration Test (CPT) D3441 BS EN ISO Deep, quasi-static, cone and friction cone penetration tests of
22476-3:2005 soils
Coursework (20% Total course mark)
There are altogether 4 coursework sheets. You have to submit your
answers to ALL questions:
1. Phase Relationships and Classification of Soil
2. Water Flow and Flow Net
3. Total and Effective Stresses
4. Consolidation and Settlement

NOTE:
 You must complete all 4 coursework sheets, plus score an average of
50 marks in order to pass this 20% component.
 Please do not copy from others. Treat these coursework as study aids
and their aims are to help you to learn the subject and to reinforce your
knowledge.
Written examination (60% Total course mark)
Section A: 3 questions set from Topics 1 – 6
Section B: 3 questions set from Topics 7 – 12
You have to complete 5 out of 6 questions from ANY section in 3 hours

NOTE:
 Closed book exam
 A supplementary data sheet will be available with the exam paper to
provide information on soil classification and consolidation.
 Each question carries 20 marks.
 Time management: You should aim at finishing one question in 35
minutes.
 You should complete all graph plots (excluding sketches and drawings)
on the graph papers provided with you in the exam hall.
 This course is a pre-requisite of many 3rd year geotechnical courses.
You must pass CIVL2006 in order to enroll on these courses.
Lectures, Notes and Study Tips
 Before the lecture: Have a quick look at the notes to get a general impression of the
lecture topic.
 At the lecture: Pay attention at class and drop notes where necessary. You are
welcome to raise out any questions during the lecture. Open discussion and
participation in class are welcome!
 After the lecture: Study the notes once and try to do the example questions. It is
most effective if you could spend 2-3 hours a week to revise the lecture materials
(rather than leaving it to the last week before exam to rush for revision!).
 The notes are designed to facilitate learning and presentation in class. They are by
no means substitutes to a standard textbook. You are advised to read the relevant
parts in Craig’s/ Atkinson’s book for a complete learning experience.
 This course is an introductory course to the world of geotechnical engineering. The
theories and concepts covered here are building blocks to advanced modules in 3rd
year. Make sure you understand the lecture materials and example questions –
please ask me or the TAs if you encounter any problems.
 Each set of notes consists of the main text + example questions + further reading.
The corresponding book chapters are listed in each sub-section divider page for
easy reference. A learning pal will pop up from time to time to provide you important
reminder/ extra information. Make good use of him as part of your study.

 Develop a personal interest in soil mechanics. Always ask questions and think out of
the box.
What is Soil Mechanics?
 Soil mechanics describes the mechanical behaviour of a
granular material as it is compressed or sheared, and as
water flows though it.
 It is a discipline that applies principles of engineering
mechanics (e.g. kinematics, dynamics, fluid mechanics)
and mechanics of material, to predict the mechanical
behaviour of soils.
 Together with rock mechanics, it is the basis for solving
many engineering problems in geotechnical engineering.
 Soil's mechanical properties: strength, stiffness,
permeability. These depend primarily on the nature of the
soil grains, the current stress, the water content and unit
weight.
Why do we need to study soil mechanics?

Soil as an engineering material

built on: foundations to buildings, bridges.
built in: tunnels, culverts, basements.
built with: roads, runways, embankments, dams.
supported: retaining walls, quays.

(Atkinson, 2007)
 Sandcastles
What holds them up?

http://jarrettscastle.com/ World’s tallest sandcastle (38 ft), Connecticut, USA

 Leaning Tower
of Pisa
Differential settlement

800-year mystery on a World Heritage, Pisa, Italy http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leaning_Tower_of_Pisa

 Teton dam Piping dam failure

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Teton_Dam Highest dam (350 ft) failure in history, Idaho, USA

Niigata earthquake in 1964, Japan (Mw = 7.6) http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1964_Niigata_earthquake

Niigata Soil liquefaction

earthquake
 Construction activities associated with soil
Foundation Systems Tunnelling Excavations

CIVL3008/ 6027 Foundation engineering CIVL6083 Practical design and construction of tunnels CIVL3034 Earth retaining system

TESTING AND MEASUREMENTS MODELLING AND COMPUTATIONS

Soil
Mechanics

CIVL3032 Geotechnical testing, instrumentation and monitoring CIVL3029 Numerical analysis in geotechnical engineering
CIVL6077 Ground investigation and soil testing CIVL6004/ 8021 Advanced soil mechanics CIVL8013 Advanced numerical modelling in geomechanics

Slope Engineering Mining and Rock engineering Environmental Geotechnics

CIVL2002 Engineering geology and rock mechanics CIVL3033/ 6028 Ground improvement
CIVL3014/ 6079 Slope engineering CIVL6078 Rock engineering CIVL3034 Environmental geotechnology
 Qualifications Ladder
Registered Geotechnical Engineer (RGE)
Familiar with HK building regulations 1 year

Registered Professional Engineer (RPE)

in Geotechnical Discipline
Responsible experience after chartership 1 year

Chartered Engineer Status

MHKIE(Geotechnical) MICE, CEng

Pass professional assessment 3 + 1 years

Scheme ‘A’ Training under Geotechnical Discipline

Government Private Sector Consultants Contractors

Study hard! 3/ 4 years

Civil Engineering Degree accredited by HKIE or equivalent
YOU ARE HERE!!
Internet Resources
Professional Organisations
 Geotechnical Division, Hong Kong Institution of Engineers (HKIE): http://hkieged.org/
 Association of Geotechnical and Geoenvironmental Specialists (Hong Kong): http://www.ags-
hk.org/
 International Society for Soil Mechanics and Geotechnical Engineering: http://www.issmge.org/
 British Geotechnical Association: http://bga.city.ac.uk/cms/
 GEO Institute, American Society of Civil Engineers (ASCE): http://www.asce.org/geo/

Interesting Websites
 Craig’s Soil Mechanics Online Learning Resources: http://www.routledge.com/cw/craig-
9780415561266/s1/students/
 Hong Kong Slope Safety Website, GEO: http://hkss.cedd.gov.hk/
 MTR Network Expansion Projects: http://www.mtr.com.hk/eng/projects/projects_new_index.html/
 Stephen Hui Geological Museum, HKU: http://www.earthsciences.hku.hk/shmuseum/
 CIVCAL Virtual Site Visit: http://civcal.media.hku.hk/Default.htm
 Geoengineer: http://www.geoengineer.org/
 Civil Engineering Portal: http://www.engineeringcivil.com/
 Geotechnical 101: http://www.geotechnical101.com/
 Alert Geomaterials: http://alertgeomaterials.eu/
What you’re expected to learn by the end of the
course?
 Obtain a thorough understanding, both theoretical and experimental, of soil
behaviour
 Recognise and describe a range of soil types using a proper soil classification
scheme
 Understand and apply the Effective Stress Theory in order to predict the ground
response under different conditions of loading, soil type and groundwater states
 Suggest appropriate tests and strength criteria for soils to predict their behaviour
under loading. Explain the microscopic and macroscopic behaviour involved
during the soil loading processes
 Analyse problems associated with groundwater seepage to predict the
performance of structures and associated risks
 Recognise the limitations of fundamental soil theories and the need for more
advanced constitutive models
 Utilise soil properties to perform various types of engineering calculations
 Identify the important role of geotechnical engineering within the engineering
profession
 CIVL2006 Soil Mechanics
Topic 1: Basic Characteristics of Soils

Dr. Fiona Kwok

Room 521, Haking Wong Building
The University of Hong Kong
Tel: (852) 2859 2655
Email: fiona.kwok@hku.hk
1.1 The Origin of Soils and Their Varieties

Relevant Readings:
Knappett & Craig (2012): Chapter 1.1-1.2
Atkinson (2007): Chapter 4, 5.8
Rock and Soil
Rock
 exhibit strong and permanent cohesive forces
between the mineral particles.
 cannot be broken down or partially broken down
by hand depending on the weathered conditions.

Soil
 is an aggregate of loose mineral and organic
particles.
 can be broken down by hand into its constituent
grains.
Origins of Soils (1)
All soils originate, directly or indirectly, from solid rocks in the
Earth's crust:
 Igneous rocks
crystalline bodies of cooled magma
e.g. granite, basalt, dolerite, gabbro, syenite, porphyry
 Sedimentary rocks
layers of consolidated and cemented sediments, mostly formed
in bodies of water (seas, lakes, etc.)
e.g. limestone, sandstones, mudstone, shale, conglomerate
 Metamorphic rocks
formed by the alteration of existing rocks due to heat from
igneous intrusions (e.g. marble, quartzite, hornfels) or pressure
due to crustal movement (e.g. slate, schist, gneiss).
Origins of Soils (2)
Soils are the results of geological events. The nature and
structure of a given soil depends on the geological processes that
formed it:
 Breakdown of parent rock: weathering, decomposition, erosion.
 Transportation to deposition: flood plain, river by gravity,
flowing water, ice or wind.
 Environment of final , glacial moraine, lacustrine or marine.
 Subsequent conditions of loading and drainage – little or no
surcharge, heavy surcharge due to ice or overlying deposits,
change from saline to freshwater, leaching, contamination.

Soil is uncemented or weakly cemented accumulation of mineral particles formed by

weathering of rocks, with void space between particles containing water and/or air
The Geological Cycle

Soil formation (Forward Cycle)

 Soils and rocks close to the Earth surface are exposed to atmosphere,
and are weathered, eroded, transported and deposited.
Rock formation (Backward Cycle)
 Deep burials convert soil back to rock by sediment formation and crustal
movements.

(Atkinson, 2007)
Weathering
Weathering is the breaking down of rock into smaller and smaller particles. Soils
formed by weathering in-situ are called residual soils.

1. Physical weathering
 Physical or mechanical processes taking place on the Earth's surface, including
the actions of water, frost, temperature changes, wind and ice
 Physical disintegration and wearing of rock pieces without a change in
composition; results in size reduction.
 The products are mainly coarse soils (sands and gravels).
 Gravels consist of fractured rock particles, but sands mainly consists of mineral
grains.

2. Chemical weathering
 Occurs in wet and warm conditions and consists of degradation by
decomposition and/or alteration; results in changes in mineralogy.
 The results of chemical weathering are generally fine soils with separate
mineral grains, such as clays and clay-silts.
 The type of clay mineral depends on the parent rock and on local drainage.
Transportation and Deposition
Transportation
 Due to combinations of gravity, flowing water or air, and moving ice.
 In water or air: grains become sub-rounded or rounded, grain sizes are sorted, producing
poorly-graded deposits.
 In moving ice: grinding and crushing occur, size distribution becomes wider, deposits are
well-graded, ranging from rock flour to boulders.
Deposition
 In flowing water, larger particles are deposited as velocity drops, e.g. gravels in river
terraces, sands in floodplains and estuaries, silts and clays in lakes and seas.
 In still water: horizontal layers of successive sediments are formed, which may change
with time, even seasonally or daily.
 Soils formed from transportation and deposition are collectively known as deposited
soils. The fabric of deposited soils is usually bedded and layered.

Effects of geological processes

Weathering and transportation largely determine the basic nature of the soil (i.e. the size,
shape, composition and distribution of the grains).
The deposition environment, and subsequent geological events, largely determine the state of
the soil, (i.e. density, moisture content) and the structure/ fabric of the soil (i.e. bedding,
stratification, occurrence of joints or fissures, tree roots, voids, etc.)
Gravel, Sand, Silt
 Granular (non-cohesive) soils are produced mainly from the physical weathering
resulting in mechanical breakdown of rock pieces.
 Gravel (2 – 60 mm approx): Unconsolidated rock fragments, can be created
artificially by quarrying and rock crushing
 Sand (0.06 – 2 mm approx): Highly variable in composition, transported by wind
and water in the form of beaches, sand dunes and sand pits. The main
constituents are silica (in the form of quartz) and calcuium carbonate.
 Silt (0.002 – 0.06 mm approx): Fine-graded soil bigger than clay but smaller
than sand. Formed by chemical weathering, but chemically and mechanically
distinct from clay (silt has no plasticity!!). Silt is mainly composed of quartz and
feldspar.

Typical gravel found on beach Images of sand (left) and silt (right) particles from scanning electron
microscope (SEM) (Wikipedia; Mitchell and Soga, 2005)
Clay Minerals (1)
 Clay minerals (cohesive soil) are produced mainly from the chemical
weathering and decomposition of feldspars and micas.
 They are small in size and very flaky in shape, but have large specific surface
area.
 The key to some of the properties of clay soils, e.g. plasticity, compressibility,
swelling/shrinkage potential, lies in the structure of clay minerals.
Specific surface area (SSA) is the total surface
area per unit weight of a material. It depends on the
gradation and shape of soil particles. The specific
surface area of soil greatly affects its physical and
chemical properties and is primarily dependent on
the amount of clay present in soil.
Learn more at: http://courses.soil.ncsu.edu/resources/physics/texture/soilgeo.swf

Images of clay particles from scanning electron microscope (SEM) (Mitchell & Soga, 2005; Peterson, 2012)
Clay Minerals (2)
The basic structural unit of clay minerals are the silicon-
oxygen tetrahedron (Silica sheet) and the aluminium-hydroxyl
octahedron (Gibbsite sheet).
There are 3 main groups of clay minerals, based on the
different stacking forms and layering of ‘sheets’:
1. Kaolinites
(include kaolinite, dickite and nacrite)
• Single silica sheet and single gibbsite sheet held strongly
together by hydrogen bonds
2. Illites
(include illite and glauconite)
• Single gibbsite sheet sandwiched between two silica
sheets, weakly held together by non-exchangeable K ions
• Predominant in marine clays and shales (e.g. London clay)
3. Montmorillonites
(include calcium and sodium momtmorillonites, bentonite and
vermiculite)
• Same basic structure as illite. The space between sheets is
occupied by water molecules (very weak bonding),
resulting in high swelling/ shrinking potential
• Formed by the alteration of basic igneous rocks containing
silicates rich in Ca and Mg (Craig, 2004)
Characteristics of Clay Minerals
 Clay particles are flaky.
 Their thickness is very small relative to
their length & breadth, in some cases as
thin as 1/100th of the length. They
therefore have high to very high specific
surface area values.
 These surfaces carry a small negative
electrical charge, that will attract the
positive end of water molecules. This
charge depends on the soil mineral and
may be affected by an electrolite in the
pore water.
 This causes some additional forces
between the soil grains which are
proportional to the specific surface area.
Thus a lot of water may be held as
adsorbed water within a clay mass
imparting the property of plasticity.
 Plasticity is the ability of a soil to undergo
unrecoverable deformation without
cracking and crumbling.
Flocculated Dispersed

(Das, 2008; Mitchell and Soga, 2005)

Soils in Hong Kong
1. Saprolites: Decomposition of granitic
(deeper, up to 60 m) and volcanic rocks
(shallower, up to 20 m) by weathering.
These soils retain the fabric and texture
of parent rock.

2. Residual soils: Near the ground surface,

the saprolites have higher density and
their original grain structure collapses.
The parent fabric and texture are
completely destroyed.

3. Colluvium: About 15% territory is

covered by colluvial soil that is resulted
from geological mass movements
(landslides) in the past.

Stephen Hui Geological Museum has a rich and fascinating collection of rocks
and soils in Hong Kong. Go there and learn more about the 400 million-year
evolution history of Hong Kong geology.
Address: James Lee Science Building, G/F & 1/F, HKU
(GEO Report No. 41, 1996)
 1.2 Soil Description

Relevant Readings:
Knappett & Craig (2012): Chapter 1.3-1.6
Atkinson (2007): Chapter 5.1-5.4
A Rough Description of Soil
A handful of soil rubbed through the fingers can yield the following:
 SAND (and coarser) particles are visible to the naked eye.
 SILT particles become dusty when dry and are easily brushed off hands and
boots.
 CLAY particles are greasy and sticky when wet and hard when dry, and
have to be scrapped or washed off hands and boots.

Sand Clay
Origin Physical weathering Chemical weathering
Shape Angular, subangular, Plate-like
rounded
Surface area Relatively low High
Cohesion Cohesionless Cohesive and plastic
Permeability Relatively high Low
Compressibility Relatively low High
Shrinking/ swelling Relatively low High
potential
Soil description
It is important to establish a ‘standard language’ to describe the material and
mass characteristics of soil such that geotechnical engineers have a general
idea of the soil properties and state. There are 4 key descriptors:

1. The nature of the grains: The most important features of soil grains are
their size and the grading, as well as the shape and surface texture of the
grains and their mineralogy.
2. The current state of the soil: In contrary to typical engineering materials
(steel, plastics…), soil is stress/ history/ rate-dependent. The loading and
drainage history severely influences their mechanical response and
strength. The important indicators of the state of a soil are the current
stresses, the current water content and the history of loading and unloading.
3. The structure of the soil: This describes the fabric and bonding of the soil.
Natural soils are heterogeneous and they contain fabric features, such as
layers/ fissures/ bedding, which are seen in small samples and in large
exposures. In some natural soils the grains are weakly bonded together
4. The formation of the soil: The geological origins should be included in the
description of soil. Is the soil formed from physical/chemical weathering
(residual soils) or water/ice/wind deposition (deposited soils) or compaction
(treated soils)?

(Atkinson, 2007)
 Particle size
Definition of soil class according to British Soil Classification System (BS1377-2:1990)

Plastic Granular
Cohesive Cohesionless

Electron Microscope or
Microscope hand lens Naked eye

Fine-grained Coarse-grained

Note the pattern of lower and upper limits of the soil classes (also the sub-classes!). Just
remember the two magic numbers ‘2’ and ‘6’, you can then construct the whole
classification chart from free-hand easily!
Later you will learn how to classify a soil by sieve analysis using the Unified Soil
Classification System (USCS) – which has slightly different size ranges from the above
British system. Stay tuned.
(Atkinson, 2007)
Particle shape
Rounded: Flaky:
Water- or air-worn; Thickness small
transported sediments compared to
length/breadth; clays

Irregular: Elongated:
Irregular shape with round Length larger than
edges; glacial sediments breadth/thickness;
(sometimes sub-divided into scree, broken flagstone
'sub-rounded' and 'sub-
angular')

Angular: Flaky & Elongated:

Flat faces and sharp Length>Breadth>
edges; residual soils, grits Thickness; broken
schists and slates

In the case of fine soils (e.g. CLAYS and SILTS), it is the shape of the particles
rather than their size that has the greater influence on engineering properties
Loading and drainage history (1)
The current state (i.e. density and consistency) of a
soil will be profoundly influenced by the history of
loading and unloading since it was deposited.
Changes in drainage conditions also bring changes in
the soil water content.
Loading/ unloading history
 Initial loading
During deposition history, the load applied to a
layer of soil increases as more layers are
deposited over it; thus, it is compressed and water
is squeezed out; as deposition continues, the soil
becomes stiffer and stronger.
 Unloading
The principal natural mechanism of unloading is
erosion of overlying layers. Unloading can also
occur as overlying ice-sheets and glaciers retreat,
or due to large excavations made by man. Soil
expands when it is unloaded, but not as much as it
was initially compressed; thus it stays compressed
- and is said to be overconsolidated. The degree
of overconsolidation depends on the history of
loading and unloading.
(Atkinson, 2007)
Loading and drainage history (2)
Drainage history
 Chemical changes
Some soils initially deposited loosely in saline water and then inundated with fresh water
develop weak collapsing structure. In arid climates with intermittent rainy periods, cycles of
wetting and drying can bring minerals to the surface to form a cemented soil.
 Climate changes
Some clays (e.g. montmorillonite clays) are prone to large volume changes due to wetting
and drying; thus, seasonal changes in surface level occur, often causing foundation
damage, especially after exceptionally dry summers. Trees extract water from soil in the
process of evapotranspiration; The soil near to trees can therefore either shrink as trees
grow larger, or expand following the removal of large trees.

Flocculating effect of NaCl from seawater had a significant

effect on the microfabric

(Meier, 2011)
Current State of Soil
The state of soil is essentially the closeness of packing of the grains.
The important indicators of the current state of a soil are:
1. Current stresses: vertical and horizontal effective stresses
2. Current water content: affecting strength and stiffness in fine soils (i.e.
clays)
3. Liquidity index: indicates the state in fine soils
4. Relative density: indicates state of compaction in coarse soils
5. History of loading and unloading: degree of overconsolidation
 Engineering operations (e.g. excavation, loading, unloading, reloading,
compaction, etc.) on soil bring about changes in its state.
 Its initial state is the result of processes of erosion and deposition.
 It is possible for the engineer to predict changes that could result from a
proposed engineering operation: changes from the soil's current state to a
new future state.

The effects of load/ unload/ reload history and seepage are important topics in soil
mechanics. You will learn the relevant theories and perform simple calculations in Topic 3.
Structure or Fabric
The arrangement and organisation of particles and
other features within a soil mass is termed its
structure or fabric.
This includes bedding orientation, stratification,
layer thickness, the occurrence of joints and
fissures, the occurrence of voids, artifacts, tree
roots and nodules, the presence of cementing
or bonding agents between grains.
Structural features can have a major influence on
in situ properties.
 Vertical and horizontal permeabilities will be
different in alternating layers of fine and coarse
soils.
 The presence of fissures affects some aspects
of strength.
 The presence of layers or lenses of different
stiffness can affect stability.
 The presence of cementing or bonding
influences strength and stiffness.
(Holtz and Kovacs, 1981)
 1.3 Phase Relationships

Relevant Readings:
Knappett & Craig (2012): Chapter 1.6
Atkinson (2007): Chapter 4, 5.8
The Three-Phase Soil Model
 Unlike steel and concrete, soil is a particulate material composed of grains and voids
filled up with water/ air. This makes soil a very complex engineering material to model.
 Soil can be described as a three-phase model:
solid (soil particles), liquid (pore water), and gas (pore air and water vapour)
 Three possible scenarios arise:
1. Perfectly dry: no water content (oven-dried soil), 2-phase: solid + air
2. Fully saturated: no air content, 2-phase: solid + water. Most soil mechanics problems
assume a fully saturated condition.
3. Partially saturated: both air and water present, 3-phase. Needs advanced unsaturated
soil mechanics theories to characterise interactions between air and water (will not cover
in UG-level).

(Liu, 2011)
Volume-weight relationships

Volume
of air, Va
Volume of
void,
Idealisation Vv = Va + Vw
Volume of
water, Vw

Volume of
solid, Vs

Three-phase soil model

 The volume-weight properties of a soil define its state. Measures of the

amount of void space, amount of water and the weight of a unit volume of soil
are required in engineering analysis and design.
 In natural soils the three phases are intermixed. To aid analysis it is
convenient to consider a soil model in which the three phases are seen as
separate, but still in their correct proportions.
(Liu, 2011)
Soil Model: Phase Diagram

WT = Total weight VT = Total volume

Wa = Weight of air ~ 0 Va = Volume of air
Ww = Weight of water Vv = Volume of void Vw = Volume of water
Ws = Weight of solids Vs = Weight of solids
(Liu, 2011)
Soil Model: Phase Diagram
Va = (1 – Sr)e 0 0
Vv = e
Vw = Sre w Srew

Vs = 1 Gsw Gsw

Soil Model Volume Density Mass

 It is always convenient to assume the volume of soil as UNITY. Since the

amounts of both water and air are variable, it is useful to treat the volume of
solids present as the reference quantity.
 This gives rise to a very useful quantity in soil mechanics – the void ratio (e).
Void ratio is the ratio of the volume of voids (Vv) to the volume of solids (Vs):

Void ratio
(Liu, 2011)
Volume relationships (1)
 Porosity (n) is the ratio of the volume of voids (Vv) to the total volume (VT):

Porosity

 Specific volume (v) is the total volume of soil (VT) which contains unit volume
of solids (Vs).
Specific volume 1

 Degree of saturation (Sr) is the ratio of the volume of water (Vw) to the total
volume of void space (Vv).
Degree of saturation

 For a perfectly dry soil: Sr = 0

For a saturated soil: Sr = 1

Note: In clay soils, as the amount of water increases, the total volume and therefore the
volume of voids will also increase, and so the degree of saturation may remain at Sr = 1
while the actual volume of water is increasing.
Volume relationships (2)
 Connections between void ratio (e), porosity (n) and specific volume (v):

1 1

1 1

1
1 1
1 1
 It should be noted that while e is expressed as a decimal number, n is
traditionally expressed as a percentage ranging from 0 to 100%.
 Void ratios of sands may range from 0.4 to 1.0 and for clays these can vary
from 0.3 to 1.5. For soft clays and organic soils, e can be even more.

Note: For the same material, e > n in all cases. For example, when the porosity is 0.5, the
void ratio is already 1.0.
Volume relationships (3)
 The air-voids volume (Va) is that part of the void space not occupied by
water.
Air-voids volume 1

 Air-voids content (Av) is the ratio of the volume of air (Va) to the total volume
of soil (VT):
1
Air-voids content 1
1

 For a perfectly dry soil: Av = n

For a saturated soil: Av = 0

It is necessary to understand the definitions of the specific terms introduced in this handout.
The expressions relating various terms can be derived from first principles within a few
minutes. When deriving phase relationships, it is always good practice to go from the first
principles. Drawing out the phase diagram also helps you to solve the problems.
Density relationships (1)
 Bulk density () of a soil is the ratio of total mass (MT) to total volume (VT):

Bulk density (Gs introduced below)

1
 Dry density (d) of a soil is the ratio of solid mass (Ms) to total volume (VT):
Volume of soil = 1
Dry density 1 Total volume = 1 + e

 For density relationships, it is convenient to treat the density of water (w) as the
reference quantity because w = 1000 kg/m3
 This gives rise to a density term exclusive to soil mechanics – Specific gravity (Gs). It
is the ratio of density of solids (s) to density of water (w).

Specific gravity

 It has also the physical meaning of mass of a soil grain/ mass of an equal volume of
water.
 Particle density (s) is the mass per unit volume of solids
Particle density
Density relationships (2)
Determination of specific gravity of a soil:
 For fine soils a 50 mL bottle may be used.
 For coarse soils a 500 mL or 1000 mL jar
(called pycnometer) can be used.
 The jar is weighed empty (M1). A quantity
of dry soil is placed in the jar and the jar
weighed (M2).
 The jar is filled with water, air removed by
stirring, and weighed again (M3).
 The jar is emptied, cleaned and refilled
with water – and weighed again (M4).

Mass of soil
Mass of water displaced by soil Soil type Gs
Sand 2.65 – 2.67
Silty sand 2.67 – 2.70
Inorganic clay 2.70 – 2.80
Mass of water Mass of soil + water Soils with mica or iron 2.75 – 3.00
in 500 mL bottle in 500 mL bottle
Mass relationships
 Water content (w) (or sometimes called moisture content) is the ratio of the
mass of water present (Mw) to the mass of solid particles (Ms):

Water content

 Making use of the phase diagram, it can be seen that

 This gives the useful relationship:

e

Determination of water content of a soil:

 Take a sample and weigh it.
 Then dry the sample in an oven for 24 hours at 105-110°C and weigh again.
 Deduce the mass of lost water, and w can be calculated.
 Specific volume can then be indirectly determined by v = 1 + e = 1 + wGs

Note: Degree of saturation (Sr) is volume relationships. Water content (w) is mass
relationships. Don’t be confused about these two water-related terms.
Unit weight relationships (1)
 The unit weight () of a soil is the ratio of the total weight (WT) (force! In
units of N) to the total volume (VT):
Unit weight
1

 Some texts use saturated unit weight (sat) to denote unit weight of soil when
it is fully saturated, i.e. Sr = 1.
 The preferred unit of unit weight is: kN/m3. The unit weight of water (w) is
9.81 kN/m3.
 The dry unit weight (d) of a soil is the ratio of the solid weight (Ws) to the
total volume (VT):
Dry unit weight
1

 When a soil in-situ is fully saturated, the solid particles (volume: 1; weight:
Gsw × 1) will be subjected to upthrust (acting on particles, uplift weight: w ×
1). The buoyant unit weight (’) can be determined by:
1
Buoyant unit weight ′
1 1
Unit weight relationships (2)
 Connections between dry unit weight (d) and unit weight ():

 Ranges of void ratio and dry unit weight for typical granular soils:

(Das, 2008)
Relative density (1)
 Void ratio (e) represent the volume fractions of voids and solids in soil, but does
not convey the degree to which the soil may be regarded as loosely or densely
packed. This is because different grain shapes and size distributions naturally
trap different proportions of voids, even though the same effort has been made
to compact them.
 Many engineering properties are strongly affected by e, e.g. shear strength,
compressibility, permeability.
 It is therefore useful to measure the in situ state and this can be done by
comparing the in situ void ratio (e) with the minimum and maximum practical
values (emin and emax) to give a relative density (ID):

ID = 0 if a soil is in its loosest possible state (e = emax)

ID = 1 if a soil is in its densest possible state (e = emin)

(Andrade, 2011)
Relative density (2)
Relative density tests in laboratory:

Densest possible state (emin or ρdmax or ID = 1) is

obtained by vibrating a standard soil mold under load
at high amplitude for 10 minutes

e
emax
Loose sample
contracts
Dense sample
dilates emin
ln ’
Loosest (stable) state (emax or ρdmin or ID = 0) is
obtained by pouring the soil sample through a funnel

ID (%) 0 – 15 15 – 35 35 – 65 65 – 85 85 – 100

State Very Loose Medium Dense Very

loose dense
Unit weight relationships

S = Sr in our notes

The third column is the special case of first column when Sr = 1

(Das, 2001; Liu, 2011)
Volume/ Mass relationships

Vg = Va in our notes
S = Sr in our notes
SG = Gs in our notes
Density/ Combined relationships
Quiz Time
State whether the followings are true or false?
1. Dry density is greater than submerged density.
2. In unsaturated soils, water content is always less than 100%.
3. The higher the void ratio of a sample, the higher is its porosity.
4. Clays are soil particles with size less than 0.006 mm.
5. Specific gravity is the ratio of the mass of solid particles to the mass of
water.

dry density = (Gs/(1+e))*water density

submerged density = saturated density - water density

= ((Gs + e)/ (1+ e))*water density - water density
= ((Gs-1)/(1+e))*water density

So dry density must be greater than submerged density

Example 1.1
Derive, from first principle, the following relationships
(a) 1
(b) γ 1 1
(c)
Example 1.1 Solutions (1)
⁄
(a) Void ratio 1 ⁄ 1
1
Total volume = 1 + e = 1
1 1
Solid volume = 1
as 1

Therefore, the dry unit weight is:

1
1
1

1
(b) 1 1
1
Example 1.1 Solutions (2)
(c) For fully saturated soils (no air),

Water content 1

Putting into the first equation,

1
1 1 1 1
Example 1.2
For the following soil data,
 Weight of soil sample = 1000 g
 Volume of soil sample = 590 cm3
 Specific gravity = 2.65
 Dry weight of soil = 865 g

Determine the water content, void ratio, porosity and degree of saturation of the
soil sample. Also determine the dry unit weight.
 Example 1.2 Solutions (1)
Draw the phase diagram with the provided information. It helps you to think through your
calculation steps.

Air 0
1000 865 0 g
135 g
Water
590 1000

Solid 865 2.65 1000 kg/m

Gs = 2.65 2650 kg/m
2.65 g/cm
Volume (cm3) Mass (g)

865 g
2.65 g/cm
326.4 cm
Example 1.2 Solutions (2)
135 g
Similarly,
1 g/cm
135.0 cm

590 329.6 135.0 cm

125.4 cm

135 g
Water content: 0.156 15.6%
865 g
135.0 125.4 cm
Void ratio: 0.798
326.4 cm

Porosity: 135.0 125.4 cm

0.441 44.1%
590 cm

Many students mixed up definitions of void ratio and porosity. Void ratio is the ratio of
volume of void (water and air) to volume of solids, while porosity is the ratio of volume of
void to the total soil volume.
Example 1.2 Solutions (3)
135.0 cm
Degree of saturation: 0.518 51.8%
135.0 125.4 cm
865 g 9.81 m s 0.865 kg 9.81 m s
Dry unit weight:
590 cm 5.9 10 m
14382 N/m
14.38 kN/m

125.4 Air 0

Water
135.0 w = 15.6% 135
590 1000

326.4 Solid 865

Gs = 2.65

Volume (cm3) Mass (g)

Example 1.3
What is the degree of saturation (Sr) for a sand sample with Gs = 2.65, ρ =
1840 kg/m3 and w = 17%?
Example 1.3 Solutions (1)
RECALL YOUR MEMORY
Degree of saturation (Sr) is volume relationships. Water content (w) is mass relationships.

17% 0.17

Since the mass of any air void is negligible, and for a 1 m3 sample (any VT
won’t affect the results anyway)

1840 kg
0.17 1840 kg
1572.6 kg
267.4 kg

RECALL YOUR MEMORY

Definition of specific gravity.

1572.6 kg
2.65 0.593 m
2.65 1000 kg/m
Example 1.3 Solutions (2)
Similarly, the water volume (Vw) is
267.4 kg
0.267 m
1000 kg/m

The air volume (Va) is

0.140 Air 0
1 0.593 0.267 m
0.140 m Water
0.267 267.4
1.0 w = 17% 1840
Degree of saturation (Sr):
0.267 m
0.593 Solid 1572.6
0.267 0.140 m
Gs = 2.65
0.66
66%
Volume (m3) Mass (kg)

Degree of saturation (Sr) is best expressed in percentage as the final answer.

 2010 Fall Exam Q1a
Example 1.4
A soil has a wet unit weight of 17.6 kN/m3 and a moisture content of 8%.
The specific gravity of the solid particles is 2.72. Determine the degree of
saturation.
Example 1.4 Solutions (1)
RECALL YOUR MEMORY
Recall the two essential equations involving degree of saturation

(definition)

e (phase linking relationship)

At first glance, given the conditions supplied at the question, it is immediately recognised to
solve the problem using equation 2, rather than dealing with the mass-volume relationships
(you can still do it this way, but it will take you longer to find the solutions).

17.6 kN/m
Dry unit weight: 16.3 kN/m
1 1 0.08

16.3 1000 N/m

Dry density: 1662 kg/m
9.81 N/kg

1
Example 1.4 Solutions (2)
2.72 1000 1662
Void ratio: 0.64
1662

With the use of phase linking equation:

e
0.08 2.72
0.34 34%
0.64
Example 1.5
Borrow soil is used to fill a 75,000 m3 depression. The borrow soil has the
following characteristics: density = 1540 kg/m3, water content = 8%, and
specific gravity of the solids = 2.66. The final in-place dry density should be
1790 kg/m3, and the final water content should be 13%.
(a) How many cubic metres of borrow soil are needed?
(b) Assuming no evaporation loss, what water mass is needed to achieve 13%
moisture?
(c) What will be the density of the in-place fill after a long rain?
Example 1.5 Solutions (1)
Always draw the phase diagram to clarify the situation first.

BORROW FILL

Air 0 Air 0

Water Water
w = 8% w = 13%
1

Solid 1790 Solid

Gs = 2.66 Gs = 2.66 1790

Volume (m3) Mass (kg) Volume (m3) Mass (kg)

The air has no mass. The soil content (mass) is the same at both locations
(i.e. placing 1790 kg of solids requires taking 1790 kg of borrow solids).
Example 1.5 Solutions (2)
For each 1 m3 soil,
, , 1790 kg

Since the final water content is required to be 13%, the mass of water per 1
m3 of fill is: , , 0.13 1790 kg 232.7 kg

The total mass and density of the fill is:

, , , 1790 232.7 kg 2022.7 kg
, 2022.7 kg
2022.7 kg/m
1m

Constantly update the phase diagram as you find new results. This helps to inspire your
next calculation steps.

Since s = Ms/Vs, the volume of solids in the fill is:

, , 1790 kg
, 0.673 m
, , 2.66 1000 kg/m
Example 1.5 Solutions (3)
Similarly, the volume of water in the fill is:
, 232.7 kg
, 0.233 m
, 1000 kg/m
The volume of air in the fill:
, , , , 1 0.673 0.233 m 0.094 m

The mass of water per 1 m3 of fill in the borrow soil is:

, , 0.08 1790 kg 143.2 kg

The total mass of borrow soil per 1 m3 of fill is:

, , , 1790 143.2 kg 1933.2 kg

The total volume of borrow soil per 1 m3 of fill is:

, 1933.2 kg
, 1.26 m
1540 kg/m

The mass of solids in 1 m3 of fill is the same as the mass of solids in 1.26 m3 of borrow
soil. Since the mass is the same, the volume of solids is also the same, even though the
total soil density is different.
, , 0.673 m
Example 1.5 Solutions (4)
The volume of water in the borrow soil is:
, 143.2 kg
, 0.143 m
, 1000 kg/m
The volume of air in the borrow soil:
, , , , 1.26 0.673 0.143 m 0.444 m

(a) Since 1.26 m3 borrow soil is required for every 1 m3 of fill:

1.26 m
, 75,000 m 94,500 m
1m
This is the volume of soil needed for the construction job.

(b) The amount of water needed to achieve 13% water content is the
difference in mass of water between the fill and borrow soil.
Mass of water in the borrow soil for the construction job:
, ,

, ,

, 94,500 m
, , 143.2 kg 1.074 10 kg
, 1.26 m
Example 1.5 Solutions (5)
Mass of water required in the fill for the construction job:
, 75,000 m
, , 232.7 kg 1.745 10 kg
, 1m
The required additional mass of water for the construction job:
∆ , , 1.745 1.074 10 kg
6.71 10 kg

(c) After a long rain, all the void spaces will be filled up with water and the
density will become saturated density.
0.233 0.094 m 1000 kg/m
327.0 kg
1790 327.0 kg
2117 kg/m
1m
Example 1.5 Solutions (6)

BORROW FILL

0.444 Air 0 0.094 Air 0

Water Water
0.143 143.2 0.233 232.7
w = 8% 1 w = 13%
1.26 1933.2 2022.7

Solid 0.673 Solid 1790

0.673 1790 Gs = 2.66
Gs = 2.66

Volume (m3) Mass (kg) Volume (m3) Mass (kg)

PER 1 M3 FILL
 2010 Fall Exam Q1c
Example 1.6
A sand has a minimum void ratio of 0.41 and a maximum void ratio of 0.78.
Its dry unit weight is 16.5 kN/m3. If the specific gravity of the solids is 2.65,
determine the relative density of this sand.
Example 1.6 Solutions
For each 1 m3 soil,
Dry unit weight:
1

1
9.81
Void ratio: 1 2.65 1 0.576
16.5

0.78 0.576
Relative density: 0.551 55.1%
0.78 0.41