Comparative Government and Politics

POLITICAL SCIENCE
comparative Government and

Politics
B.A Prog. Semester 3rd
Important Questions
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INDEX
Comparative Government and Politics
Unit-1: The Nature, Scope and Methods of

Comparative Political Analysis
Unit-2: Comparing Regimes: Authoritarian and Democratic
Unit-3 Classification of Political Systems
Lesson-A Parliamentary and Presidential Systems:

UK and USA
Unit-4: Electoral Systems: First Past the Post, Proportional Representation and
Mixed Systems Party Systems: One Party, Two Party and Multi Party Systems
Unit-5: Party Systems: One Party, Two Party and Multi Party Systems
Unit-6: Contemporary Debates on The Nature

of State
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Comparative Government and Politics
Question 1 – What is comparative politics? Discuss the nature and relevance of
comparative politics?
Answer.
Introduction
The term ’comparative politics’ is of recent origin and came into vogue in the fifties
of the present century and is indicative of the expanding horizon of political science.
The political scientists made a bid to study the political reality through a new
techniques and approaches. The old concepts were also seen in new light. One of the
main reasons which encouraged the development of new approach for the study of
politics was dissatisfaction with the traditional descriptive approach to the subject.
Comparative politics
Comparative politics is the study and appraisal of domestic politics across countries.
Comparative politics has a long and very eminent history dating back just before the
origin of systematic political studies in ancient Greece and Rome. Even ancient
people, compared their situations with those of other people with whom they came
in contact. The Bible is possibly one of the first written statements of
comparative politics. The ancient Greeks performed the earliest systematic

comparisons of a more modern and secular.
The scholars laid greater emphasis on the informal political process rather than
political institutions and state. They borrowed several ideas and concepts from other
social sciences and provided political studies with a new empirical orientation. Before
we proceed further to distinguish between comparative government and
comparative politics, it shall be desirable to define comparative politics.
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In the field of Comparative politics, the term politics has three connotations such
as political activities, political process and political power. Political activity
consists of the efforts by which the conditions of conflicts are created and resolved in
a way pertaining to the interest of people as far as possible who play in their part in
struggle for power. Political process is an extension of political activity. Political
power is the major topic in comparative politics. The term power has been defined
by different writers. Friedrich described power as a certain kind of human

relationship. Whereas Tawney explained power as a capacity of an individual or
group of individuals to modify the conduct of other individuals in a manner which he
desires
Thinkers view
i. According to goldsmith: "comparative politics is the study of the forms of the
political organizations, their properties, correlations, variations and modes of

change"
ii. According to E A Freeman: "comparative politics is the comparative analysis of
the various forms of the government and diverse political institutions"
iii. Michael Curtis: "comparative politics is concerned with the significant
regularities, similarities, and differences in the working of political institutions and

political behaviours.
iv. John blonde: comparative politics is the study of patterns of the national
government in the contemporary world'.
Nature of comparative politics
Comparative Politics seeks to analyse and compare the political systems operating in
various societies. In doing so, it takes into account all the three connotations of
political activity, the political process, and political power. The political activity
consists of all the activities involved in conflict resolution or the struggle for power.
Since the basic means of conflict-resolution is the authoritative allocation of values, it

involves an analysis of the process by which the authoritative values are made and
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implemented in all societies. In this sense, politics stands for the political process. It
involves the study of all formal as well as no formal structures through which the
political process gets operationalised.
The political process receives information and signals from the environment and then
transforms this information and signals into authoritative values. Finally, politics,
being a struggle for power or a process of conflict resolution through the use of
legitimate power, involves a study of power or power relations in society. Laswell
describes politics as the process of shaping and sharing of power, Robert Dahl holds
that politics involves power rule and authority to a significant extent. Hence the study
of politics naturally involves the study of power. As such comparative politics involves
the study and comparison of political activity, political process and struggle for
power in various political systems. It seeks to analyse and compare political systems
in a holistic way as well as through a comparative analysis of their structures,
functions, infrastructures and processes.
i. Analytical and Empirical investigation
The analytical and empirical method adopted by the writers belonging to the
latest phase has enlarged the field of our inquiry as it has cleared up the mist in
which many helpful distinctions within the framework of political studies lay
obscured'. Eckstein has referred to the late decades of the 19th century as a
period in which political science, influenced by “primitive positivism' affected a
divorce between its normative and its descriptive concerns. By and large, they
retained the analytical categories developed by their predecessors but began to

shape their meanings to fit descriptive rather than normative purposes.
ii. Study of infra-structure
The study of comparative politics is not confined to the formal structure of the
government as was the trend with the traditional political scientists. Here a student is
concerned with inquiry into matters of public concerns, with the behaviour and acts
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that may concern a society as totality or which may ultimately be resolved by the
exercise of legitimate coercion.
iii. Study of both developed and developing countries
What has added more to the significance of the study of comparative politics is the
emphasis of more writers on the 'politics of the developing areas'. It has occurred as
a realization that the subject of comparative politics must include all the government
along with their infrastructure that exist in the contemporary world and where
possible reference to government throughout time. It is, thus no longer confined to
the study of the selected European and American government.
comparative politics must include all the government along with their infrastructure
that exist in the contemporary world and where possible references to government
throughout time. It is, thus no longer confined to the study of the selected European
and American governments.
iv. Focus on the inter-disciplinary approach
What has enriched the field of comparative politics and at the same time, made it a
complex subject is the focus on the interdisciplinary study? Writers have made more
and more use of tools that they had borrowed from the disciplines of sociology,
psychology, economics, anthropology, and even from natural science like biology.
For instance, system analysis owes its origin to the discipline of biology that has been
borrowed by leading American political scientists like David Easton from sociologists
like Robert Merton and Talcott Person.
v. Value-free theory
Finally, the subject of political science has lost its normative aspect and assumed
empirical dimensions in the sphere of comparative politics. The result is that value-
free political theory has replaced value-laden political theory. The concern of the
students is not with the things as they ought to be in their ideal form; it is with what
they are.
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There is hardly any place for the rules of history or ethics in the field of comparative
politics as the entire field has been covered by the rules of other disciplines.
Relevance of comparative politics
Comparative politics is an important aspect of political science in that instead of
studying how this country functions, it studies why other countries around the world
are the way they are. There must be some medium for finding the differences and
similarities between one county and another in order discover what can affect such
aspects as economic strength, military strength, and the structure of the regime in
power. One reason to compare countries is to help ourselves by allowing us to learn

about other countries while escaping the ethnocentric fallacy many of us have. The
Unites States may have a good government but is not necessarily a perfect
government; certain countries may have aspects of their own government that we
could learn from and perhaps improve upon our own system. Another reason to
compare countries is to understand how countries evolve, discover patterns, and why
they evolve in the way they do. Another very important reason to study comparative
politics is to better understand how certain regimes work for purposes of
international relations and foreign policy.
In order to create policy regarding other countries and in order to give aid to these
countries we must know how these countries function so that we can work with the
countries instead of blindly trying to change them in a way that we seem fit. This is
especially important in the modern age with the evolution of a global cooperation
between many countries and the fact that the United States has become the
watchdog, big brother, and teacher for many of the less developed countries of the
world.
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Conclusion
Comparative Politics is an old concept, and since ancient times, its scope has become
wider. To summaries comparative politics, we can say that this study compares
different countries without being biased or having some philosophical axes. A clear-
thinking process is an essential factor that a comparative politics researcher must-
have. Already many things have been written related to this topic, but frequent
changes in a change in the political economy, culture, conflict, government, rights,
and public policy create more opportunities for new researchers in the field of
comparative studies.
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Question 2– What is meant by comparative political analysis? Differentiate
between traditional and modern methods of its study?
Answer.
Introduction
Comparative politics is the comparative study of other countries, citizens, different
political units either in whole or in part, and analyses the similarities and differences
between those political units. Comparative politics also entails the political study of
non-US political thought.
Comparative political analysis
The study of comparative politics involves conscious comparisons in studying
political experience, institutions, behaviour and processes of the systems of
government in a comprehensive manner. It includes the study of even extra-
constitutional agencies having their immediate connection, open or tacit, with formal
governmental organs.
It is, therefore, concerned with significant regularities, similarities and differences in

the working of political institutions and in the patterns of political behaviour. In
simple words, we can say, Comparative Politics involves a comparative study of
various political systems either as a whole or through a comparative analysis of their
structures and functions.
“Comparative Politics is the study of the forms of political organisations, their

properties, correlations, variations and modes of change.” M. G. Smith
Difference between traditional and modern views of politics:
i. Differences of Definitions: Traditional thinkers consider Political Science as a

study of state and government. As Garner has written, “Political Science begins
and ends with the state”. In contrast to this, modern thinkers are of the view that
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Political Science is study of man’s political behaviour. As lass well and Kaplin have
said, “Political Science is the study of shaping and sharing of power”.
ii. Difference in Nature: Traditional thinkers of Political Science consider it as an

‘Art’ and give emphasis on ‘should be’. As Buckle believed, “In the present
situation of knowledge Political Science far from being a science, it is the most
lacking Art”. Since ages, Manu, Kautilya, Shukra, etc. Indian political thinkers had
defined it as an art of governance. Ancient Greek thinkers like Plato also

considered it as an art of government, whereas modern political thinkers consider
Political Science as science and lay emphasis on relevant, data-based objective
and mathematical study.
iii. Differences in study methods: Traditional Political Science uses philosophical,

historical and comparative methods for study. These methods are old and
unrefined. On the other hand, study of modern Political Science uses statistical
experiential – based and inter-disciplinary methods. Modern political thinkers
analyse and predict man’s political behaviour and experienced truths related to it.
iv. Differences regarding values: Traditional view of Political Science is free of
values. It is affected by subjective and individual approach. Traditional thinkers
believed in ethics and morality. Whereas, modem view of Political Science gives
no emphasis on it. According to modern view, political thinkers keep themselves

separated from morality, values, ethics and prejudices and carry-on research
using scientific methods.

v. Differences in Aim and Purpose: Purpose of traditional Political Science is
achievement of good life. On the other hand, purpose of modern political science
is not achievement of good life, but it is to explain the political happenings in
their real perspective. Modern political thinkers are of the view that a political
thinker cannot be a passive onlooker, but he has to try to solve the problems.
vi. Differences in scope: Under traditional Political Science, present, past and future
of a state is studied, along with organs, methods and responsibilities of
governments.
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Whereas, modern political thinkers do not study institutions, rather they study
methods. They like to study who makes the law, who decides to make laws and
the real process of law making, rather than studying the executive or parliament.
Conclusion
Comparative Politics is an old concept, and since ancient times, its scope has become
wider. To summaries comparative politics, we can say that this study compares
different countries without being biased or having some philosophical axes. A clear-
thinking process is an essential factor that a comparative politics researcher must-
have. Already many things have been written related to this topic, but frequent
changes in a change in the political economy, culture, conflict, government, rights,
and public policy create more opportunities for new researchers in the field of
comparative studies.
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Question3 – What do you understand by authoritarianism? Discuss how
authoritarianism regimes are different from the democratic regimes giving
suitable examples?
OR
What is democracy? What is the difference between authoritarianism and a

democratic form of government?
Answer.
Introduction
Authoritarianism is a theory and a system of government customarily linked with

dictatorship, in contrast to democracy. It is a principle based on obedience to
authority, and opposes autonomy of individuals in thought and action. As a form of
government, authoritarianism concentrates power in a leader or in a small elite not
constitutionally accountable to the people.
Meaning of Authoritarianism
This is a government with strict rules that limit the freedom of its people to worship,
express themselves, or choose their leaders through free and fair elections. An
authoritarian government is a government that is not chosen by the people and has
absolute power to govern as it pleases, without consulting the people that they rule.
It can be a government in which one person acts as the absolute ruler
(totalitarianism), or a government made up of a certain group of people, such as a

political party. For almost as long as humanity has existed, authoritarian forms of
government have existed.
Example
North Korea, Saudi Arabia, Sudan, Syria, Tajikistan, Turkmenistan, United Arab
Emirates, Uzbekistan
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North Korea
The Democratic People's Republic of Korea (DPRK or North Korea) is an
authoritarian state led by the Kim family for 70 years. Shortly after Kim Jong Il's
death in late 2011, his son Kim Jong Un was named marshal of the DPRK and
supreme commander of the Korean People's Army.
Meaning of Democracy
A democratic government is one which is based on the accountability of the

people; a democratic state is one which is based on popular sovereignty. Democracy,
in its wider meaning, is a form of society. A democratic government implies a
democratic state, although a democratic state may not imply a democratic

government. For example, the United States is a democratic state but does not have
daily accountability to the Congress. For a democratic government, there must be a
democratic state and democratic society.
Besides, democracy is an order of society and a way of life. It has political, social and
economic implications. It has faith in the equality of men and the recognition of
individuality or human beings. A democratic way of life is characterized by

tolerance, mutual respect and fraternity. It implies equitable distribution of wealth.
If the majority government suppresses the minority opinion, it is contrary to the
democratic ideal.
Government of the people, by the people and for the people" were the words
used by Abraham Lincoln in the year 1863 while talking about democracy.
Example
New Zealand, Finland, Ireland Canada
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Difference between authoritarianism and a democratic form of government
The word democracy comes from the Greek words ‘demos,’ which refers to the
people, and ‘kratos,’ which means power. Thus, a democratic state is one in which
power emanates from the people. One might say, then, that authoritarianism is the
opposite of a democracy. In an authoritarian regime, all power is concentrated in one
person alone, often referred to as the dictator.
In this exhibit, we investigate the specific aspects of democracy and
authoritarianism which clarify how these two systems of power and governance
diverge, especially in terms of the effects these systems have on the citizens of the
nation, and in terms of what each system likewise demands of its citizens.
As we deepen our reflection on Martial Law as a period in Philippine history, we also

deepen our imagination of how Filipinos during Martial Law must have thought and
felt about their situation, and what eventually drove them to choose democracy over
authoritarianism on EDSA, and rise up as one to make that difference.
Selection of Leaders
One of the most basic features of a democracy that sets it apart from
authoritarianism is the process by which leaders are chosen. Because democracy is
meant to uphold the power of the people, leaders are chosen such that they truly
represent the people’s interests. This is done through fair and honest elections,
whereby citizens may collectively express their choice of leaders through the ballot.
Leaders are thus chosen based on whom the electorate collectively selects, and the
power of the leader stems from this mandate. To ensure the integrity of elections,
they are administered by a neutral party, with independent observers for the voting
and counting processes, and citizens must be able to vote in confidence, without
intimidation or fear of violence. An election governed by citizens’ choice is designed
so that elected representatives are those who truly listen to their people and aim to
14
address their needs. Held at regular intervals, elections furthermore ensure that those
in power cannot extend their term without the consent of the people.
In an authoritarian state, such mechanisms are rendered either obsolete or futile.
Dictators want to cling to power, and so the very notion of an election is counter to
that desire. Thus, authoritarian states often do away with elections entirely, taking the
choice away from the people to begin with. In more insidious cases, dictators engage
the electoral process but dishonestly. By rigging the system, while offering their
citizens the illusion of choice, the staged elections only serve to legitimize the
dictator’s continued rule, as it continues to seem as if the dictator enjoys the support
of the public.
Civic Participation
Beyond the selection of leaders, another feature that differentiates democracies
from authoritarian states is the level of civic participation that is expected and
allowed. Democracies favour, and in fact thrive on, the active participation of its
citizens in the political landscape, whereas dictators quash even the possibility of
genuine participation.
In democracies, citizens are encouraged to participate by being informed about
public issues, and freely expressing their opinions on these issues, as well as the
decisions of their elected representatives. Citizens are likewise given the power to
shape these decisions by being active members of civil society and non-government
organizations. Even on the level of voting wisely in elections, and thereby choosing
what interests should be prioritized in governance, citizens may actively participate in
the exercise of power. Across these means of participation, citizens are enjoined to
participate peacefully, respectfully toward the law, and with sensitivity to the plurality
of views that exist in society.
Authoritarian states reject these modes of participation; and indeed, participation in

principle. Public dissent is deemed public rebellion, a threat to the dictator’s
15
unopposed tenure in power, and dictators inflict state violence to silence such
opposition. Meanwhile, decision-making is limited to the dictator’s wishes as well,
such that they may enact laws and decrees for the benefit of his own interest without
appropriate mechanisms to keep their actions in check—no laws to limit them, no
plurality to take into consideration.
Fundamental Liberties
Finally, what sets democracies apart from authoritarianism is their treatment of
fundamental liberties. Truly democratic societies are those which respect and uphold
the fundamental liberties of all their citizens, regardless of who they are. These
liberties include the basic freedoms of expression, religion, assembly, and the press,
as well as basic rights such as the right to privacy, to due process, and to life.
A dictator, on the other hand, does not respect these freedoms and rights. This is
because these freedoms and rights typically make the dictator vulnerable to criticism,
to the exposure of their abuses, and ultimately to the limits of their power. Because
our fundamental liberties apply equally to all, they must apply equally to the dictator
and ordinary citizens, whoever they may be. A dictator, therefore, often ignores or
even violates these rights, to perpetuate themselves in power.
Conclusion
Democracy is a political structure in which people directly exercise power, or elect
members from among themselves to represent the people, such as a parliament. It is
also called the majority rule and here can’t inherit the power. but Authoritarian
constitutions may help legitimize, strengthen, and consolidate regimes. An

authoritarian constitution "that successfully coordinates government action and
defines popular expectations can also help consolidate the regime's grip on power
by inhibiting reordination on a different set of arrangements.
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Question – 4 Discuss the main features of the federal system in Canada?
Answer.
Introduction
Federalism in Canada is a reflection of its unique geography and history. It is a large
country, second only to Russia in territorial size, but it has a relatively small
population of approximately thirty-two million people. The composition of that
population has also changed since confederation. In 1867, Canada was primarily a
mix of English and French colonists. Canada’s political system is based on that of the
United Kingdom. It is a constitutional monarchy, which means that we recognize the
Queen or King as the Head of State, while the Prime Minister is the Head of
Government.
Features of the federal system in Canada
i. Constitutional monarchy: A monarchy whose ruler is only entitled to the powers

given to him or her by a nation through its constitution and laws. Often, the
monarch fulfils more traditional and ceremonial duties. In Canada, the Governor
General represents the monarch in official acts of the federal government, and
the Lieutenant-Governors represent the Monarch in official acts of the provincial
governments.
ii. Federalism: This is a political system where there is more than one level of
government. The responsibilities of the federal and provincial governments in
Canada are outlined in the Constitution. The federal government is responsible
for policies that affect the country as a whole, such as defence, foreign relations,
and money, among others. Provincial governments are responsible for making
laws and decisions that affect provinces.
iii. Executive Branch: This is the “decision-making” part of government. It rules
according to the laws passed by Parliament. In Canada, the Executive Branch is

made up of the Governor General, the Prime Minister, the Cabinet, and the
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administration, (e.g., all government departments, the armed forces, Crown
corporations, and others).
iv. Judiciary or Judicial Branch: This is the branch of government that administers
justice through its courts and judges. Even though the Canadian judiciary is
appointed and paid by the Executive Branch of government, it remains an equal
and independent branch of government. Legislative Branch: This is the branch of
government that has the power and responsibility to create laws. In Canada, it is
called Parliament, and comprises the Governor General (representing the
Monarch), the House of Commons, and the Senate.
v. Parliamentary system: (from the French “parliament”) This is government based
on the British system, where proposed laws are discussed in two Chambers
becoming official by Royal Assent. In Canada, these two Chambers are the House
of Commons and the Senate. The Governor General represents the Monarch.
vi. Elections Process
The election process of Canada used the first-past-the-post system.

Constituencies are commonly called as ridings.
The seats are in proportion to the population of each territory.
Term of Member of Parliament
The term is for four years.

There are 105 members in the Senate.
vii. Judiciary
The highest court in Canada, just like in India, is the Supreme Court. There are
nine members in Canada’s Supreme Court. The federal and provincial and
territorial governments are all responsible for the judicial system in Canada. Only
the federal government can appoint and pay judges of the superior, or upper-
level, courts in the provinces. Parliament can also establish a general court of
appeal and other courts.
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Conclusion
Canada’s Constitution is not a single document as in the United States. It is made up
of acts of the British and Canadian Parliaments, as well as legislation, judicial
decisions and agreements between the federal and provincial governments. It also
includes unwritten elements such as British constitutional conventions, established
custom, tradition and precedent. Responsible government, for example, in which the
Cabinet is collectively responsible to the elected House of Commons and must resign
if it loses a vote of confidence, is a fundamental, but unwritten, element of Canadian

parliamentary democracy at the federal and provincial levels.
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Question – 5 Discuss the main features of the one-party system with the special
reference to China?
OR
What are the main characteristics of the unitary system in China? Discuss the
role and position of Chinese communist party?
OR
The one-party system has played a vital role in the Chinese unitary system.
Elaborate?
Answer.
Introduction.
The politics of the People’s Republic of China (PRC) can be located within the single
party socialist republic system. The single party is called the Communist Party and its
leadership is mentioned in the country’s Constitution. The power of the government
exercised through the Communist Party within the country, and by the Central
People’s Government and their partners in the provinces and at the local level.
The Chinese Communist Party is organized on the basis of democratic centralism, a
principle that entails open discussion of policy on the condition of unity among party
members in upholding the agreed-upon decision. The highest body of the CCP is the
National Congress, convened every fifth year.
One-party system (Special reference to China)
A one-party system, sometimes known as a single-party system, is a type of unitary
state in which only one political party has the power to establish the government,
usually in accordance with the current constitution. All other parties are either
forbidden or allowed to participate in elections in a limited and controlled manner.
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“The People's Republic of China is a socialist state under a people's democratic
dictatorship led by the working class and built on the alliance of workers and
peasants," is implied according to the Chinese constitution. The People's Republic of

China (PRC) is one of the world's only socialist countries ruled by a communist party.
The Chinese government has been labelled as communist and socialist, as well as
authoritarian and corporatist, with numerous limitations in several areas.
China practices the principle of democratic centralism. Democratic centralism is a
technique in which all members of a political party are bound by the decisions
achieved through voting processes.
Chinese Communist Party (CCP)
Chinese Communist Party (CCP), also called Communist Party of China (CPC),
Chinese (Pinyin) Zhong Guo Gong Chan Dang or (Wade-Giles romanization) Chung-
Kou Kung-Ch ‘an Tang, political party of China. Since the establishment of the
People’s Republic of China in 1949, the CCP has been in sole control of that country’s
government.
History
The CCP was founded as both a political party and a revolutionary movement in 1921
by revolutionaries such as Li Dazhao and Chen Duxiu. Those two men and others had
come out of the May Fourth Movement (1919) and had turned to Marxism after the
Bolshevik victory in the Russian Revolution of 1917. In the turmoil of 1920s China,
CCP members such as Mao Zedong, Liu Shaoqi, and Li Lisen began organizing labour
unions in the cities. The CCP joined with the Nationalist Party in 1924, and the
alliance proved enormously successful at first. However, in 1927, after the
Nationalists under Chiang Kai-shek (Jiang Jieshi) turned violently against the
communists and ousted them from Shanghai, the CCP was driven underground.
China, formally the People's Republic of China, is a one-party state (Single party
system) led by the Chinese Communist Party (CCP).
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Unitary System
The People’s Republic of China is a unitary multi-national state created jointly by the
people of all its nationalities. In China, a strong central government exists while
regional governments, as distinct entities, have not been created under the
Constitution. Therefore, in order to encourage people’s participation in policy-
making and preserve their interest in public affairs, decentralization has been
introduced in the governmental affairs. The central government has delegated much
authority and powers to the regional and local administrative units.
Main characteristics of the unitary system in China /vital role in the Chinese
unitary system.
i. Ideological Foundations
Ideology of the Chinese Communist Party had been shaped by the teachings of
Marx and Lenin right from its inception. It developed a deep linkage with the
global Communist Movement in its early phase. Mao also played a pivotal role in
the socialist struggle of the Chinese People.
ii. Party Organization
The party operates on the principle of Democratic Centralism. Accordingly, all
office bearers of the Party are elected. Primary unit of the Party elects District
Congress while District Congress elects the deputies of the Congress of the upper
level. Party members enjoy right to criticize party leadership and may initiate
proposals for framing party policies. On the same pattern, primary party branches
may lodge complaints for the consideration of higher leadership.
On the other hand, strict party discipline is maintained and strong centralism
operates in the decision-making process. It is obligatory on the lower ranked party

members to abide by the decisions of the higher ranked party leadership. In practice,
most of the decisions are thrust upon by the higher ranks within the central
leadership.
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iii. The Communist Party of China (CPC)
The Communist Party of China (CPC) is the founding and ruling political party of
the country. It is also known as the Chinese Communist Party (CCP). The party was
founded in July 1921 in Shanghai. While on paper, the party works alongside the
United Front which refers to the coalition of all political parties, it is in practice the
only political party in China. The party maintains the government and keeps the
state matters, the military and the media under it. The Constitution grants them
legal power and since it seeks its roots to the Leninist ideology, it officially is even
above the law. At present, the leader of the party is Xi Jinping who has the title of
the General Secretary of the Central Committee.
iv. Organisational Structure
The Communist Party of China, like the Soviet Communist Party, is a
pyramidical, hierarchical organisation. There is a high degree of organizational
articulation and the party strives for a high degree of control from the centre.
From its apex in the central party organs, the party spreads out on a geographical
and industrial basis through the regions, provinces, counties to the basic level
units established in communes, factories, enterprises, offices, schools, residential
areas and People's Liberation Army units
v. Enactment of Laws
During its sessions, the Congress enacts new laws and makes necessary
alterations in the existing ones, if circumstances so demand. The Constitution can
be amended with the support of two-thirds majority of the members of the

Congress, whereas ordinary laws are enacted by a simple majority. It is to be
noted, that the acts of the Congress cannot be challenged in the Supreme Court.
23
vi. Role and Functions of the Communist Party
The Communist Party of China is the organ of decisive power in the country. It is the
life-spring of China's social and political system. The Chinese Constitution of 1975
and 1978 recognised the Communist Party as the sole governing body of the
country. The 1978 Constitution further stated that the Chinese citizens "must support
the leadership of the Communist Party of China." The new (1982) Constitution
however does not give such formal recognition to the position of the Communist
Party. Nowhere in the body of the Constitution there is any reference to the
Communist Party.
Criticism
The powers are concentrated at the centre, the burden of work becomes too heavy.
A disadvantage of a unitary system of government is the tendency to become
dictatorial. There is hardly room for experiments to figure out the pitfalls and
loopholes of policies rolled out by the government. Under some circumstances, the
distribution of national resources might not be even, as some regions might be

neglected for political reasons. In other words, some minority interests could be
neglected. Many citizens under unitary governments are used to waiting for the
central government to initiate and implement policies and this could stifle local
initiatives.
Conclusion
One party system commonly follows in China. Because it is suitable for unitary
system where demography and cultural elements are suitable. Only one party is
allowed to control and run the government. only the Communist Party is allowed to
rule. More than two parties have a reasonable chance of coming to power either on
their own strength or in alliance with others. Thus, in India, we have a multiparty
system
24
Question6 – Critically examine the growing powers of the American president?
Answer
Introduction
The office of U.S. President has been organized on the basis of non-parliamentary or
presidential type of government. In U.S.A., the President and his Cabinet are not
answerable to the Legislature. The President is supreme in executive field, making, of
course, due allowance for some devices of internal checks and balances.
President is indirectly elected by the Electoral College. Indeed, the constitution has
made the president is real executive head rather than a titular one as is the case in
the parliamentary governments. In fact, he is both the head of the state and also the
effective head of the government.
Growing Powers and Functions of the President of America
i. Executive Powers:
ii. Head of National Administration: The President is the head of the national
administration. All executive action of the republic is taken in his name. He is

responsible for enforcement of all federal laws and treaties with foreign states
throughout country. He sees to the implementation of the decisions of courts and
enforces the constitution and laws of the country. He is responsible for the
protection of the Constitution, laws property of USA. He can use the armed forces
for this purpose.
iii. Appointments He has the power to make all important appointments but all
such appointments are to be approved by the Senate. As a matter of usage, the,
Senate does not interfere in the appointments of the Secretaries, Ambassadors,

and other diplomats.
But the appointments of Judges of the Supreme Court must be scrutinized
thoroughly by the Senate In the appointments of federal officers in various states

of the U.S.A. the convention called “Senatorial Courtesy” has come into existence.
25
The constitution of the USA says that the federal appointments are to be made by
the President and approved by the Senate. The President has no time to look into
all appointments, which number in thousand. So, he has delegated his power to
make appointments to the Senators from the state where there is a vacancy. The
only condition is that the Senators must belong to his party. The appointments
made by the Senators are approved by the Senate out of courtesy. The President
has the power to remove any person appointed by him except judges.
iv. Dictator in Foreign Relations: The President has control of foreign relations,
which he conducts with the assistance of the Secretary of State. He appoints all
Ambassadors and other Diplomats. He negotiates treaties with foreign powers.
But such treaties must be ratified by a 2/3rd majority of the Senate. The Senate
can block a treaty that the President has negotiated but it connotes make a treaty
or force the President to make one. The President receives Ambassadors and
ministers from abroad. In fact, he is the Chief Spokesman of the U.S.A. in
international affairs and is directly responsible for the foreign policy of his country
and its results. He has the sole power to recognize or refuse to recognize new
states.
v. Commander-in-Chief / Powers of Defence: He is the Commander-in-Chief of
the US-armed forces as such he is responsible for the defence of his country. He
appoints military-officers with the consent of the Senate and can remove them at
will. He can send American forces to any part of the world. Although the power to
declare war vests in the Congress yet the President can make war unavoidable
and necessary by his conduct in administration. As for example, President Truman

took police action in Korea without authorisation by the congress. In1918,
President Wilson sent American forces to Siberia to help allied troops when no
state of war existed between the US and Russia.
vi. Judicial Powers: The President has the power to grant pardon and reprieve to all
offenders against federal laws, except those who have been impeached or those
26
who have offended against the State (country). He also appoints the Judges of
Supreme Court, no doubt on the consent of Senate.
vii. Individual Ministerial Responsibility

The presidential system makes it easier for an ineffective minister to be identified
and singled out for blame or even dismissal. His dismissal will not affect other
ministers or even, in the extreme make a government to collapse.
Criticism
Lack of flexibility in Tenure of Office
The operation of the presidential system has been criticised for being too rigid and
not amenable to changing circumstances. For example, in the United States during
World War II all the scheduled elections under the stipulated electoral calendar were
held since the system did not allow for any flexibility in form of postponement. What
only ensured stability of the system and continuity of U.S. 'war policy was the
popularity of President Franklin Delano Roosevelt.
Prone to Dictatorship
The presidential system is prone to dictatorship or abuse of office, which is
dangerous to the democratic process. This is a result of enormous power that is
concentrated in the office of the president. Presidentialism focuses too much on the
personality of the president and his capacity; and when that individual is undermined
the office is undermine and the system may even be threatened. For instance, it took
a long time before the presidency in the United States recovered from the shock that
gripped the office due to the Watergate Scandal, which occurred due to one
moment, though grave act of indiscretion by President Richard Nixon.
27
Conclusion
American president is the most powerful person in the contemporary world. He has
veto power in the united nation. America plays a very important role in world such as
current scenario Russia Ukraine war. American President played a crucial role in this
war. He supported the Ukraine.
28
Question 7- Discuss the powers and functions of the Prime Minister in the
British Parliamentary System.
Answer.
Introduction.
In Great Britain, appointment of Prime Minister is not explained under constitution or
law. Concept of Prime Minister has been evolved in Great Britain during those
constitution changes, which spread over centuries. In fact, appointment of Prime

Minister is due to convention. Now it is an admitted convention that British
King/Queen invites a person, who commands majority in House of Commons, to
form government. Thus, British King/Queen appoints Prime
functions of the Prime Minister in the British Parliamentary System.
The Prime Minister, dominating position in the Cabinet. This can be well explained
under the following headings: -
Cabinet Chief
As head of the Cabinet, the Prime Minister supervises and coordinates the work of
different Ministers. He performs a pivotal role in the formation and working of the
Cabinet. His opinion carries weight in the Cabinet meetings and as such he can
resolve the differences among the ministers.
Cabinet decisions
The Prime Minister sees that Cabinet decisions are carried out by the departments,
although, as we have said, the extent to which he supervises the administration varies
with different holders of the office. His contact with the affairs of the Foreign Office is
often especially close. The Cabinet secretariat is under this control, and consults him
in preparing the agenda. He communicates directly with the other Commonwealth
Prime Ministers, and presides when they meet in this country.
29
Formation of Govt
The primary functions of the Prime Minister are to form a government, and to choose
and preside over the Cabinet. He gives advice to his ministerial colleagues on matters
before they come to the Cabinet, and he is the main channel of communication
between the Cabinet and the Sovereign, with whom he has a weekly audience. He
advises the Sovereign on a dissolution.
Appointments
Many Crown appointments in addition to ministerial offices, are made on his advice.
These include the Lords of Appeal in Ordinary, the Lord’s justices of appeal, bishops
and deans of the Church of England, peerages Privy councillors and most honours.
As First Lord of the Treasury and Minister for the Civil Service, the Prime Minister
approves the senior appointments in the Civil Service.
Leader of the House
Being the leader of the majority party in the House of Commons, the Prime Minister
assumes the role of leader of the House. As leader of the House, the Prime Minister
enjoys privileges on the floor of the House.
National Leader
His opinion on important national issues is paid due head. His statements and
speeches are regarded as the most effective channels for holding public opinion.
Link between the Queen and Cabinet
British Prime Minister acts as a link between the Cabinet and the Queen. He keeps
her informed about all important decisions of the Cabinet. The Prime Minister now
invariable takes the office of First Lord of the Treasury, and occasionally some other
office as well, such as that of Chancellor of the Exchequer (Gladstone), War office.
30
Conduct of Foreign Affairs
The opinion of the Prime Minister carries special weight in foreign affairs. Secretary
of Foreign Affairs, remains in constant touch with the Prime Minister.
Powers of British Prime Minister
Undoubtedly, British Monarch is constitutional head of Great Britain, but British
Prime Minister is considered actual head of British government. The reason is that all
royal powers are practically exercised either by British Prime Minister or by his/her
cabinet-ministers in the name of British Crown.
British Prime Minister holds an influential place in the government. With the passage
of time, a number of powers of British Prime Minister have evolved. Therefore, British
Prime Minister possesses many powers. He is head of administration and possesses
following administrative powers.
British Cabinet
British Prime Minister can appoint minister of his/her cabinet. Prime Minister
possesses power to allocate functions and departments among minister. Prime

Minister chairs meetings of British Cabinet. British Prime Minister coordinates not
only the activities and policies of the cabinet, but also those of governmental
departments.
Various Appointments
NO-doubt, actual appointment is made in most cases by British King/Queen, but
selections are recommendations are made by the Prime Minister. British Prime
Minister possesses power to advice British King/Queen for following Appointment
National Policy
British Prime Minister possesses power to make national policy regarding national as
well as foreign affairs. Therefore, he/she has control over national and foreign affairs.
31
Conclusion
To conclude, it can be stated that one of recent observation about constitutional role
and powers of British Prime Minister is that growing role and powers of British Prime
Minister are transforming present British political system into presidential system.
32
Question 8 – Bring out the distinctions between federal and unitary political
systems with suitable examples?
OR
Distinguish between federal and unitary system of government. Give examples?
OR
Describe the Major differences between federal and unitary systems with
references to Canada and China?
Answer.
Introduction
A unitary system is governed constitutionally as one single unit, with one
constitutionally created legislature. but in the federal constitution, there is a
division of powers between the federal and the state governments. Here are some
differences between the federal government and the unitary government.
Major differences between federal and unitary systems
33
Distinguish between federal and unitary system of government
Unitary government system
Unitary government is a kind of government system in which a single power,
which is known as the central government, controls the whole government. In
fact, all powers and administrative divisions authorities lies at the central place. Today
most of the government systems in the world are based on unitary system of
government. It is slightly different from federal model of government. In unitary
government, central government has the power to increase or curtail the power of
subnational units. It can create and abolished the same. UK, Afghanistan, Italy,
China, Saudi Arabia, Spain, etc.
One-party system in China
A one-party system, sometimes known as a single-party system, is a type of unitary

state in which only one political party has the power to establish the government,
usually in accordance with the current constitution. All other parties are either
forbidden or allowed to participate in elections in a limited and controlled manner.
“The People's Republic of China is a socialist state under a people's democratic
dictatorship led by the working class and built on the alliance of workers and
peasants," is implied according to the Chinese constitution. The People's Republic of

China (PRC) is one of the world's only socialist countries ruled by a communist party.
The Chinese government has been labelled as communist and socialist, as well as
authoritarian and corporatist, with numerous limitations in several areas.
China practices the principle of democratic centralism. Democratic centralism is a
technique in which all members of a political party are bound by the decisions
achieved through voting processes.
34
Ideological Foundations
Ideology of the Chinese Communist Party had been shaped by the teachings of Marx
and Lenin right from its inception. It developed a deep linkage with the global
Communist Movement in its early phase. Mao also played a pivotal role in the
socialist struggle of the Chinese People.
Party Organization
The party operates on the principle of Democratic Centralism. Accordingly, all office
bearers of the Party are elected. Primary unit of the Party elects District Congress
while District Congress elects the deputies of the Congress of the upper level. Party
members enjoy right to criticize party leadership and may initiate proposals for
framing party policies. On the same pattern, primary party branches may lodge
complaints for the consideration of higher leadership.
On the other hand, strict party discipline is maintained and strong centralism
operates in the decision-making process. It is obligatory on the lower ranked party
members to abide by the decisions of the higher ranked party leadership. In practice,
most of the decisions are thrust upon by the higher ranks within the central
leadership.
The Communist Party of China (CPC)
The Communist Party of China (CPC) is the founding and ruling political party of the
country. It is also known as the Chinese Communist Party (CCP). The party was
founded in July 1921 in Shanghai. While on paper, the party works alongside the
United Front which refers to the coalition of all political parties, it is in practice the
only political party in China. The party maintains the government and keeps the state
matters, the military and the media under it. The Constitution grants them legal
power and since it seeks its roots to the Leninist ideology, it officially is even above
the law. At present, the leader of the party is Xi Jinping who has the title of the
General Secretary of the Central Committee.
35
Organisational Structure
The Communist Party of China, like the Soviet Communist Party, is a pyramidical,
hierarchical organisation. There is a high degree of organizational articulation and
the party strives for a high degree of control from the centre. From its apex in the
central party organs, the party spreads out on a geographical and industrial basis
through the regions, provinces, counties to the basic level units established in
communes, factories, enterprises, offices, schools, residential areas and People's
Liberation Army units
Concentration of Powers
A unitary government is one in which all the powers of administration are vested in a
single centre. The centre is omnipotent. A unitary state may be divided into small
units for the sake of administrative convenience but the units do not have any
constitutional status of their own.
Single Government
In a unitary government, there is a single set of governmental apparatus. There is a
single supreme legislature, single executive body and one supreme judiciary.
England, for example, is a unitary state. She has one parliament as her legislature, the
King-in-Council as the executive and the judicial committee of the House of Lords as
her supreme judiciary.
Federal system in Canada
The federal legislature is bicameral: it has two deliberative “houses” or
“chambers “an upper house, the Senate, and a lower house, the House of
Commons. The Senate is composed of individuals appointed by the Governor
General to represent Canada’s provinces and territories
Constitutional monarchy: A monarchy whose ruler is only entitled to the powers

given to him or her by a nation through its constitution and laws. Often, the monarch
36
fulfils more traditional and ceremonial duties. In Canada, the Governor General
represents the monarch in official acts of the federal government, and the
Lieutenant-Governors represent the Monarch in official acts of the provincial

governments.
Federalism: This is a political system where there is more than one level of
government. The responsibilities of the federal and provincial governments in
Canada are outlined in the Constitution. The federal government is responsible for
policies that affect the country as a whole, such as defence, foreign relations, and
money, among others. Provincial governments are responsible for making laws and
decisions that affect provinces.
Executive Branch: This is the “decision-making” part of government. It rules
according to the laws passed by Parliament. In Canada, the Executive Branch is made
up of the Governor General, the Prime Minister, the Cabinet, and the administration,
(e.g., all government departments, the armed forces, Crown corporations, and
others).
Judiciary or Judicial Branch: This is the branch of government that administers
justice through its courts and judges. Even though the Canadian judiciary is
appointed and paid by the Executive Branch of government, it remains an equal and
independent branch of government. Legislative Branch: This is the branch of

government that has the power and responsibility to create laws. In Canada, it is
called Parliament, and comprises the Governor General (representing the Monarch),
the House of Commons, and the Senate.
Parliamentary system: (from the French “parliament”) This is government based on
the British system, where proposed laws are discussed in two Chambers becoming
official by Royal Assent. In Canada, these two Chambers are the House of Commons
and the Senate. The Governor General represents the Monarch.
37
Parliamentary Government
i. There are a monarchy and two federal chambers.
ii. The two federal chambers are called House of Commons and Senate.
iii. House of Commons is the lower house and the Senate if the upper house.
iv. At the provincial level, there are legislative chambers.
v. There are 308 members in the lower house.
Elections Process
i. The election process of Canada used the first-past-the-post system.
ii. Constituencies are commonly called as ridings.
iii. The seats are in proportion to the population of each territory.
iv. Term of Member of Parliament
v. The term is for four years.
vi. There are 105 members in the Senate.
Judiciary
The highest court in Canada, just like in India, is the Supreme Court. There are nine
members in Canada’s Supreme Court. The federal and provincial and territorial
governments are all responsible for the judicial system in Canada. Only the federal
government can appoint and pay judges of the superior, or upper-level, courts in the
provinces. Parliament can also establish a general court of appeal and other courts.
Criticism
States can fight against the existence of certain national laws by challenging them in
court, or going out of their way to not enforce those national laws, or even
deliberately obstructing enforcement of national laws.
38
Conclusion
Unitary system mainly popular in China country. it is suitable for this country but
Canada have adopted federal system. it provides equality, freedom, judiciary and
decentralisation of power etc. usually we can see in China; unitary system oppresses
people rights such as freedom of speech, right to equality et
39
Question 9 - What is the election system? Discuss the main features of
proportional representation system with suitable examples.
Answer.
Introduction
An electoral system or voting system is a set of rules that determine how elections
and referendums are conducted and how their results are determined. An election is
a formal group decision-making process by which a population chooses an individual

or multiple individuals to hold public office.
Election system
According to Gallagher, electoral system is the set of rules and regulations, that
define structures, how votes are cast at election and how these votes are then
converted into seats. These rules and regulations govern all the aspects of the
process of voting, when shall the elections be held, who are eligible to vote, and
other related factors that affect/influence the electoral outcome. In other words, an
electoral system is a process by which the votes can be converted into elected
representatives. This way it establishes important legislative decisions.
“Electoral systems have to be based on Constitutional Law and other
Legislation. As we have said, the design of electoral systems determines the ways in
which votes are turned into public offices. In other words, such a design determines
how voting affects political representation. That’s why an electoral system’s
regulation begins at the constitutional level, and continues at the legislative one.”8
There are three main elements of any electoral system.
“Ballot structure comprising of (how and ‘for what’ a vote is cast); constituency
structure consisting of (whether, and how, the electorate is divided into territorially
defined constituencies), and the electoral formula including (an assembly election, a
method of translating votes into seats).
40
” he choice of the type of the electoral system remains one of the key important
determinants of the future of the political life of the state concerned. Once such
electoral system has been chosen, remains constant. It remains a fundamental

political process. that involves evolution of the state machineries, political actors,
interests of the citizens.
It is an evolving process. Some electoral systems aim at electing a single winner to
the position such as Prime Minister, President, Governor while other electoral
systems target bringing out of multiple winners like members of the Parliament,
board of directors etc. Hence, there are many kinds of electoral systems such as First
Past the Post System, Proportional Representation,
Features of proportional representation system
Proportional Representation (PR) refers to electoral systems in which electorate
divisions are reflected proportionally in the elected body. If n% of the electorate
favours a particular political party, that party will win roughly n% of the seats. The
essence of such systems is that all votes count toward the outcome, not just a
plurality or a simple majority.
Feature of proportional representation system
The three most common types of PR electoral systems are:
i. Party-list PR
ii. Single Transferable Vote (STV)
iii. Mixed-member proportional representation (MMP)
In Party-list PR, the political parties define the candidate lists and the voters vote for
a list.
i. The relative vote for each list determines how many candidates are elected from
each list.
41
ii. Lists can be "closed" or "open," with open lists allowing voters to indicate
individual candidate preferences as well as vote for independent candidates.
iii. Voting districts can be as small as three seatsor as large as a province or an entire
country.
The single transferable vote system employs multi-member districts, with voters
casting only one vote but ranking individual candidates in order of preference (by
providing backup preferences).
i. As candidates are elected or eliminated during the count, surplus or discarded
votes that would otherwise be wasted are transferred to other candidates based
on preferences, forming consensus groups that elect surviving candidates.
ii. STV allows voters to vote across party lines, to select the most preferred of a
party's candidates, and to vote for independent candidates.
iii. The voters know that if the candidate is not elected, the voter's vote will not be
wasted if backup preferences are marked on the ballot.
Mixed-member proportional representation (MMP) is a two-tier mixed electoral

system that combines local non-proportional plurality/majoritarian elections with a
compensatory regional or national party list PR election.
i. It is also known as the additional member system (AMS).
ii. Voters usually have two votes: one for their single-member district and one for
the party list, with the party list vote determining the balance of parties in the
elected body.
President election in India
The PR system is used in India on a limited scale for indirect elections. For the
election of the President, Vice President, and members of the Rajya Sabha and
Vidhana Parishads, the Constitution prescribes a third and more complex variation
of the PR system.
42
Presidential Election
i. The election of the President is conducted in accordance with the proportional
representation system, with a single transferable vote and voting by secret ballot.
ii. This system ensures that the winning candidate receives an absolute majority of
votes.
iii. To be declared elected to the office of President, a candidate must receive a
certain number of votes.
iv. The quota of votes is calculated by dividing the total number of valid votes cast
by the number of candidates to be elected (in this case, only one candidate is to
be elected as President) plus one and adding one to the result.
The formula is as follows:
Each electoral college member is given only one ballot paper.
i. While voting, the voter must indicate his preferences by marking 1, 2, 3, 4, and so
on against the names of the candidates. This means that the voter has the option
of indicating as many preferences as there are candidates in the running.
ii. The first preference votes are counted in the first phase. If a candidate obtains the
necessary quota in this phase, he is declared elected. Otherwise, the vote-transfer
procedure is initiated.
iii. The ballots of the candidate with the fewest first preference votes are voided, and
his second preference votes are transferred to the first preference votes of other
candidates.
iv. This process is repeated until a candidate obtains the required quota.
43
Criticism
Proportional representation can potentially provide a route for extremists to force
their way into the political mainstream. Some would say that PR produces ‘weak’
coalition governments rather than ‘strong’ majority governments, which

arguably can lead to indecision, compromise and even legislative paralysis. PR can
also reduce accountability to voters, as an ousted party of government can retain
office by finding new coalition partners after an election. The greater complexity and
choice that PR allows can put voters off voting, by requiring them to have a greater
knowledge of individual and party positions.
Conclusion
In a PR system, voters are frequently asked to select a political party, and

representatives are elected on the basis of party lists. As a result, there is no single
representative who represents and is accountable for a single locality.
44
Question 10 – Explain the changing nature of nation state in the context of
globalization?
OR
Do you think that globalization has led to the end of the modern nation state?
Discuss?
Answer.
Introduction
Globalisation has been producing a subtle change in the functions of the State. Its
role in the ownership and production of goods has been getting reduced. However,
this does not in any way mean a return of the Laisses faire state. In the era of
globalisation, the functions of the State began undergoing a change. With the
increasing disinvestment of public sector, privatisation was encouraged. Public sector
was made to compete with the private sector, and as a whole open competition, free
trade, market economy and globalisation were practiced. State ownership of
industries came to be rejected. The role of state began emerging as that of a
facilitator and coordinator.
Meaning of Globalisation
The term globalisation refers to the integration of the economy of the nation
with the world economy. It is a multifaceted aspect. It is a result of the collection of
multiple strategies that are directed at transforming the world towards a greater
interdependence and integration.
It includes the creation of networks and pursuits transforming social, economic, and
geographical barriers. Globalisation tries to build links in such a way that the
events in India can be determined by the events happening distances away.
45
Changing nature of nation state
Globalization alone is not causing the decline of the nation-state not a single ‘trend’
is able to reduce the power of the most important actor in the international system.
Rather, different developments need to be taken into account when examining the
situation of the nation-state. After having analysed in the first part the way, major
globalization-developments, like global capitalism, influence the nation-state, I will
describe in the second and third part two other movements: internationalization and
regionalization. Both are ‘labelled’ with a national/transnational ambiguity, on the

one hand strengthening and on the other hand weakening the nation-state. Within
the conclusion, I will then argue, that the nation-state is indeed ‘under attack’ - but
not only by globalization - and that it has to cope with a changing nature and
differing tasks.
Decreased Economic activities of State
The process of liberalisation- privatisation has acted as a source of limitation on the
role of the in the economic sphere. Public sector and enterprises are getting
privatized and state presence in economic domain is shrinking.
Decreased Economic activities of State
The process of liberalisation- privatisation has acted as a source of limitation on the

role of the state in the economic sphere. Public sector and enterprises are getting
privatized and state presence in economic domain is shrinking.
Decrease in the role of the State in International Economy
The emergence of free trade, market competition, multinational corporations and
international economic organisations and trading blocs like European Union,
NAFTA, APEC, ASEAN and others, have limited the scope of the role of state in the
sphere of international economy.
46
Decline of State Sovereignty
Increasing international inter-dependence has been compelling each state to accept
limitations on its external sovereignty. Each state now finds it essential to accept the
rules of international economic system, the WTO, the World Bank and the IMF.
The role of MNC/TNC has also been growing in national and local politics as they
play a significant role in shaping the state decisions and policies. Their key objective
behind influencing the state decision and policy-making is to promote their vested
interests.
Reduced Importance of Military Power of the State
The state continues to maintain its military power as an important dimension of its
national power. However, the strength being gained by movement for international
peace and peaceful coexistence as the way of life has tended to reduce the
importance of military power of the state
3Increasing Role of International Conventions and Treaties
Several international conventions and treaties have placed some limitations upon all
the states. All the states are now finding it essential to follow the rules and norms
laid down by such conventions. The need to fight the menace of terrorism and rogue
nuclear proliferation as well as the shared responsibility for protecting the
environment and human rights, have compelled all the states to accept such rules
and regulations as are considered essential for the securing of these objectives. Thus,
Globalisation and several other factors have been together responsible for
influencing a change in the role of State in contemporary times.
47
Conclusion
The discussion showed that globalisation is a difficult concept to perceive. There is a
variety of attitudes and each of them is an attempt to define the phenomenon within
its own framework. Globalisation is based on notions of time and space and a shift in
the dimensions cause reinterpretation and re-structuring of the reality around us.

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POLITICAL SCIENCE

comparative Government and

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Unit-1: The Nature, Scope and Methods of

Unit-2: Comparing Regimes: Authoritarian and Democratic

Unit-3 Classification of Political Systems

Lesson-A Parliamentary and Presidential Systems:

Unit-6: Contemporary Debates on The Nature

Comparative Government and Politics

Question 1 – What is comparative politics? Discuss the nature and relevance of

in contact. The Bible is possibly one of the first written statements of

comparative politics. The ancient Greeks performed the earliest systematic

we proceed further to distinguish between comparative government and

comparative politics, it shall be desirable to define comparative politics.

as political activities, political process and political power. Political activity

struggle for power. Political process is an extension of political activity. Political

by different writers. Friedrich described power as a certain kind of human

group of individuals to modify the conduct of other individuals in a manner which he

i. According to goldsmith: "comparative politics is the study of the forms of the

political organizations, their properties, correlations, variations and modes of

ii. According to E A Freeman: "comparative politics is the comparative analysis of

the various forms of the government and diverse political institutions"

iii. Michael Curtis: "comparative politics is concerned with the significant

regularities, similarities, and differences in the working of political institutions and

government in the contemporary world'.

Nature of comparative politics

Since the basic means of conflict-resolution is the authoritative allocation of values, it

political process gets operationalised.

legitimate power, involves a study of power or power relations in society. Laswell

functions, infrastructures and processes.

i. Analytical and Empirical investigation

period in which political science, influenced by “primitive positivism' affected a

retained the analytical categories developed by their predecessors but began to

ii. Study of infra-structure

exercise of legitimate coercion.

iii. Study of both developed and developing countries

possible reference to government throughout time. It is, thus no longer confined to

the study of the selected European and American government.

and American governments.

iv. Focus on the inter-disciplinary approach

like Robert Merton and Talcott Person.

Relevance of comparative politics

Comparative politics is an important aspect of political science in that instead of

power. One reason to compare countries is to help ourselves by allowing us to learn

politics is to better understand how certain regimes work for purposes of

international relations and foreign policy.

changes in a change in the political economy, culture, conflict, government, rights,

Question 2– What is meant by comparative political analysis? Differentiate

between traditional and modern methods of its study?

Comparative politics is the comparative study of other countries, citizens, different

Comparative political analysis

The study of comparative politics involves conscious comparisons in studying

political experience, institutions, behaviour and processes of the systems of

government in a comprehensive manner. It includes the study of even extra-

It is, therefore, concerned with significant regularities, similarities and differences in

simple words, we can say, Comparative Politics involves a comparative study of

various political systems either as a whole or through a comparative analysis of their

structures and functions.

“Comparative Politics is the study of the forms of political organisations, their

Difference between traditional and modern views of politics:

i. Differences of Definitions: Traditional thinkers consider Political Science as a

said, “Political Science is the study of shaping and sharing of power”.

ii. Difference in Nature: Traditional thinkers of Political Science consider it as an